Preface

Crustaceans form one of the most successful zoological groups, both for the number of registered living species (67,829) and for the diversity of habitats that they colonize (from the shallow coastline to the deep ocean basins). They are organisms that have various anatomical variations and dimensions ranging from a few millimeters (some copepods) to more than 4 m in length (spider crab). The variety of life strategies has allowed them to adapt to a wide variety of environments, first marine, then freshwater, and finally terrestrial. As for food, there are detritivores, herbivores, omnivores, carnivorous scavengers, and parasites.

The importance of crustaceans not only lies at the food level, but they also provide multiple benefits to man: in the commercial field (through the exploitation of different species, which means significant economic income worldwide); in the pharmaceutical, food, and beverage industry; in water treatment; in agriculture; in medicine (chitosan is used, which is extracted from the main component of the shell that forms the body of organisms, chitin); and in the food and dye industry by the use of carotenoids (astaxanthin) extracted from the lobster exoskeleton (*Pleuroncodes planipes*) to give a reddish color to different foods. In the biological aspect, crustaceans are fundamental in the functioning of aquatic ecosystems; with their abundance and diversity they give structure to the macroinvertebrate communities. Because of the position they occupy in the food chains, as secondary consumers, they are responsible for the transformation of organic matter into energy and consumable proteins.

This book is made up of five sections. The first section is about **Biology and Ecology.** The first chapter is *Crustace*an, where aspects of all the animals of the phylum Arthropoda and Subphylum Crustacea are discussed. This group of animals are a very diverse group of invertebrate animals, which includes active animals such as crabs, lobsters, shrimp, krill, copepods, amphipods, and more sessile creatures like barnacles. It includes about 11,340,000 species in all habitats. This constitutes about 83% of all the known animal species on earth. The phylum is characterized by heteronomous metamerism, chitinous exoskeleton, and joined appendages. In very small crustaceans, the exchange of respiratory gases occurs through the general body surface. Large aquatic arthropods respire through gills and book gills, whereas terrestrial forms respire through trachea and book lungs.

The chapter entitled *The robber crab Birgus latro (Linnaeus, 1767)* gives us information on the terrestrial hermit crab. It is the largest land-living arthropod in the world. In India, distribution of this crab is restricted to Great Nicobar Island and South Sentinel Island in Andaman and Nicobar Archipelago. This research is focused on aspects of ecology such as habitat, size, eating habits, behavior, life cycle, and distribution on the Nicobar Islands, India.

In the chapter *Scyllarid Lobster Biology and Ecology,* the current available knowledge on the biology of scyllarids is presented. The author attempts to point out where questions remain to help focus further studies on these lobsters, while also mentioning that slipper lobsters are found in tropical and temperate habitats with hard or soft undercarriages and at different depths, and exhibit a wide array

**II**

**Section 2**

**Section 3**

**Section 4**

**Section 5**

Tamaulipas, Mexico

Sphaeromatidae)

*by Palaniappan Ramasamy*

Fisheries **89**

**Chapter 7 91**

Genetics **107**

**Chapter 8 109**

Diseases **121**

**Chapter 9 123**

Bioaccumulation **153**

**Chapter 10 155**

Assessment of Metal Accumulation and Bioaccumulation Factor of Some Trace and Heavy Metals in Freshwater Prawn and Crab *by Osikemekha Anthony Anani and John Ovie Olomukoro*

Isopods, *Thermosphaeroma thermophilum* and *T. milleri* (Crustacea - Isopoda:

*by Veijo Jormalainen, James C. Boothroyd, Autumn Dove and Stephen M. Shuster*

Estimation of the Maximum Sustainable Yield and the Optimal Fishing Effort of the Blue Crab (*Callinectes sapidus*, Rathbun 1896) of Laguna Madre,

*Wanda Ortiz Baez, Alfonso Correa Sandoval and Jose Alberto Ramirez de León*

*by Jorge Homero Rodriguez Castro, Sandra Edith Olmeda de la Fuente,* 

A Comparison of Genetic Variation in Two Endemic Thermal Spring

Phage Therapy for Control of Bacterial Diseases

of morphological, anatomical, and physiological adaptations. Amongst the 20 genera and at least 89 species constituting four subfamilies, only some members of four genera, *Thenus* (Theninae), *Scyllarides* (Arctidinae), *Ibacus,* and *Parribacus* (Ibacinae) form significant fishery crops because of their large size.

