Micrometry and Food Starch

#### **Chapter 9**

## Value of Starch in Indian Traditional Food System

*Shyamalima Gogoi*

#### **Abstract**

In India, food habit is profoundly influenced by traditions, cultural choices, and religions. For years traditional Indian foods have been prepared, and preparation varies across the country. The wisdom about processing of food, its preservation techniques, and their therapeutic effects has been established for many generations. Starch is the most commonly consumed type of carbohydrate which is found deposited in many crops, such as wheat, corn, rice, and potato, and it serves as the most important source of energy for humans. Starch is classified as complex carbohydrates, and traditionally, complex carbohydrates have been viewed as healthier options. India harbors many plants, out of which traditional starchy tubers and roots which have the potential to be used as sources of flours and starch are also recognized as functional foods because of the presence of functional components such as body-healing chemicals, antioxidants, dietary fibers, and probiotics.

**Keywords:** traditional, therapeutic effects, antioxidants, probiotics

#### **1. Introduction**

#### **1.1 Starch overview**

Starch is the major source of carbohydrate and energy reserve in plants, which accumulates in granules and in stems, tubers, corn, seeds, and roots [1]. Starchbearing cereal rice, corn, wheat, and maize are the main sources of dietary energy for the world's population. Plants constitute as the most useful raw material for starch production, and apart from cereals, tubers (such as potatoes) and roots (manioc or cassava) have also high content of starch. It has a wide use and application in food industry as a thickener, gelling agent, a stabilizer for making snacks, meat products, fruit juices, etc. [2]. It is the most common carbohydrate in human diets and represents one of the main sources of energy to sustain life [3].

#### **1.2 Constituents of starch**

Starch is a degradable, natural, renewable polymer of higher plants, which is white, tasteless, and odorless when grinded into powder that is insoluble in cold water or alcohol. Amylopectin and amylose are the two main constituents of starch which are high molecular weight polymers of linear chains of glucose units linked by α-1,4 glycosidic bonds and are highly branched at the α-1,6 positions by small glucose chains [4]. Amylose is generally linear, while amylopectin is highly branched with dense structure containing hundreds to thousands of glucose residues.

### **2. Traditional food**

India is well known for its vast knowledge on traditional practices, and they are used by various ethnic groups since prehistoric times. In India people mostly depend upon the agricultural resources and starch being the most abundantly available agricultural product. The Indian indigenous food or traditional food is localized, mainly confined to various indigenous tribal populations as they possess an immense knowledge of their surroundings. Traditional food system plays a significant role in maintaining the well-being and health of indigenous people [5].

#### **2.1 Traditional south and north Indian food with starch content**

#### *2.1.1 Rice*

Rice (*Oryza sativa* L.) is an important food crop providing nutrients and has been consumed by humans for the last 500 years. Rice is the most common and easily available food resource in India. There are different varieties of rice, and its preparation varies from region to region such as boiled, steamed, fried, flour, paste, etc.

White rice is a cereal grain with the husk, bran, and germ removed, and in North India, it is one of the staple foods. It is a good source of carbohydrates, especially for gluten-sensitive individuals and diabetics.

Black rice is a rare and a very old variety of rice that has been growing in India for centuries. It is mainly grown in the northeast region and the southern parts of India. Black rice is a good source of iron, vitamin E, and antioxidants, and the bran hull (outermost layer) of black rice contains one of the highest levels of anthocyanins [6].

#### *2.1.2 Roti*

Roti is Indian bread made from wheat flour, usually prepared on ghee (Indian butter). Usually people of North India prefer roti than rice which is taken with curries or vegetables. It contains gluten.

#### *2.1.3 Dal*

Indian legumes (pulses) and Indian dals, viz., chickpea (chana Dal), urad dal (black gram), and masoor dal (red lentils), contain high content of complex carbohydrate with a low glycemic index rating for blood glucose control. It is an indispensable part of a complete Indian dish (Indian thali). Each state of India has its own preference of dal, but the most commonly used are masoor, urad, moong, and chana dal.

