**5. Fermented food and beverages and their bioactive amines against human**

Amines can be found in fermented plant-based foods [45] and, in high concentrations, they can be undesired, due to causing an unpleasant aroma, in addition to physical problems such as headaches (**Table 1**). Thus, there is a growing interest in controlling the accumulation of biogenic amines using antimicrobial agents to inhibit the proliferation of amine-producing bacteria. An efficient way to control the accumulation and/or formation of undesirable amines would be to control the fermentation process and/or the introduction of spices, which can have significant potential as antimicrobial agents. The control of the fermentation process using initial cultures ensures quality control and product safety. For example, spontaneously fermented carrot juice, a novel food product, can benefit from the development of starter cultures to avoid high numbers of Enterobacteriaceae and/or high concentrations of BAs [46]. In general, *Lactobacillus plantarum* starter-culture strains are frequently used to control vegetable fermentation processes [46, 47].

Many vegetarians consume fish products. However, fish and fermented fish products (e.g., fish sauce) contain significant levels of aminoacids and BAs, some of which are undesirable, such as histamine, with levels greater than 500 ppm (**Table 1**) [48]. Besides histamine, undesirable amines such as putrescine, cadaverine and tyramine can occur in these products. Levels of 1257 and 1178 ppm of putrescine and tyramine, respectively, have been reported in fish sauce [49]. The addition of additives in the fermentation process, such as spices, can alter fermentation conditions, possibly leading to an increase or decrease in the quantities of some endogenous compounds, such as BAs in the final product [12].

In recent years, increased shelf life and food safety through the use of bioprotective microbial cultures, in particular lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and/or their antimicrobial compounds have gained great attention. One approach is based on the growing consumer demand for probiotic non-dairy products and beverages. *Lactobacillus plantarum* and *L. delbrueckii* were detected in fermented cabbage juice and can be interesting as probiotics for vegetarian and lactose intolerant consumers. In addition, certain strains of fermented LAB, which often belong to species of the genus *Lactobacillus*, can have health-promoting effects, for example, through immunomodulation and inhibition of pathogens [46, 50]. The food product itself could be used as a new product for traditional (dairy-based) marketed probiotics, allowing the access to a new market niche, focusing on consumers who are lactose intolerant and who do not want to purchase probiotics from products of animal origin (i.e., milk) [45].

Food companies specializing in vegetable products are looking for preservation methods that guarantee functional, sensory and nutritional quality and, at the same time, microbiological safety of products. The vegetable fermentations are gaining popularity for their rich flavors and health benefits, but due to the lack of information about the microbiological process, there are concerns about food safety [46]. Despite the controversy and the negative effects of the presence of some BAs in fermented products, studies indicate that amines present in fermented plant-based foods can be used as pharmaceutical compounds to promote cardiovascular health and longevity [51]. Histamine is well known for its pro-inflammatory effects on allergy and anaphylaxis; however, several studies have demonstrated anti-inflammatory or immunoregulatory functions of histamine. For example, histamine derived from *Lactobacillus reuteri* can suppress the inflammatory action of TNF, a proinflammatory cytokine, leading to anti-inflammatory strategies for chronic immune-mediated diseases. Probiotic species can target specific signaling pathways and immune responses, that is, strains of these bacteria can represent future therapeutic agents that can serve to suppress chronic inflammation [52]. In addition, fermented plant-based foods can be an interesting source for the detection of new bacterial strains with great potential for various probiotic and industrial applications, thus the study of microbial ecosystems during the fermentation process is interesting [45].