To the chapter titled *Management of the interaction and cannibalism of postlarvae and adults of the freshwater shrimp Cryphiops caementarius (Molina, 1782),*  mentions that male shrimps (*C. caementarius)* are aggressive because one of their chelipeds is more developed than the other, causing greater interaction and cannibalism in any aquaculture system. Female shrimps are less aggressive. To reduce interaction and shrimp cannibalism, two management systems are proposed. For postlarvae, using brackish water (12%) maintains high survival (> 85%) but only in the initial culture, which lasts 50 days. For the fattening of adult males, growing in individual containers conditioned in multiple levels, allows high survival (87% and 100%) and yields between 0.7 kg m−2 and 1.0 kg m−2. Furthermore, in this system, the co-culture shrimp/tilapia is also tested to maximize performance. Study is still required to demonstrate the technical and economic feasibility of fattening male shrimps in individual containers within semi-natural ponds.

In the chapter *Bateman Gradients and Alternative Mating Strategies in a Marine Isopod,* the Bateman gradient is shown to provide a means for estimating the strength of sexual selection. By measuring the covariance between mate numbers and offspring numbers for members of each sex, this parameter identifies the existence and magnitude of sex differences in selection intensity. Although widely used for this purpose, this approach has not been applied to examine the covariance between mate numbers and offspring numbers among alternative mating strategies. Differences in this covariance could exist if the average fitness of different mating phenotypes was unequal, as has been suggested for alternative mating tactics.

The chapter *The habitat types of freshwater prawns (Palaemonidae: Macrobrachium) with abbreviated larval development in Mesoamerica (Mexico, Guatemala & Belize)* describes the freshwater prawns of genus *Macrobrachium* with abbreviated larval development that have been reported from South America, Asia, Africa, and North America. They have been collected from a diversity of freshwater habitats (caves, springs, and primary streams from so-long basins). This chapter details the diversity of habitats of these freshwater prawns that show a high plasticity in their morphological features associated with these different habitats.

In the second section, **Fisheries,** the first chapter, *Estimation of the maximum sustainable yield and the optimal fishing effort of the blue crab (Callinectes sapidus, Rathbun 1896) of Laguna Madre, Tamaulipas, Mexico,* describes the economic and social importance of the crab fishery industry from Mexico, and in particular the blue crab (*Callinectes sapidus*) on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, specifically in the Laguna Madre, Tamaulipas. The official measures of fishing management are insufficient and outdated; while those corresponding to unofficial scientists are nonexistent. On the Pacific Ocean side, several species of the genus *Callinectes* concur for which certain regulations (Official Mexican Standard) and planning (Regional Fisheries Management Plan) applicable to fisheries regulation are available. In the specific case of Laguna Madre, Tamaulipas, there is currently no specific regulation or regional fisheries planning.

The third section, **Genetics,** includes the chapter *A Comparison of Genetic Variation in Two Endemic Thermal Spring Isopods, Thermosphaeroma* 

**V**

*thermophilum and T. milleri (Crustacea: Isopoda: Sphaeromatidae),* where *Thermosphaeroma thermophilum*, an endangered species, inhabits a single thermal spring in central New Mexico, USA. *T. milleri* inhabits a more complex thermal spring system in northern Chihuahua, Mexico. We found no significant differences

in allelic variation between the sexes within each species. Between species, electromorphs at each locus differed significantly in both number and moiety on the gel, with *T. milleri* showing greater polymorphism and greater heterozygosity than *T. thermophilum* suggesting that these populations have been separated since the late Cretaceous period (88 myr). Moreover, consistent with the theoretical expectation that small, isolated populations will exhibit reduced genetic variation,