#### *2.1.4 Corn*

In India, maize stands as the third most important crop after rice and wheat (https://farmer.gov.in/M\_cropstaticsmaize.aspx). The major chemical component of the maize kernel is starch, which provides up to 73% of the kernel weight. The starch in maize is made up of two glucose polymers: amylose, an essentially linear molecule, and amylopectin, a branched form. Corn is mainly composed of carbohydrate and fairly high in fiber. Traditionally with the process of corn dry milling, the moist corn granules are turned into products like flakes, meal, and flour. Corn is nutritious, providing fiber, which aids in digestion, plus folate, thiamin, phosphorus, vitamin C, and magnesium.

#### **2.2 Traditional northeast Indian food with starch content**

Northeast India is one of the mega diversities of India, where different types of tribes and communities reside together with a unique cultural heritage. Different kinds of unique ethnic foods and recipes are part of cultural identity that has developed through ages [7]. The traditional food of northeastern part of India is connected to the cultural, spiritual beliefs considering life and health of different tribes. Major agro-resources of the northeast are rice, maize, finger millet, soybeans, local varieties of potato, ginger, turmeric, seasonal fruits, edible bamboo shoots, etc.

#### *2.2.1 Cereals*

Rice is the staple food of Northeast India. Both the varieties japonica and the indica are found [8]. Joha is scented rice which is very popular in Assam. Either the rice is taken as steam boiled (ukhua) or it can be sun-dried (aaroi). There is also the prevalence of sticky rice (bora) which is mostly prepared during Bihu festivals of Assam. This sticky rice when consumed in high amount works as a sedative, so farmers mostly take it at night after work for a sound sleep. A special rice preparation "pitha" is made during Bihu festival; likewise in Meghalaya "pu tharo," "pu maloi," and "pu doh" are some of the indigenous snacks prepared from rice.

#### *2.2.2 Tubers and roots*

Tubers and roots (**Figure 1**) contain a significant number of mono-phosphate esters in amylopectin covalently bound to starch [9]. Whereas cereal-starch may be produced throughout the year, starchy tuber and root require production immediately after harvesting. They are the second global source of carbohydrates and play a vital role in human diet [10]. Potato, yam, sweet potato, cassava, and sesuk, are tubers and storage root with rich content of edible starch originated from diverse plant sources.

Potato, after rice and maize, is the most important food crop in terms of consumption. It provides high amount of starch, generally 65–80% [11]. Potato is consumed in the form of curry, fries, mesh potato (aloo pitika), roasted potato (pura aloo), etc. It is so widely used in Northeast India that it almost reached the status of a staple food.

In Assam, a tradition is followed to offer boil yam and sweet potato during one of the Bihu festivals as there is a cultural belief that it will give a better life in the next birth as human. It is also consumed with homemade curd or milk as a sweet dish.

**Figure 1.** *Locally available tuber sweet potato, sesuk, and yam.*

#### **2.3 Common indigenous fermented food containing starch**

Fermentation is one of the oldest indigenous forms of food preservation, in which tradition and culture are considered during the preparation. Mostly the preparation is made from local crops, and it varies region to region [12]. Starch is the main carbohydrate from which fermented products are being prepared and has been used for a long time as an effective and low-cost means to preserve the quality and safety of the foods. The fermented foods are better than normal cooked food varieties in terms of nutrition, amenability for digestion, etc.

#### *2.3.1 Cereal-based fermented food*

Food is prepared by adding water to cooked rice and incubating the mixture overnight. It is the best remedy for gastritis. In some part of India, the rice is mixed with curd and salt after draining off the water.

*Bhatooru*, *marchu*, and *chilra* are fermented staple diet of tribal people of Himachal Pradesh prepared using wheat/barley/buckwheat flour [13]. They are taken in baked form or deep fried in oil.

