**4. Bioactive amines with neurotransmitter function present in food**

As well as spermidine and spermine, other amines like monoamine serotonin, present in fruits and vegetables, have also been described for their antioxidant and anti-senescent actions in plant tissues, besides having beneficial (neurotransmitter) effects related to human health [36]. Considering the effects of serotonin in humans, diets enriched with plant-based food rich in serotonin may prevent certain diseases, such as the metabolic syndrome [36]. In humans, the ingestion of tryptophan and 5-hydroxytryptophan is essential for the formation of serotonin in the brain, since this neurotransmitter does not cross the blood – brain barrier, thus the synthesis and turnover of serotonin depends on the ingestion of these compounds through food [17]. The daily recommendation of tryptophan for adults is around 4 mg kg−1 body weight per day and 12 mg kg−1 body weight for children [17]. Thus, foods that contain higher levels of tryptophan and 5-hydroxytryptophan can help in the balance of serotonin and melatonin levels. Melatonin is produced from tryptophan and from serotonin and has also been identified in fruits and vegetables [7, 37].

Serotonin levels also vary depending on the ripening stage, as described in studies with wines grape [38] and bananas and plantains (**Table 1**) [8]. Reduced levels of amines, i.e., serotonin and dopamine in advanced stages of fruit ripening may be associated with an oxidative pathway activated during senescence, which can be considered markers of this development phase [7]. Serotonin levels can also be changed in function of the cooking (**Table 1**). An increase in the content of serotonin in banana pulps ('Pelipita') was also verified after cooking treatments in microwave with the peel (14.4%), in addition to boiling the fruit with the peel (3.8%) [8]. Cooking (i.e., boiling, steaming or microwave) induce an increase in serotonin levels in colored cauliflower, with emphasis on 'Cheddar' and 'Forata' cooked by microwave [7]. However, cooking time can be harmful (**Table 1**). Some studies on thermally processed foods indicate that prolonged exposure to high temperatures can result in substantial losses of amine compounds [39]. The frying process in *Musa* spp. fruit, for example, induced serotonin losses, and is not recommended when the objective is to ingest higher levels of this indolamine [8]. The significant decrease in serotonin has also been observed in other processes used in banana fruit (e.g., frozen fruit, ice cream and fruit nectar after pasteurization) [39].

Using fruits and vegetables with the peel for domestic processing can be a very interesting strategy to increase the intake of BAs. High amounts of catecholamines and indolamines have been identified in fruit (banana pulps) submitted to thermal processing with the peel (**Table 1**) [8]. Bananas boiled with the peel resulted in increases in serotonin content of up to 3% (cooking banana 'Pelipita') and 73% dopamine ('D'Angola'). This effect can be attributed to the migration of serotonin and dopamine from the peel to the pulp, as already verified with other bioactive compounds analyzed in fruits submitted to the cooking process [8, 40]. Fruit and vegetable peels are generally more exposed to sunlight than pulp and can protect themselves from oxidative stress caused by strong sunlight and high temperatures, producing large amounts of antioxidants.

Amines considered to be dangerous to health, mainly histamine and tyramine, do not occur only in products of animal origin or processed or fermented. People who present intolerances, such as monoamine oxidase (MAO) or diamine oxidase (DAO) deficiency, should avoid some fruits and vegetables due to the levels of these amines. Treatment with monoamine oxidase inhibitors can promote hypertension due to an increase tyramine and phenethylamine in susceptible individuals [41] Doses of 200 to 800 mg of tyramine increase the systolic blood pressure by 30 mmHg [42] and

**9**

*The Increase of Amines Content in the Intake of a Vegan Diet*

this increase can cause heart failure or brain hemorrhage [43]. The knowledge of the content of the levels of these amines in foods, whether of plant or animal origin, is important to avoid damages to health. However, few studies classify foods in relation to the levels of these amines. Despite the damages, histamine plays an essential role in promoting growth and metabolic activity of the gut and is active in nervous