*T. thermophilum* exhibits significantly less genetic variation than the more

In the fourth section, **Diseases,** a chapter on *Phage therapy for control of bacterial diseases of crustaceans* describes one of the most important control strategies envisaged for the management of bacterial diseases in the aquatic environment. There are no other effective alternative approaches for the natural control of bacterial diseases and phage therapy remains the best method that has not yet been exploited. The occurrence, infectivity, lytic activities, therapeutic potentials, and efficacy of the bacteriophages of *Bacillus spp./*Vibrio *spp.* for control of pathogenic bacteria diseases such as *Vibrio vulnificus, V. damsela,* and *V. furnissi* in the cultures of crustaceans are presented. An ideal method for long-term storage and recovery of the lytic bacteriophages and validation of the usefulness of phage therapy are reviewed. The application and efficacy of the phages of *Bacillus/Vibrio* against the bacterial pathogens *Vibrios* in the aquaculture of crustaceans are considered.

The fifth section, *Bioaccumulation,* provides information on *Assessment of metal accumulation and bioaccumulation factor of some trace and heavy metals in freshwater prawn and crab,* describing the freshwater decapods that are a major food delicacy because of their rich deposits of minerals. High levels of mineral contents such as metals are usually accumulated in the body tissues of these

organisms because of their lifestyle. Metal accumulation in freshwater decapods has been thought to cause serious health concerns when transferred to humans along the food chain. Health risks associated with heavy metals include renal failure, skeletal deformation, and hepatic failure. The assessment of metal accumulation and bioaccumulation factors of some trace and heavy metals in freshwater prawns and crabs (*Sudanonautes africanus* and *Macrobrachium rosenbergii*) have shown that the metal accumulation were in this order: Fe > Zn > Cu > Pb = Cd > Cr = Ni = V and Fe > Zn > Mn > Cu > Pb > Cr = Cd > Ni = V. It was noticed that Zn and Cr had the highest bioaccumulation factors in prawns and crabs respectively. Chromium has been observed to be carcinogenic. Consumption of Cr in the muscles of crab might

This book can be used by students, professors, and researchers in areas related to

**Dr. Genaro Diarte-Plata and Dr. Ruth Escamilla-Montes**

Instituto Politécnico Nacional (CIIDIR Sinaloa),

México

numerous and less confined *T. milleri*.

cause serious health risks to humans.

biological sciences.

*thermophilum and T. milleri (Crustacea: Isopoda: Sphaeromatidae),* where *Thermosphaeroma thermophilum*, an endangered species, inhabits a single thermal spring in central New Mexico, USA. *T. milleri* inhabits a more complex thermal spring system in northern Chihuahua, Mexico. We found no significant differences in allelic variation between the sexes within each species. Between species, electromorphs at each locus differed significantly in both number and moiety on the gel, with *T. milleri* showing greater polymorphism and greater heterozygosity than *T. thermophilum* suggesting that these populations have been separated since the late Cretaceous period (88 myr). Moreover, consistent with the theoretical expectation that small, isolated populations will exhibit reduced genetic variation, *T. thermophilum* exhibits significantly less genetic variation than the more numerous and less confined *T. milleri*.

In the fourth section, **Diseases,** a chapter on *Phage therapy for control of bacterial diseases of crustaceans* describes one of the most important control strategies envisaged for the management of bacterial diseases in the aquatic environment. There are no other effective alternative approaches for the natural control of bacterial diseases and phage therapy remains the best method that has not yet been exploited. The occurrence, infectivity, lytic activities, therapeutic potentials, and efficacy of the bacteriophages of *Bacillus spp./*Vibrio *spp.* for control of pathogenic bacteria diseases such as *Vibrio vulnificus, V. damsela,* and *V. furnissi* in the cultures of crustaceans are presented. An ideal method for long-term storage and recovery of the lytic bacteriophages and validation of the usefulness of phage therapy are reviewed. The application and efficacy of the phages of *Bacillus/Vibrio* against the bacterial pathogens *Vibrios* in the aquaculture of crustaceans are considered.