*Idli* and *dosa* are most commonly used traditional fermented foods of southern part of India. *Idli* is a steamed cake prepared form rice powder and natural black gram dal with the hull removed. Likewise, *dosa* is made from wheat, maize instead of rice as in *idli*. Other fermented foods are *dhokla* and *dosa* where coarsely ground meals of wheat and maize are used for preparation. They should be consumed the same day as the acid content retards the growth of food.

*Jalebi* is a sweetened fermented product made from wheat flour, maida, mixed with dahi and water. The fermented batter is deep fat fried in oil and afterward immersed in sugar syrup for few minutes. This traditional food is prepared during marriage ceremonies and festivals of South India.

#### *2.3.2 Fermented bamboo shoot*

Region wise the preparation and consumption of bamboo shoot vary. Tribal people of eastern Himalayan regions use the fermented bamboo shoot product called *mesu* [14] as pickle and base of curry. In northeastern region, most of the indigenous dishes are prepared with fermented bamboo shoot, which gives odor and sour taste to the food. *Soibum* is an indigenous food of the state of Manipur produced exclusively from succulent bamboo shoots found to be an indispensable part of their diet [15].

In addition to the above, various types of traditional fermented foods like *bhallae* (black gram product), *bhatura* (white wheat flour product), *kulcha* (white wheat flour product), *naan* (wheat flour product), and *warri* (black gram product) are consumed by the people of India. *Hawaijar* is a sticky indigenous food prepared from fermented soybean commonly eaten in Manipur [16]. It is known for its strong flavor and can help in malnutrition. *Hawaijar* is eaten directly or used as a condiment or made into curry. Similarly, *tungrymbai* is also prepared from fermented beans which is one of the most common and mostly used Khasi delicacies which serves as a cheap source of high-protein food in local diet [17].

#### **2.4 Fermented alcoholic beverages**

Fermented alcohol like *ghanti*, *jann*, and *daru* popular in Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal are prepared from cereals [18]. In northeast region, local beer or wine is prepared from fermented local rice, such as *laopani* or *haanz* (**Figure 2**) by Ahom *Value of Starch in Indian Traditional Food System DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89086*

**Figure 2.** *Local rice beer and its preparation (fermented beverage).*

in Assam, *Opo* in Arunachal, *chang* a beer made of millet in Sikkim, Kyat is the local rice beer popular in Meghalaya. In fact, this beer is also served to gods and goddesses during certain festivals and celebrations.

### **3. Conclusion**

The diversity of indigenous food of India articulates the richness of tradition, culture, belief, and the food availability, but the food system has also undergone changes due to the impact of urbanization, and such kind of undocumented knowledge system is in the verge of extinction. The emphasis should be given for the conservation and documentation of traditional knowledge for the judicious utilization of food related to indigenous people of India.

#### **Author details**

Shyamalima Gogoi ICMR-RMRC, NE Region, Dibrugarh, Assam, India

\*Address all correspondence to: lima.gog4434@gmail.com

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

#### **References**

[1] Smith AM. The biosynthesis of starch granules. Biomacromolecules. 2001;**2**:335-341

[2] Manek RV, Kunle OO, Emeje MO, Builders P, Rao GVR, Lopez GP, et al. Physical, thermal and sorption profile of starch obtained from *Tacca leontopetaloides*. Starch–Stärke. 2005;**57**:55-61

[3] Cornuéjols D. Starch: A structural mystery. Science in School. 2010;**14**(Spring):22-27

[4] Durrani CM, Donald A. Physical characterization of amylopectin gels. Polymer Gels and Networks. 1995;**3**:1-27

[5] Bhat S. Importance of traditional food system. Recent Trends in Food Science and Technology 1st ed. Karanataka: The Registrar, Tumkur University; 2012

[6] Yao SL, Xu Y, Zhang YY, Lu YH. Black rice and anthocyanins induce inhibition of cholesterol absorption in vitro. Food & Function. 2013;**4**:1b602-1b11608

