**6. Miscellaneous ingredients and their role**

#### **6.1 Binding agents**

To develop a product that can mimic another is always a challenge. Especially to satisfy its sensory appeal. Additives that are capable of binding water and fat are important while developing a plant-based meat substitute. These ingredients can either be the plant source itself such as isolate or concentrate of soy protein and wheat gluten or some external components like egg, xanthan gum, milk protein or carrageenan. These ingredients, which are having high protein content, majorly functions as water binder and forms protein networks. On the other hand, some ingredients with no protein content (e.g. starch, soy flour, etc.) are used as fillers taking into consideration of their binding properties by entrapping water and fat physically.

However, to attain a quality product, concentration of binding agent used at the time of manufacturing of meat analog is vital. Industries make use of gluten due to its cohesive nature, leavening ability, dough forming ability and visco-elastic nature. In addition to these properties, gluten is profitable while processing because of the reduced cooking loss and can improve slicing attributes [34, 35]. In some case, polysaccharides (e.g. guar gum, pectin, cellulose, carrageenan, etc.) are used as binders. The gelling and thickening properties helps polysaccharides to improve the rheological properties of developed product. Hydrocolloids such as xanthan gum, starches, pectin and locust bean gum are found to have a positive effect on sausages and other similar products which are low in fat content [36]. Other than the application of egg albumin, soy ingredients (flour, concentrates and isolates) are also extensively used. However, beany taste of soy products makes the industries to limit their application to isolates [26].

#### **6.2 Fat/oil**

One of the prime objectives of developing meat analog is to reduce the cholesterol level to minimum. As a result, today, meat-substitute products available in the market contain comparatively low fat. Another concern is that, quantity of fat can affect fiber structure and its formation during processing undesirably. Studies

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*Plant Proteins as Healthy, Sustainable and Integrative Meat Alternates*

reported similar cases, for instance, during extrusion process, dough that have oil content more than 15% was failure as the lubrication of the material affected the alignment of its macromolecules; and also the slippery texture negatively affect the shear force exerted at the time of extrusion [37, 38]. Although raw materials are fatted before using them for manufacturing meat substitutes, plant sources like soy, oilseeds, etc. has natural oil present in them. This quantity is more or less sufficient in many cases. However, for increasing the sensory attributes, industries use some additives such as soy oil, sunflower oil, rapeseed oil, canola oil, palm oil, corn oil, coconut oil, etc. These added oils give the final plant-based meat analogues a juicy and tender texture, along with release of flavor and retaining the volatile

Flavor is one of the most important sensory attribute for food as it gives a satiety before even consumption. And in the case of meat products, flavors arising from the product itself make consumers to stick around the non-vegetarian foods. Therefore, while preparing a meat analog, ensuring the customers with similar flavor in essential. In many products, fat/oil is added extra, which can also serve as a precursor for flavoring by entrapping the organoleptic volatile components. Addition of flavoring agents is hence common in meat analog industry. These agents improve the acceptability of product not only by mimicking the flavors of meat products, but also by lowering the beany flavors generated (e.g. beany flavor developed for soy-based meat substitutes). A study conducted on mushroom concentrates for replacing monosodium glutamate or hydrolysed vegetable protein was effective when formulated at less than 1%. Also, simple sugars and sulfur-containing amino acids have strong impact on developing flavor, while other compounds like glycoprotein, monosodium glutamate, etc. helps to mask pungent sulphury taste or improves the

However, during extrusion process (or while undergoing treatments at high temperature and pressure), it undergoes various physiochemical changes, making the whole process a complex. This results in loss of natural and added flavors like spices and other agents. Conversely, application of high temperature give rise to reactions like Maillard reaction, where amino acid and sugars present in the matter creates a distinctive flavor. This improves sensory characteristics – flavor and taste, even though it is risky if not optimized properly by reason of the generation of off-flavor. Among numerous aromas available in meat products, roast and smoked aromas are desired by many consumers. Additionally, several studies shown that furans and thiophenes containing sulfur or sulfur-containing heterocyclic compounds imparts

strong meaty strong meaty-roasty-flavor to finished products [26].

