Preface

Veganism is a philosophy and lifestyle that seeks to exclude the use of animals for food or clothing. A vegan diet is based on cereals, legumes, fruits, and vegetables. Vegans do not eat meat, fish, seafood, eggs, milk, dairy products, or honey, and they do not carry or wear items made of fur, wool, bones, leather, coral, pearls, or any other materials of animal origin. Within the commitment to a vegan lifestyle, there is a group of people who eat exclusively fresh raw fruits, that is, vegetables without heat treatment. This group of vegans follows what is called a raw food diet. Veganism differs from vegetarianism in that it is an entirely plant-based diet, whereas a vegetarian diet sometimes includes products of animal origin, when animals are not killed to obtain these products. These acceptable animal products include eggs, honey, milk, and dairy products.

In 1944, in Leicester, England, Donald Watson first introduced the term "vegan." Watson, along with several other members of the London Vegetarian Society, wanted to establish a subgroup of vegetarians who do not consume milk or dairy products. As such, Watson and his associates founded The Vegan Society, which advocates for a completely plant-based diet. The newly formed association agreed that the cessation of any form of animal exploitation was necessary to create a more reasonable and humane society.

Most data on the vegan diet is based on the adult population, therefore less is known about the effects of a vegan diet on newborns and children. Children have a greater need for energy and protein than adults do. Protein requirements can be met by consuming vegetables, tofu, beans, whole grains, nuts, and seeds. It is recommended that child and adolescent vegans consume 10 percent more protein than adult vegans. For this reason, low-fiber, vegan protein alternatives such as tofu and seitan may be desirable, as these foods usually result in high satiety and can support adequate protein intake. Because animal foods such as meat, dairy, eggs, fish, and fowl are among the best sources of protein, vegans can sometimes lack sufficient protein in their diets. The American Dietetic Association, however, notes that protein requirements can be met if a variety of plant proteins are consumed. Complementary proteins, specifically, can be very helpful in providing all the essential amino acids required by the body. Complementary proteins are made up of two incomplete proteins, such as beans and rice, that, when combined, form a complete protein. These proteins do not need to be consumed at the same meal, just during the same day. Though vegan diets are often rich in omega-6 fatty acids, they can lack sufficient amounts of omega-3 due to their avoidance of omega-3-rich foods, including eggs, fish, and other seafood. The omega-3 fatty acids found in animal sources, which include eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), are important for cardiovascular, brain, and eye health. Plant foods rich in omega-3, such as flaxseed, only contain another type of fatty acid, known as alpha-linolenic acid. Vegans can purchase soy milk and breakfast bars fortified with DHA as well as DHA supplements derived from microalgae. Because DHA can be retro converted to EPA, sources containing DHA are sufficient for vegan diets. Vitamin D is important for bone health, and low levels have been linked to reduced bone mass. Sunlight exposure is the best source of vitamin D. Therefore, vegans

who do not get regular sun exposure need to consume dietary vitamin D through either fortified foods or supplements since vitamin D occurs naturally in very few foods. Vegan sources of vitamin D that are often fortified include soy milk, rice milk, and orange juice. Lack of vitamin B12 is one of the biggest concerns with vegan diets, especially because vegan diets are typically rich in folacin, which can mask B12 deficiency symptoms. Severe B12 deficiencies can result in both anemia and dementia, according to data from the Harvard Medical School. Therefore, if you are a vegan, be sure to consume B12-fortified foods such as soy and rice beverages, breakfast cereals, or supplements. Because the bioavailability of iron in vegan diets is lower than in traditional diets, vegans should consume 1.8 times the amount of iron consumed by nonvegans. Good sources of iron for vegans include dried beans and dark, leafy green vegetables. Zinc is another mineral whose bioavailability is lower in vegans than in nonvegans. Vegan sources of zinc include legumes, soy products, grains, and nuts. Some research suggests that because plant-based diets are low in iodine, vegans who do not consume key sources of iodine, including iodized salt and sea vegetables, are more likely to be deficient in this mineral. The American Dietetic Association notes that vegans tend to fall below the recommended intake of calcium as well. The calcium in certain calcium-rich vegetables, such as Swiss chard and spinach, is not absorbed well, making fortified foods such as fruit juices, breakfast cereal, and soy and rice milk among the best choices for vegans. A well-planned vegan diet can meet all of the body's needs. A poorly organized vegan diet can cause deficiencies of calcium, iodine, omega-3 fatty acids, iron, vitamin B12, and vitamin D, which must then be obtained from vitamin and mineral supplements.

> **Miljana Z. Jovandaric** Department of Neonatology, Clinic for Gynecology and Obstetrics Clinical Center of Serbia, Belgrade, Serbia

> > **1**

**Chapter 1**

**Abstract**

food safety associated to vegan diets.

stress, providing protection against CVD [3, 5].

**1. Introduction**

The Increase of Amines Content in

Vegetarian and vegan consumers have increased in the last years. However, the food industry is facing problems responding to this growing market, since the food safety of several plant-based products is not well established. Fruits, vegetables and fermented products, such as nut and grains milks and cheeses, may be rich sources of biogenic amines; whereas, the levels of these compounds should be considered before the inclusion on a daily diet. Biogenic amines are a class of compounds with wide physiological activities as antioxidant properties, inductors of cell division and allergic processes, and sleep, sexual and behavioral disorders. In addition to the levels of biogenic amines, the levels of some of its precursors as tryptophan, 5-hydroxytryptophan and tryptamine will be presented. The foods eaten by vegans are consumed raw, cooked, fried, fermented and mainly through homemade processing methods, which have influence on the levels of bioactive compounds from the food matrix. Exposure to processing conditions such as handling, sanitary conditions, high temperatures, preparing methods (cooking in water or oil) influencing the levels of amines, will be discussed in this chapter to enrich the knowledge on

the Intake of a Vegan Diet

*Cristine Vanz Borges, Hector Gomez Gomez,* 

*Igor Otavio Minatel and Giuseppina Pace Pereira Lima*

**Keywords:** antioxidants, biogenic amines, histamine, tyramine, food safety

Human metabolism is influenced by dietary, lifestyle, environmental and genetic factors [1]. Analysis of plasma metabolites by groups showed significant differences between meat eaters, fish eaters, vegetarians, and especially vegans [2]. Randomized clinical studies have shown that plant-based diets are associated with reduced risk of mortality and morbidity from cardiovascular disease (CVD) [3]. The association of low CVD index and vegetarian dietary patterns are the result of the constant reduction of organisms' exposure to harmful substances contained in products of animal origin (for example: saturated fat, cholesterol, heme iron, N-glycolylneuramine acid, persistent organic pollutants, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, heterocyclic amines and advanced glycation end products), in addition to the increased consumption of fibers and phytochemicals present in whole plant foods. Phytochemicals in plant-food include carotenoids (α- and β-carotene, lycopene, phenolic compounds, vitamin C, tocopherols, biogenic amines, among others [4], which can act synergistically by reducing inflammation and oxidative