[7] Begum SS, Gogoi R. Herbal recipe prepared during Bohag or Rongali Bihu in Assam. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge. 2017;**6**:417-422

[8] Wikman J, Larsen FH, Motawia MS, Blennow A, Bertoft E. Phosphate esters in amylopectin clusters of potato tuber starch. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 2011;**48**:639-649

[9] Chandrasekar A, Josheph TJ. Roots and tuber crops as functional foods: A review on phytochemical constituents and their potential health benefits. International Journal of Food Science. 2016;**2016**:1-15. DOI: 10.1155/2016/3631647

[10] Ratnayake WS, Jackson DS. Starch: Sources and processing. In: Encyclopedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition. 2nd ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc; 2003. pp. 5567-5572

[11] Tamang JP, Tamang N, Thapa S, Dewan S, Buddhiman T, Yonzan H, et al. Nutritional value of ethnic fermented foods and alcoholic beverages of north East India. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge. 2012;**11**:7-25

[12] Savitri, Bhalla TC. Traditional food and beverages of Himachal Pradesh. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge. 2007;**6**:17-24

[13] Tamang B, Tamang JP. Lactic acid bacteria isolated from indigenous fermented bamboo products of Arunachal Pradesh in India and their functionality. Food Biotechnology. 2009;**23**:133-147

[14] Das AJ, Deka SC. Mini review on fermented foods and beverages of the north-East India. International Food Research Journal. 2012;**19**:377-392

[15] Keishing S, Thahira Banu A. Hawaijar–A fermented soya of Manipur, India: Review. IOSR-Journal of Environmental Science, Toxicology and Food Technology. 2013;**4**:29-33. DOI: 10.9790/2402-0422933

[16] Sohliya I, Joshi SR, Bhagobaty RK, Kumar R. Tungrymbai- A traditional fermented soybean food of the ethnic tribes of Meghalaya. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge. 2009;**8**:559-561

[17] Roy B, Kala CP, Farooquee NA, Majila BJ. Indigenous fermented food and beverages: A potential for economic development of the high-altitude societies in Uttaranchal. Journal of Human Ecology. 2004;**15**:45-49

*Value of Starch in Indian Traditional Food System DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89086*

[18] Sekar S, Mariappan S. Usage of traditional fermented products by Indian rural folks and IPR. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge. 2007;**6**:111-120

#### **Chapter 10**

## Micrometrics and Morphological Properties of Starch

*Omolola Temitope Fatokun*

#### **Abstract**

Starch occurs in form of granules and constitutes a primary manner in which of carbohydrates are stored chiefly in seeds and underground organs and sparingly in other morphological parts such as leaf and bark parts of plants. Grains of transitional starch can be found in the stroma of chloroplast and cytoplasm in leaf parts when exposed to the sun and transferred to organs for storage at dark times. The shape and size, ratio of amylose and amylopectin content of starch grains are peculiar to different biological sources. A literature survey was carried out using various search engines. Journals were searched for using keywords such as microscopy, amylopectin, starch granules etc. The relative qualitative and quantitative properties of starches from various morphological parts of 35 species from 15 families were studied. The qualitative features of shape and size as observed from microscopy were not specific or peculiar to each genus and family as similar shapes and sizes cut across different species. Amylopectin and amylose contents varied considerably among all the species and can be used as one of the means of identification for medicinal plants and the delineation of plant species along with other genetic and physicochemical properties.

**Keywords:** starch, botanical source, morphology, microscopy, amylose, amylopectin

#### **1. Introduction**

#### **1.1 Starch and formation of starch granules**

Starch, a polymer of glucose which is a metabolite from photosynthesis constitutes a major stored form of carbohydrate found in seeds, roots, rhizomes and tubers. Amylopectin (α-amylose) and amylose (β-amylose) constitute over 80% of many starches. Amylopectin (α-amylose) has a branched structure while β-amylose consists of linear chains. β-amylose has a helical arrangement comprising of six glucosyl units and a diameter of 1.3 mm. The differences in the structure and proportion or amounts of amylopectin and amylose give starch grains different properties and add immensely to the distinctive properties of starch from various sources [1–9].