In meat products, degree of color change and color characteristic are very important, hence it is essential to maintain same color attributes in meat analogues. This can be achieved by incorporating edible additives which imparts desired color in final product. For example, protein from soy and wheat (gluten) possess yellowbrow color and is much brighter than original cooked meat and very different from raw meat color. Edible food color are used such caramel, annatto, carotene, turmin and cumin as they are heat stable. Other colors may be used in meat analogue are beet root and betanine extracts and reducing sugars for browning characteristics in Millard reaction in presence of protein. Such reducing sugars are mannose, lactose, xylose, arabinose, dextrose and maltose. In general, coloring solutions are

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94094*

**6.3 Flavoring agents and taste enhancers**

components [26].

meaty flavor [10, 11].

**6.4 Coloring agents**

*Plant Proteins as Healthy, Sustainable and Integrative Meat Alternates DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94094*

reported similar cases, for instance, during extrusion process, dough that have oil content more than 15% was failure as the lubrication of the material affected the alignment of its macromolecules; and also the slippery texture negatively affect the shear force exerted at the time of extrusion [37, 38]. Although raw materials are fatted before using them for manufacturing meat substitutes, plant sources like soy, oilseeds, etc. has natural oil present in them. This quantity is more or less sufficient in many cases. However, for increasing the sensory attributes, industries use some additives such as soy oil, sunflower oil, rapeseed oil, canola oil, palm oil, corn oil, coconut oil, etc. These added oils give the final plant-based meat analogues a juicy and tender texture, along with release of flavor and retaining the volatile components [26].

### **6.3 Flavoring agents and taste enhancers**

*Veganism - a Fashion Trend or Food as a Medicine*

<sup>+</sup> , *NO*<sup>3</sup>

**6. Miscellaneous ingredients and their role**

to limit their application to isolates [26].

<sup>−</sup> and *NO*<sup>2</sup>

regulations are adopted by many nations due to some negative impressions of mycoproteins. Firstly, presence of higher concentration of nucleic acid (NA) in mycoproteins can cause urolithiasis due to increase of uric acid level in blood. Secondly, Use of microalgae and yeast can affect sensory attributes like flavor and color of final product. Thirdly, verifications regarding mycotoxins are inevitable as a part of safety precautions. Lastly, reports on gastrointestinal tract (GIT) reactions, sometimes leads to life-threatening allergies (anaphylaxis and urticarial) [21].

To develop a product that can mimic another is always a challenge. Especially to satisfy its sensory appeal. Additives that are capable of binding water and fat are important while developing a plant-based meat substitute. These ingredients can either be the plant source itself such as isolate or concentrate of soy protein and wheat gluten or some external components like egg, xanthan gum, milk protein or carrageenan. These ingredients, which are having high protein content, majorly functions as water binder and forms protein networks. On the other hand, some ingredients with no protein content (e.g. starch, soy flour, etc.) are used as fillers taking into consideration of their binding properties by entrapping water and fat

However, to attain a quality product, concentration of binding agent used at the time of manufacturing of meat analog is vital. Industries make use of gluten due to its cohesive nature, leavening ability, dough forming ability and visco-elastic nature. In addition to these properties, gluten is profitable while processing because of the reduced cooking loss and can improve slicing attributes [34, 35]. In some case, polysaccharides (e.g. guar gum, pectin, cellulose, carrageenan, etc.) are used as binders. The gelling and thickening properties helps polysaccharides to improve the rheological properties of developed product. Hydrocolloids such as xanthan gum, starches, pectin and locust bean gum are found to have a positive effect on sausages and other similar products which are low in fat content [36]. Other than the application of egg albumin, soy ingredients (flour, concentrates and isolates) are also extensively used. However, beany taste of soy products makes the industries

One of the prime objectives of developing meat analog is to reduce the cholesterol level to minimum. As a result, today, meat-substitute products available in the market contain comparatively low fat. Another concern is that, quantity of fat can affect fiber structure and its formation during processing undesirably. Studies

species (RNS) - *NH*<sup>4</sup>

**6.1 Binding agents**

physically.