Alcoholic and non-alcoholic fermented drinks, as well as long-ripened cheese, meat, fish, and some fruits and vegetables should be avoided by people sensitive to histamine and/or tyramine. Preserving plant-food in canned form can affect histamine and tyramine levels, as well as shelf life. The storage time increases the histamine content in canned apple; i.e., after twelve months of production, the samples showed almost three times more histamine compared to those stored for 30 days [44]. However, other species do not have the same result. In canned jurubeba, there was a decrease in the content of histamine and tyramine during the storage time (90 days), mainly in fruits preserved in vinegar, compared to those preserved in soy oil [14]. To cause toxicity, histamine levels vary between 10 and 100 mg/100 g in food [19] and the effect can be enhanced when there are high contents of putrescine and cadaverine in the food [14]. In addition, the cooking method may increase histamine levels, as described in bananas ('Pelipita') cooked

**5. Fermented food and beverages and their bioactive amines against** 

Amines can be found in fermented plant-based foods [45] and, in high concentrations, they can be undesired, due to causing an unpleasant aroma, in addition to physical problems such as headaches (**Table 1**). Thus, there is a growing interest in controlling the accumulation of biogenic amines using antimicrobial agents to inhibit the proliferation of amine-producing bacteria. An efficient way to control the accumulation and/or formation of undesirable amines would be to control the fermentation process and/or the introduction of spices, which can have significant potential as antimicrobial agents. The control of the fermentation process using initial cultures ensures quality control and product safety. For example, spontaneously fermented carrot juice, a novel food product, can benefit from the development of starter cultures to avoid high numbers of Enterobacteriaceae and/or high concentrations of BAs [46]. In general, *Lactobacillus plantarum* starter-culture strains are frequently

Many vegetarians consume fish products. However, fish and fermented fish products (e.g., fish sauce) contain significant levels of aminoacids and BAs, some of which are undesirable, such as histamine, with levels greater than 500 ppm (**Table 1**) [48]. Besides histamine, undesirable amines such as putrescine, cadaverine and tyramine can occur in these products. Levels of 1257 and 1178 ppm of putrescine and tyramine, respectively, have been reported in fish sauce [49]. The addition of additives in the fermentation process, such as spices, can alter fermentation conditions, possibly leading to an increase or decrease in the quantities of

In recent years, increased shelf life and food safety through the use of bioprotective microbial cultures, in particular lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and/or their antimicrobial compounds have gained great attention. One approach is based on the growing consumer demand for probiotic non-dairy products and beverages. *Lactobacillus plantarum* and *L. delbrueckii* were detected in fermented cabbage juice and can be interesting as probiotics for vegetarian and lactose intolerant consumers.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94095*

without the peel in microwave (**Table 1**) [8].

used to control vegetable fermentation processes [46, 47].

some endogenous compounds, such as BAs in the final product [12].

system [44].

**human**

*The Increase of Amines Content in the Intake of a Vegan Diet DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94095*

*Veganism - a Fashion Trend or Food as a Medicine*

identified in fruits and vegetables [7, 37].

pasteurization) [39].

producing large amounts of antioxidants.

**4. Bioactive amines with neurotransmitter function present in food**

As well as spermidine and spermine, other amines like monoamine serotonin, present in fruits and vegetables, have also been described for their antioxidant and anti-senescent actions in plant tissues, besides having beneficial (neurotransmitter) effects related to human health [36]. Considering the effects of serotonin in humans, diets enriched with plant-based food rich in serotonin may prevent certain diseases, such as the metabolic syndrome [36]. In humans, the ingestion of tryptophan and 5-hydroxytryptophan is essential for the formation of serotonin in the brain, since this neurotransmitter does not cross the blood – brain barrier, thus the synthesis and turnover of serotonin depends on the ingestion of these compounds through food [17]. The daily recommendation of tryptophan for adults is around 4 mg kg−1 body weight per day and 12 mg kg−1 body weight for children [17]. Thus, foods that contain higher levels of tryptophan and 5-hydroxytryptophan can help in the balance of serotonin and melatonin levels. Melatonin is produced from tryptophan and from serotonin and has also been