The fifth section, *Bioaccumulation,* provides information on *Assessment of metal accumulation and bioaccumulation factor of some trace and heavy metals in freshwater prawn and crab,* describing the freshwater decapods that are a major food delicacy because of their rich deposits of minerals. High levels of mineral contents such as metals are usually accumulated in the body tissues of these organisms because of their lifestyle. Metal accumulation in freshwater decapods has been thought to cause serious health concerns when transferred to humans along the food chain. Health risks associated with heavy metals include renal failure, skeletal deformation, and hepatic failure. The assessment of metal accumulation and bioaccumulation factors of some trace and heavy metals in freshwater prawns and crabs (*Sudanonautes africanus* and *Macrobrachium rosenbergii*) have shown that the metal accumulation were in this order: Fe > Zn > Cu > Pb = Cd > Cr = Ni = V and Fe > Zn > Mn > Cu > Pb > Cr = Cd > Ni = V. It was noticed that Zn and Cr had the highest bioaccumulation factors in prawns and crabs respectively. Chromium has been observed to be carcinogenic. Consumption of Cr in the muscles of crab might cause serious health risks to humans.

This book can be used by students, professors, and researchers in areas related to biological sciences.

**IV**

of morphological, anatomical, and physiological adaptations. Amongst the 20 genera and at least 89 species constituting four subfamilies, only some members of four genera, *Thenus* (Theninae), *Scyllarides* (Arctidinae), *Ibacus,* and *Parribacus*

To the chapter titled *Management of the interaction and cannibalism of postlarvae and adults of the freshwater shrimp Cryphiops caementarius (Molina, 1782),* mentions that male shrimps (*C. caementarius)* are aggressive because one of their chelipeds is more developed than the other, causing greater interaction and cannibalism in any aquaculture system. Female shrimps are less aggressive. To reduce interaction and shrimp cannibalism, two management systems are proposed. For postlarvae, using brackish water (12%) maintains high survival (> 85%) but only in the initial culture, which lasts 50 days. For the fattening of adult males, growing in individual containers conditioned in multiple levels, allows high survival (87% and 100%) and yields between 0.7 kg m−2 and 1.0 kg m−2. Furthermore, in this system, the co-culture shrimp/tilapia is also tested to maximize performance. Study is still required to demonstrate the technical and economic feasibility of fattening male shrimps in individual containers within semi-natural ponds.

In the chapter *Bateman Gradients and Alternative Mating Strategies in a Marine Isopod,* the Bateman gradient is shown to provide a means for estimating the strength of sexual selection. By measuring the covariance between mate numbers and offspring numbers for members of each sex, this parameter identifies the existence and magnitude of sex differences in selection intensity. Although widely used for this purpose, this approach has not been applied to examine the covariance between mate numbers and offspring numbers among alternative mating strategies. Differences in this covariance could exist if the average fitness of different mating phenotypes was unequal, as has been suggested for alternative mating tactics.

*Macrobrachium) with abbreviated larval development in Mesoamerica (Mexico, Guatemala & Belize)* describes the freshwater prawns of genus *Macrobrachium* with abbreviated larval development that have been reported from South America, Asia, Africa, and North America. They have been collected from a diversity of freshwater habitats (caves, springs, and primary streams from so-long basins). This chapter details the diversity of habitats of these freshwater prawns that show a high plasticity in their morphological features associated with these different habitats.

In the second section, **Fisheries,** the first chapter, *Estimation of the maximum sustainable yield and the optimal fishing effort of the blue crab (Callinectes sapidus, Rathbun 1896) of Laguna Madre, Tamaulipas, Mexico,* describes the economic and social importance of the crab fishery industry from Mexico, and in particular the blue crab (*Callinectes sapidus*) on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, specifically in the Laguna Madre, Tamaulipas. The official measures of fishing management are insufficient and outdated; while those corresponding to unofficial scientists are nonexistent. On the Pacific Ocean side, several species of the genus *Callinectes* concur for which certain regulations (Official Mexican Standard) and planning (Regional Fisheries Management Plan) applicable to fisheries regulation are available. In the specific case of Laguna Madre, Tamaulipas, there is currently no

The third section, **Genetics,** includes the chapter *A Comparison of Genetic Variation in Two Endemic Thermal Spring Isopods, Thermosphaeroma* 

specific regulation or regional fisheries planning.

The chapter *The habitat types of freshwater prawns (Palaemonidae:* 

(Ibacinae) form significant fishery crops because of their large size.

Section 1

Biology and Ecology

1