Marlow Foods, developer of Quorn, develops mycoprotein through continuous fermentation of desired culture accompanied by glucose and other required nutrients and oxygenated water. In US market, about fifteen Quorn products are sold, among which products: Meat-free sausages, Meat-free chicken and Apple sausages are refrigerated items [23]. Production method of mycoprotein is said to have a favorable influence on environmental issues also. That is, they can reduce the amount of greenhouse gas emission from agriculture and food allied sectors, use of innumerous fertilizers, antibiotics and pesticides can be decreased to a large extend, wastage of land and water and nutrient-cycle recycling, especially reactive nitrogen

<sup>−</sup> by fixing nitrogen gas. However, many

**80**

**6.2 Fat/oil**

Flavor is one of the most important sensory attribute for food as it gives a satiety before even consumption. And in the case of meat products, flavors arising from the product itself make consumers to stick around the non-vegetarian foods. Therefore, while preparing a meat analog, ensuring the customers with similar flavor in essential. In many products, fat/oil is added extra, which can also serve as a precursor for flavoring by entrapping the organoleptic volatile components. Addition of flavoring agents is hence common in meat analog industry. These agents improve the acceptability of product not only by mimicking the flavors of meat products, but also by lowering the beany flavors generated (e.g. beany flavor developed for soy-based meat substitutes). A study conducted on mushroom concentrates for replacing monosodium glutamate or hydrolysed vegetable protein was effective when formulated at less than 1%. Also, simple sugars and sulfur-containing amino acids have strong impact on developing flavor, while other compounds like glycoprotein, monosodium glutamate, etc. helps to mask pungent sulphury taste or improves the meaty flavor [10, 11].

However, during extrusion process (or while undergoing treatments at high temperature and pressure), it undergoes various physiochemical changes, making the whole process a complex. This results in loss of natural and added flavors like spices and other agents. Conversely, application of high temperature give rise to reactions like Maillard reaction, where amino acid and sugars present in the matter creates a distinctive flavor. This improves sensory characteristics – flavor and taste, even though it is risky if not optimized properly by reason of the generation of off-flavor. Among numerous aromas available in meat products, roast and smoked aromas are desired by many consumers. Additionally, several studies shown that furans and thiophenes containing sulfur or sulfur-containing heterocyclic compounds imparts strong meaty strong meaty-roasty-flavor to finished products [26].

#### **6.4 Coloring agents**

In meat products, degree of color change and color characteristic are very important, hence it is essential to maintain same color attributes in meat analogues. This can be achieved by incorporating edible additives which imparts desired color in final product. For example, protein from soy and wheat (gluten) possess yellowbrow color and is much brighter than original cooked meat and very different from raw meat color. Edible food color are used such caramel, annatto, carotene, turmin and cumin as they are heat stable. Other colors may be used in meat analogue are beet root and betanine extracts and reducing sugars for browning characteristics in Millard reaction in presence of protein. Such reducing sugars are mannose, lactose, xylose, arabinose, dextrose and maltose. In general, coloring solutions are

added with proteins before extrusion. But still majorly meat analogues have poor color quality due to improper balance of pH between meat alternative products and color solution. This issue can be resolve by addition of appropriate acids alone or in combination like acetic acid, citric acid and lactic acids. Also, color retention agents like hydrated alginate or maltodextrin can be added to control the color migration from meat alternative products [26].

#### **6.5 Advantages and disadvantages**

The expanding world's population facing the problem due to lack of food led to hunger issues along with preserving ecosystem. In 20th century, the drastic nutritional transition was developed and presents livestock as a major available protein source globally. However, consumption of animal products also reported with various serious food safety issues.

Meat and poultry products are popular and consumed all over the world but many ethical, traditional and environment issues forced the production of meat analogues. Plant based many products were designed recently to substitute the conventional meat products. The basic criteria of protein for the meat analogue are essential such as oil and water holding capacity. During the slaughtering of animals, food animals were reared which is a conversion of vegetable protein to meat protein. This process required many resources like water, fodder, feed and so on. Also, crop production required low inputs comparatively. Thus, production of meat reported with inefficient compare to plant based meat analogue. As per Pimentel and Pimentel [39], meat production required more water in comparison with plant crops (approximately 100 times more). The requirement of water in human diets, for meat diets per person in a year was the double than the vegan diets per person in a year. Meat products greatly depend on meat analogue which further vary with consumer acceptability, cost and legal criteria of the country. Along with this, the current living style associated with health diseases encourages the production of plant based meat analogue. Broadly the major concerns with meat products are classified as environmental issues, animal welfare issues and public issues. The expenditure of huge amount of natural resources and emission of greenhouse gases by the meat productions enhances the ecological burden which led to deforestation also. Animal welfare issues involve the unethically torturing and slaughtering process. This sometimes led to forceful and cruel transportation of animals. Public health issues comes in picture when the over consumption of meat reported resulting in development of ischemic heart disease and cause of 1.8 million deaths every year [40]. Larsson and Wolk [41] reported the colorectal cancer risk associated with consumption of red meat (120 g red meat per day or 30 g processed meat/day). *Salmonella, Campylobacter* and *E.coli* pathogen outbreaks reported several times all over the world which is also found in meat products. These major issues raise the food safety and public health concerns and studies. Meat analogue have advantage of producing various shape and size like sheets, cubes, disk etc. with desired color.