Serotonin levels also vary depending on the ripening stage, as described in studies with wines grape [38] and bananas and plantains (**Table 1**) [8]. Reduced levels of amines, i.e., serotonin and dopamine in advanced stages of fruit ripening may be associated with an oxidative pathway activated during senescence, which can be considered markers of this development phase [7]. Serotonin levels can also be changed in function of the cooking (**Table 1**). An increase in the content of serotonin in banana pulps ('Pelipita') was also verified after cooking treatments in microwave with the peel (14.4%), in addition to boiling the fruit with the peel (3.8%) [8]. Cooking (i.e., boiling, steaming or microwave) induce an increase in serotonin levels in colored cauliflower, with emphasis on 'Cheddar' and 'Forata' cooked by microwave [7]. However, cooking time can be harmful (**Table 1**). Some studies on thermally processed foods indicate that prolonged exposure to high temperatures can result in substantial losses of amine compounds [39]. The frying process in *Musa* spp. fruit, for example, induced serotonin losses, and is not recommended when the objective is to ingest higher levels of this indolamine [8]. The significant decrease in serotonin has also been observed in other processes used in banana fruit (e.g., frozen fruit, ice cream and fruit nectar after

Using fruits and vegetables with the peel for domestic processing can be a very interesting strategy to increase the intake of BAs. High amounts of catecholamines and indolamines have been identified in fruit (banana pulps) submitted to thermal processing with the peel (**Table 1**) [8]. Bananas boiled with the peel resulted in increases in serotonin content of up to 3% (cooking banana 'Pelipita') and 73% dopamine ('D'Angola'). This effect can be attributed to the migration of serotonin and dopamine from the peel to the pulp, as already verified with other bioactive compounds analyzed in fruits submitted to the cooking process [8, 40]. Fruit and vegetable peels are generally more exposed to sunlight than pulp and can protect themselves from oxidative stress caused by strong sunlight and high temperatures,

Amines considered to be dangerous to health, mainly histamine and tyramine, do not occur only in products of animal origin or processed or fermented. People who present intolerances, such as monoamine oxidase (MAO) or diamine oxidase (DAO) deficiency, should avoid some fruits and vegetables due to the levels of these amines. Treatment with monoamine oxidase inhibitors can promote hypertension due to an increase tyramine and phenethylamine in susceptible individuals [41] Doses of 200 to 800 mg of tyramine increase the systolic blood pressure by 30 mmHg [42] and

**8**

this increase can cause heart failure or brain hemorrhage [43]. The knowledge of the content of the levels of these amines in foods, whether of plant or animal origin, is important to avoid damages to health. However, few studies classify foods in relation to the levels of these amines. Despite the damages, histamine plays an essential role in promoting growth and metabolic activity of the gut and is active in nervous system [44].

Alcoholic and non-alcoholic fermented drinks, as well as long-ripened cheese, meat, fish, and some fruits and vegetables should be avoided by people sensitive to histamine and/or tyramine. Preserving plant-food in canned form can affect histamine and tyramine levels, as well as shelf life. The storage time increases the histamine content in canned apple; i.e., after twelve months of production, the samples showed almost three times more histamine compared to those stored for 30 days [44]. However, other species do not have the same result. In canned jurubeba, there was a decrease in the content of histamine and tyramine during the storage time (90 days), mainly in fruits preserved in vinegar, compared to those preserved in soy oil [14]. To cause toxicity, histamine levels vary between 10 and 100 mg/100 g in food [19] and the effect can be enhanced when there are high contents of putrescine and cadaverine in the food [14]. In addition, the cooking method may increase histamine levels, as described in bananas ('Pelipita') cooked without the peel in microwave (**Table 1**) [8].