The ubiquitous nature of starch granules to makes the presence or absence it a less important parameter in the identifying and classifying or re-classifying species however, each starch granule has some properties that are peculiar enough to a species and can thus be used to identify such specie. Research toward identify marker patterns in morphology and physicochemical properties are ongoing to identify morphotypes that could possibly be of use taxonomically.

#### **2. Botanical sources of starch**

Starch is essentially sourced from plants with many species having from 2 to 12% starch content. The tuberic part houses most of the starch being a storage organ as in the tuber of *Ipomoea batatas* (Convolvulaceae) with 5–9% starch. Other morphological parts such as the wood and stem bark of *Rauvolfia serpentina* (Apocynaceae); unscraped rhizome of *Zingiber officinale* Roscoe (Zingibereceae) containing 5–8% of starch; bark of *Cinnamomum zeylanicum* Blume; flower bud of the *Syzygium aromaticum* (L.) Merr. & L.M. Perry (Myrtaceae); *Musa paradisiaca* L. (Musaceae) fruits; *Sorghum bicolor* seeds among others. Starch grains have been found in most plant families. The most widely exploited botanical source of starch in which various cultivars have been developed to give varieties with different starch characteristics range from seeds of *Zea mays* (Corn starch, amylomaize, waxy maize, etc.), seeds of *Oryza sativa* (rice starch), tubers from *Ipomoea* species and root of *Manihot esculentum* (cassava starch). Other common families are Euphorbiaceae; Zingiberaceae; Cycadaceae, Taccaceae, Bombacaceae, Lamiaceae, Menispemaceae, Combreaceae, Leguminosae and Curcubitaceae (**Table 1**).

#### **2.1 Microscopy of starches**

Starch grains are either simple or compound and the number of components present in each compound granule is usually described as 2-, 3-, 4- or 5- etc. Compound granules such as in rice and cardamom are in many cases formed by simple granules clumping together. Granules are formed in from the amyloplast and marked by the hilum. The hilum might be eccentric, mostly longer than being broad, central, open or closed. When starch grains are dry, fissures as seen to begin from the hilum (**Figure 1**). Under a microscope, the position and various forms of the hilum can be described as a round dot, simple, curved, punctate, stellate or multiple cleft. Sizes of grains of starch have been observed to range from small (2–10 μm), medium (10–60 μm) and large (extending to 200 μm usually from rhizomes and tubers) however small to medium sized grains are most common [1, 2]. Starch grains come in a wide range of shapes e.g. Regular disc, oval, elongated, rounded, kidney/bean shaped, spherical (e.g. as starch grains from roots of *Cassia sieberiana*; tapioca starch), polyhedral (e.g. starch grains from maize, wheat, rice, etc.) and irregular forms. Starches high in amylose content are many times more elongated and irregular [3]. Surfaces of starch grain also vary in ornamentation, smoothness, roughness, etc. Many layers built around the hilum, lead to the formation of the starch grain. Different types of fissures such as radial, asymmetric, transverse and reverse fissures are more conspicuous in larger granules (**Figure 1**) e.g. starch from *Ipomoea* species, faintly visible in medium sized granules e.g. wheat starch or not visible at all as observed with much smaller starch grains. The striations usually due to the daytime deposition of the starch give rise to differences in some properties such as the starch density, crystallinity and refractive index of the granules. In describing and characterizing starches from different sources, the absence or presence of hilum, form and position of hilum, singular/multiple features in texture, absence or presence of striations which are well defined, fissures, vacuoles, faceting, depressions are all important characteristics [4].