In terms of nutrition and sensory, still no plant based meat product was successfully developed which can completely replace the meat products. The plant based meat substitute lacks with the similar mouthfeel due to the hardy and rubbery texture of meat analogues. The other drawback reported for the plant based meat analogue is off-flavors. Aforementioned, sensory attributes of plant based meat analogue still lacking leading to the undesirable flavors in the end product. Due some allergic reactions, not all plants can be used for production of meat analogues which is an important health concern. Major disadvantage for the meat analogue is related to its production process which involves 4 steps starting from cultivation of plant crop followed by protein concentration. Further, formulation and texturizing

**83**

standards.

**7. Conclusion**

*Plant Proteins as Healthy, Sustainable and Integrative Meat Alternates*

with animal meat, few unit operations are required.

of meat substitute and marketing add up the various unit operations. In comparison

The health importance in protein in diet is scientifically documented and in 1999, FDA (Food and Drug Administration, U.S.A.) also recognized soy protein as blood cholesterol ingredient when consume 25 g every day when included in regular diet. This statement led to utilization of plant proteins in different health and function food products [42]. In 2016, GPA (Green Protein Alliance: multistakeholder platform with other partners) in Netherlands, focused on protein consumption balance to 50:50 from 63:37(animal:plant sources) by 2025 [15, 16]. In a study, an American consume 112 g protein (77 g protein from animal source and 35 g plant source) in daily diet and RDA for protein in adult is 56 g from both type of diet (vegan and non-vegan). These data conclude that consumption of protein is twice than RDA [39]. Incorporation of plant based protein in meat analogue related products will be helpful in balancing the proteins by following standardizing the

The real challenge for the production of meat analogue is to attain same sensory

There is a high demand of meat analogue based on plant protein which is growing every year. The development of meat alternative is useful not only to vegan consuming diet but also focus in the environment sustainability and consumer health safety prospective with higher or at least similar benefits as animal meat products. But still the availability and variety of plant based meat analogue is very limited in global market which may be due to several issues. One of the major concerns is how to get the exact texture and flavor in the meat substitutes, and this has resulted in

attributes like taste, texture, smell, aroma, etc.). Different food researcher and scientist introduced various techniques such as extrusion and shearing were used to produce desired texture. Another challenge was discussed is in terms of nutritional profile and only 30% protein was reported in meat alternatives. However, Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score (PDCAAS) should be focused further for complete replacement of meat analogues with meat products. Not only plant, but other source of meat analogue like microbes (bacteria, yeast, algae) and mushrooms can be used which may fit with the human diet and consumer taste. But maximum attention can be devoted to improve mouth-feel properties meat substitutes which is low in commercially available meat analogue. The large scale production of meat analogue still a challenge until the low sensory attributes of meat substitutes solved and thereby, it will take time to shift the purchasing habits of consumers. In market terms, future of meat analogues is safe and demand is increasing by passing year. For now, meat substitute are viable only for to those vegan diet depended consumers. Presently, the willingness of consuming meat analogue is between low to moderate and availability of low varieties of meat alternates influence its market success, although demand is growing every year. For all protein producers to have better connectivity to consumers there will need to be better investment in systems for efficiency and quality, overlaid with welfare, environmental and health

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94094*

**6.6 Laws and regulations**

nutrient allowance.

**6.7 Future prospectus and challenges**

of meat substitute and marketing add up the various unit operations. In comparison with animal meat, few unit operations are required.