In comparison to dairy-based food fermentations, fermentations that use plant materials as the main substrate are little explored, except for a few examples such as kimchi (fermented with *Chinese mustard*), sauerkraut (fermented with cabbage) and pickles and can be interesting to lactose intolerants, to people allergic to milk or to vegans [45]. In kimchi samples collected on the Korean market, histamine and tyramine content above safe levels were found (**Table 1**) [53]. Sauerkraut is one of the best known and most commercialized traditional vegetable foods in Europe. In a study working with 121 commercial and household samples of sauerkraut, low levels of amines such as tryptamine, spermidine and spermine were found, however, high values of putrescine and tyramine have been identified (**Table 1**) [54]. It is noteworthy that the amount of amines present in the sauerkraut depends on the market and/or on the method of preparation of the product, with variations between the works found in the literature. In sauerkraut spontaneously fermented for one year, low concentrations of spermine and spermidine have been reported, but with high concentrations of tyramine and putrescine, as the predominant amines (**Table 1**) [55]. In commercially distributed sauerkraut samples, high levels of tyramine and putrescine were also identified, but with also high concentrations of histamine [56]. The values obtained for the BAs in the sauerkraut in the different researches, place this product as of special care due to the negative effects on the consumer, taking into account that histamine and tyramine are considered toxic amines when found in high quantities.

Another important fermented vegetable product produced in the United States and Europe is pickles, which are produced by fermenting cucumber (*Cucumis sativus* L.) with lactic acid bacteria [57]. In naturally fermented pickles (pepper, cucumber, cabbage, beans, tomatoes, Armenian cucumber and mixed vegetables) by *L. plantarum* for domestic consumption, high levels of cadaverine, putrescine

**11**

*The Increase of Amines Content in the Intake of a Vegan Diet*

reduce the BA content is needed to ensure food safety.

Studies, Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP) (283).

and histamine were found, but not in a toxic limit [58]. However, these levels must be taken into account in people with a low level of tolerance to these amines. Soy (*Glycine max* L.) and its derivative products are nutritional solutions for vegetarians, due to their high protein content and ease in preparing foods similar to meat and milk substitutes [59]. Tofu is one of the best known products made from soy and is an important source of minerals, proteins, among others. Firm tofu is produced by pressing and containing less water, thus they contain high levels of amines, when compared to soft tofu (**Table 1**) [60]. Tolerable levels of tyramine in foods are 100 mg/kg [61]. However, depending on the sensitivity to tyramine, some care must be taken regarding the ingested amount. Small doses of tyramine can often cause severe migraines with intracranial hemorrhaging in patients treated with classic monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI). However, people who use reversible MAO-A inhibitor (RIMA) can tolerate doses between 50 and 150 mg of

Biogenic amines are known to occur in food, and the highest concentrations are reported especially in fermented products. Despite the association of a low disease index with vegan and vegetarian dietary patterns, these people consume some processed foods. Several processed food and by-products with high amounts of proteins and amino acids, including fermented products, can contain significant amounts of BAs, impacting the food quality and safety. The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of polyamines can play an important role in preventing chronic health conditions, such as cardiovascular disease and diabetes. In contrast, cancer is associated with high levels of some polyamines, caused by a change in your homeostasis. Basic care must be taken when purchasing food, which must be handled and/or industrialized under ideal hygienic quality conditions to avoid the proliferation of undesirable bacteria and, consequently, the accumulation of BAs that cause damage to health; however, more research on practical measures to

The authors are grateful to the National Council for Scientific and Technological

Development (CNPq, Brazil) (307571/2019-0), São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP) (2016/22665-2 and 2019/27227-1) and Vice President Office for Graduate

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94095*

tyramine [41, 62].

**6. Conclusions**

**Acknowledgements**

#### *The Increase of Amines Content in the Intake of a Vegan Diet DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94095*

and histamine were found, but not in a toxic limit [58]. However, these levels must be taken into account in people with a low level of tolerance to these amines.

Soy (*Glycine max* L.) and its derivative products are nutritional solutions for vegetarians, due to their high protein content and ease in preparing foods similar to meat and milk substitutes [59]. Tofu is one of the best known products made from soy and is an important source of minerals, proteins, among others. Firm tofu is produced by pressing and containing less water, thus they contain high levels of amines, when compared to soft tofu (**Table 1**) [60]. Tolerable levels of tyramine in foods are 100 mg/kg [61]. However, depending on the sensitivity to tyramine, some care must be taken regarding the ingested amount. Small doses of tyramine can often cause severe migraines with intracranial hemorrhaging in patients treated with classic monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI). However, people who use reversible MAO-A inhibitor (RIMA) can tolerate doses between 50 and 150 mg of tyramine [41, 62].