#### **2.2 Properties of starch and the delineation of species**

The qualitative and quantitative morphological, chemical and genetic properties are peculiar to the source of the starch some of these characteristics include size,


#### *Micrometrics and Morphological Properties of Starch DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90286*


**Table 1.** *Properties of starch across different genera.*

*Chemical Properties of Starch*

**146**

*Micrometrics and Morphological Properties of Starch DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90286*

**Figure 1.**

*Microscopy of starch grains from Cassia species (Leguminosae). H: hilum; oH: open hilum; af: asymmetric fissure; rf: reverse fissure; pf: pressure facet; db: double border.*

shape, surface characteristics, gene expression, reaction with iodine, X-ray diffraction pattern and gelatinization.

#### *2.2.1 Morphological and micrometric properties of starch granules*

These properties as described earlier from the qualitative and quantitative microscopic shape and size of starch grains. Studies carried out from four (4) *Curcuma* species (*C. amada* Roxb., *C. aromatica* Salisb., *C. caesia* Roxb and *C. xanthorrhiza*) showed great variability in shape and size (**Table 1**). Granules from *C. aromatica* were the largest in size, showed surface ornamentation and varied with the rest of the species [5]. Earlier Scanning electron microscope (SEM) studies in different Curcuma species also report wide difference in the shape and size of starch grains. The rhizomes of some *Dioscorea* species viz.: *D. opposite* Thumb, *D. alata* Linn, *D. nipponica* Makino, *D. bulbifera* Linn, and *D. septemloba* Thumb showed some defining properties along the lines of morphological, crystalline and physicochemical properties [6].

The physiology of the chloroplast and amyloplast of a plant greatly influences the morphology of starch granules thus causing the size and shape of a granule vary considerably with the morphological source of starch e.g. from root or tuber or endosperm of seed or from stem bark; geographical distribution or differences in climatic conditions wherein the plant was grown [7–9]. An extensive study centered on the classification of 23,100 granules and morphological features from 22 orders and 31 families drew out marker morphometric properties based on size, psilate texture, faceting and other quantitative microscopic properties, that could possibly identify species within each family. Examples of such morphotypes are Conoid cuneiforms or Obiculars, Pear Shaped—irregulars, Parabolic—Prism, Prism and Lobate Shell, Prismatic—Polygonal, Globular—Orbicular, Globular Trapeziform, Hemisphere—Orbicular, etc. Granules from various species from families such as Zamiaceae, Araceae, Nymphaeaceae, Taccaceae, Orchidaceae, Fabaceae, Dioscoreacea, Iridaceae, Fabaceae, Sapotaceae, Apocynaceae, Arecaceae among others were screened. Major observations were the absence direct morphometric markers within 14 of the 31 screened families. The study concluded that morphological parameters were not concrete enough to establish taxonomic identification [4]. Properties of starch grains such as size, structure and shape extracted from various plant sources differ only to a certain extent, such that starches from some different biological sources can be identified. However, the range of shapes and sizes of starch grains are often wide and cut across different granules from even the same source (**Figure 1** and **Table 1**). The variability is often as a result of differences in conditions such as climatic and/or geographic conditions, thus, features are not unique enough across all species in a family or genus. The degradative nature

#### *Chemical Properties of Starch*

of starch within the tissues and storage organs at the point of seed germination, rhizome or tuber maturation, ripening of fruit or starch breakdown due to exposure to heat or chemical agents which causes it to loose textural, volumetric, and their morphometric properties, is another major factor that deters the use of micrometric parameters to classify species.

