**5.7 Mycoproteins**

*Veganism - a Fashion Trend or Food as a Medicine*

**5.4 Textured soy protein(TSP)/soy meat**

successfully welcomed by European markets.

and low-income people [30].

**5.5 Cereal-based products**

In food industries, inorder to reduce the rate of saturated fat and cholesterol consumption, vegetable proteins (VP) are incorporated into food, increasing the protein and essential amino acid content. Sources of all vegetable proteins like legumes (protein content is maximum, varying from 25 to 50%), nuts and soy are used for the production of Textured Vegetable Protein (TVP), which is found in fibrous, insoluble and porous form and considered as an excellent meat analog or meat substitute. TVP is otherwise known as textured soy protein (TSP) or soy meat, where proteins present in defatted soy flour is concentrated, isolated and extruded based on 'extrusion cooking', providing better taste and chewy-texture when compared to meat or seafood.Soy meat has about 50% protein content, which is found to be decreasing on rehydration.This method was primarily adopted by many Asian countries. TVP was commercially developed in America and by late 1960s, it was

Soy meat is presently considered as an economic option for replacing meat (e.g. meatballs) by both vegetarians and health conscious consumers. TSP is used as a meat extender in many products, thus replacing 30% of meat without affecting the sensory characteristics. For instance, in some parts of the world, quantity of beef in samosa stuffing has been replaced around 50% with granules from defatted soy flour with no major observable difference in sensory attributes. Production of TVP starts from washing of the selected soybeans and is soaked at 30°C for 3 hrs in order to remove antinutritional factors by softening the husk. Soaked beans are then washed till the husks are completely removed and are dried at 70°C for 5 to 8 hrs. TSP is developed through 'hot extrusion' where different dyes are used for producing high protein nuggets, chunks, etc. Today, soy meat is expanding worldwide rapidly, especially in the developed countries. Since soy meat is considered as "poor man's food" by many, it is a reliable source of protein for under-developed countries

Cereals comprise of nine species (wheat, rice, corn, barley, sorghum, millet, oat, rye, and triticale) under the family *Gramineae.* In meat analog industry, cereals are mainly used for extending the meat products. For example, 3–9% of quail meat roll is extended with corn flour resulting better emulsifying stability with yield. Similarly, chicken patties are also substituted with 10% barley flour, 5% sorghum and 5% pressed rice, which has no significant change in its sensory profile. Studies with rice and barnyard millet includes the decreased level of cholesterol and increased magnesium content among the consumers and use of these cereals has also not shown any negative impression on color, except barnyard millet slightly affect the flavor of developed meat substitute. Today industries are substituting cereals 9% or less, which is more convenient. Thus, cereals play a vital role as an important ingredient, particularly as a meat extender. In some cases, combination of cereals gives better yield and quality to the product, without adversely affecting its sensory. On the other hand, presence of gluten in cereals like wheat, oats, barley and rye arise question among the consumers due to its potential of allergy [31].

Wheat protein has been playing a vital role in human diet from thousands of years ago. Traditionally, they were used widely in the regions of Japan, Korea, China and Russia, to replace meat products. Wheat being a common cereal used

**78**

**5.6 Seitan**

Apart from plant-based proteins, scientists diverted their experiments towards single-cell proteins (SCP) for the development of meat substitutes. SCP can be described as protein derived from pure or mixed cultures of microbes such as bacteria, yeast, fungi or microalgae. Most common source of single-cell protein is the filamentous fungi, which produce mycoproteins when grown under specific controlled environments inside a bioreactor. Processes like forming, steaming and subsequently texturizing are done to achieve finished products. Sometimes, for obtaining desired products, binding agents like egg albumin and flavoring agents are also used accordingly. Mycoprotein is also known as 'fungal protein' and described as "Generally Recognized as Safe". Commercially, *Fusarium (F.) venenatum* is widely used in food industries for the production of mycoproteins and industrially known as Quorn™.

Studies on fungal mycelium for substituting meat were started during 1960s by Rank Hovis McDougall (RHM), a British company. After fruitfully completing the development of product and its toxicity testing, first product was launched in the year 1985 with the approval from British Ministry of Agriculture. Thereafter, many researches are revolving around mycoproteins. For instance, a study on the biological value of mycoproteins was found similar to the milk proteins and toxicology study says that these fungi derived proteins have no harmful effects on human beings and animals [33]. Additionally, it provides some health benefits to the consumers suffering from various chronic diseases. Presence of protein (45%), carbohydrates (10%), fat (13%), fibers (25%) on dry basis along with various vitamins and minerals helps them to replace several meat products in our food basket. Also, studies have proved that intake of mycoproteins have a positive effect on lowering total and LDL (low-density lipoprotein) cholesterol and increasing HDL (highdensity lipoprotein) cholesterol level in blood; appetite regulation as short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) produced as a result of gut digestion of mycoprotein fibers send satiation signals from colon to brain; presence of soluble fiber not only helps to slow down the diffusion of glucose molecules through the intestinal walls, but also decreases the rate of absorption of glucose, thereby having a positive outcome on glycemic condition; and they can fight against food-borne pathogens which are commonly seen in numerous meat products [21].

Marlow Foods, developer of Quorn, develops mycoprotein through continuous fermentation of desired culture accompanied by glucose and other required nutrients and oxygenated water. In US market, about fifteen Quorn products are sold, among which products: Meat-free sausages, Meat-free chicken and Apple sausages are refrigerated items [23]. Production method of mycoprotein is said to have a favorable influence on environmental issues also. That is, they can reduce the amount of greenhouse gas emission from agriculture and food allied sectors, use of innumerous fertilizers, antibiotics and pesticides can be decreased to a large extend, wastage of land and water and nutrient-cycle recycling, especially reactive nitrogen species (RNS) - *NH*<sup>4</sup> <sup>+</sup> , *NO*<sup>3</sup> <sup>−</sup> and *NO*<sup>2</sup> <sup>−</sup> by fixing nitrogen gas. However, many regulations are adopted by many nations due to some negative impressions of mycoproteins. Firstly, presence of higher concentration of nucleic acid (NA) in mycoproteins can cause urolithiasis due to increase of uric acid level in blood. Secondly, Use of microalgae and yeast can affect sensory attributes like flavor and color of final product. Thirdly, verifications regarding mycotoxins are inevitable as a part of safety precautions. Lastly, reports on gastrointestinal tract (GIT) reactions, sometimes leads to life-threatening allergies (anaphylaxis and urticarial) [21].