#### *2.2.2 Physicochemical properties of starch granules*

Starch grains vary in physicochemical properties. The variation in proportion of amylopectin and β-amylose present in starch granules contributes toward the slightly distinctive physical and chemical characters of starches from various biological sources. These characters often vary from species to species. In some species the amylose content increases as the granule develops or within different stages of granule formation for example the larger barley grains have higher amylose content than the smaller grains [3, 10, 11]. Pasting properties, reactions to stains, Thermal properties such as gelatinization temperatures and time and retrogradation differ between types of starch based on the amylopectin and amylose content. Increased amounts of amylose in starch, tends to raise gelatinization temperature of the starch [12, 13]. The length and degree of branching of amylopectin, lipid and amylose content of the starch grossly affects pasting properties. The swelling and pasting properties of starch are enhanced by greater amylopectin content while swelling is inhibited by a higher lipid and amylose content [14]. The viscosity of pastes from starch is also determined by the chain length of amylopectin and molecular size of amylose [15]. There are complex interactions that result in the pasting properties of starches due to the differences in structural features. An increase in pasting temperature, resistance to shear thinning of starch pastes from sources such as *Zea mays*, *Oryza sativa*, *Triticum aestivum* and *Hordeum vulgare* was observed to be due to amylose lipid complexes [16]. Some starch grains react to iodine potassium iodide differently. For example, potato starch stains purple, indicating a relatively high amount of amylose, whereas starch with very high amylopectin content, such as waxy maize and the tubers of Australian terrestrial orchids, turn to more red color when stained with iodine.

#### *2.2.3 X-ray diffraction pattern*

Native starches show three main patterns of diffraction when exposed to X-rays called type A, type B and type C, which are caused by differences in the crystalline regions of the amylopectin molecules [17] and which relate to botanical differences [3]. In general, cereal starches usually give the A-type diffraction, while tuber starches generally show the B-type pattern (although some tropical tubers have A-type starches) and some root and seed starches give the C patterns [18]. According to a study [6] on different starches also from Dioscorea species, *D. nipponica* starches displayed A-type of diffraction while starches from *D. opposite*, *D. alata*, *D. septemloba* and *D. bulbifera* exhibited the C-type of diffraction. The following degrees of crystallinity viz.: 33.90, 37.63, 43.11, 32.06 and 53.35% were obtained from the five species, respectively. The pattern of X-ray diffraction along with other physicochemical properties can serve as a distinguishing factor for starches from different sources.

#### **3. Conclusions**

It is pertinent to involve data from morphological, physicochemical, chemical and genetic features of starch granules to classify and delinate species to avoid

*Micrometrics and Morphological Properties of Starch DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90286*

discrepancies. In the identification of some species, some morphometric features are specific enough and marker worthy to identify these species however this will be specie specific and might not cut across the genus or family of the botanical source. The qualitative and quantitative morphological and physicochemical properties can be harnessed in the selection of starches from different botanical sources for different uses.

#### **Acknowledgements**

Thank you to Mr. Agbaje Wale and Miss Esievo Benefit who served as a resource and a source of encouragement.

### **Author details**

Omolola Temitope Fatokun Department of Medicinal Plant Research and Traditional Medicine, National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development, Idu, Indsutrial layout, F.C.T., Abuja, Nigeria

\*Address all correspondence to: omololafatokun@gmail.com

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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*Micrometrics and Morphological Properties of Starch DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90286*

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### *Edited by Martins Emeje*

This book is about the chemical properties of starch. The book is a rich compendium driven by the desire to address the unmet needs of biomedical scientists to respond adequately to the controversy on the chemical properties and attendant reactivity of starch. It is a collective endeavor by a group of editors and authors with a wealth of experience and expertise on starch to aggregate the influence of qualitative and quantitative morphological, chemical, and genetic properties of starch on its functionalities, use, applications, and health benefits. The chemical properties of starch are conferred by the presence, amount and/or quality of amylose and amylopectin molecules, granule structure, and the nature and amounts of the lipid and protein molecules. The implication of this is comprehensively dealt with in this book.

Published in London, UK © 2020 IntechOpen © LobodaPhoto / iStock

Chemical Properties of Starch

IntechOpen Book Series

Biochemistry, Volume 9

Chemical Properties of Starch

*Edited by Martins Emeje*