**Table 2.**

*Sustainability Assessment at the 21st Century*

The quantitative significant relation between Jordan River Discharge and nutrient loads is obvious and was earlier documented, while data given in **Table 2** indicate the positive significant relation between the river discharge and the nutrient concentrations: the higher the discharge, the higher the nutrient concentration and quantities. The Linear regressions between Jordan discharge and nutrient loads is

*Line scatter plot of annual (2002–2018) means of GWT (m below surface) in four Hula Valley regions:* 

Results in **Tables 2** and **3** are compatible and strongly support the statement about positive linear regression between Jordan discharge and nutrient load transport into Lake Kinneret. These linear relations and the temporal decline of Jordan discharge are presented in **Figures 7**–**12** for organic nitrogen, total nitrogen, total phosphorus, and total dissolved phosphorus. Nevertheless, the pattern of relation between nitrate concentration and the Jordan discharge is different (**Figure 11**): NO3 concentration increases in relation to time (from 1970 to 2018) and decreases

positively significant as presented in **Table 3**.

*Regional chart of Lake Kinneret watershed.*

*northern, eastern, western, and southern.*

**132**

**Figure 6.**

**Figure 5.**

*Results of linear regression analysis between Jordan River discharge and the multiannual means of nutrient concentrations (ppm): r<sup>2</sup> , probability (p) values, and significance (S = significant) values are indicated. The annual Jordan River discharge (mcm/y; 106 m3 /y) is given.*


#### **Table 3.**

*Linear regressions between Jordan River discharge and nutrient loads (tons) r2 are given and all probabilities were significant (<0.0001).*

#### **Figure 7.**

*Fractional polynomial regression between annual mean of the total nitrogen concentration (ppm) in Jordan water and Jordan water yield (mcm/y) (left) and with years (1970–2018) (right).*

**Figure 8.**

*Fractional polynomial regression between annual mean of the total phosphorus concentration (ppm) in Jordan water and Jordan water yield (mcm/y) (left) and with years (1970–2018) (right).*

#### **Figure 9.**

*Fractional polynomial regression between annual mean of the organic nitrogen concentration (ppm) in Jordan water and Jordan water yield (mcm/y) (left) and with years (1970–2018) (right).*

#### **Figure 10.**

*Fractional polynomial regression between annual mean of the total dissolved phosphorus concentration (ppm) in Jordan water (left) and Jordan water yield (mcm/y) (left) and with years (1970–2018) (right).*

NO3 concentration with elevated discharge above 300 mcm/y as monitored during 1970–2018 is indicated (**Figure 11**). Nevertheless, the dynamic of nitrate flux from the peat soil in the Hula Valley is highly precipitation-dependent. The oxygenation process of the nitrogen rich peat soil produces latent nitrate which is easily released and migrates by precipitation water fluxes. Therefore, the relation between winter rain and nitrate concentration is highly positive. A study carried out in the winters

**135**

**Table 4.**

*region after leaving the Hula valley.*

*The Synergistic Impact of Climate Change and Anthropogenic Management on the Lake…*

*Fractional polynomial regression between annual mean of the Nitrate concentration (ppm) in Jordan water* 

*Linear regression between annual loads (tons) of nitrates contributed by the organic-peat soil of the Hula* 

**Year Huri Josef Huri Josef Huri Josef** 1.30 1.28 1.77 1.49 1.56 1.23 1.47 1.40 1.38 1.30 1.45 1.18 1.90 1.41 1.88 1.18 1.43 1.18 2.15 1.28 1.74 1.16 1.43 0.99 1.45 1.40 1.57 1.23 1.43 1.19 2.61 1.58 2.25 1.18 3.68 1.21 4.71 1.57 4.49 1.35 2.20 1.11 Average 2.23 1.42 2.15 1.27 1.88 1.56

*So far, any concentration elevation in the southern station is due to peat soil contribution of nitrate.*

*Monthly (rainy season: January–March) mean concentrations (ppm) in two sampling stations on the Jordan River: "Josef Bridge" located before crossing the Hula Valley and "Huri Bridge" at the southern part of the* 

*/mcm/y; 106 year) during 1969/70–1980/8 (Geifman, 1981,* 

**Month** January February March Station

*and Jordan water yield (mcm/y) (left) and with years (1970–2018) (right).*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86512*

**Figure 11.**

**Figure 12.**

*unpublished data).*

*Valley and the river Jordan annual water yields (m3*

*The Synergistic Impact of Climate Change and Anthropogenic Management on the Lake… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86512*

#### **Figure 11.**

*Sustainability Assessment at the 21st Century*

**Figure 8.**

**Figure 9.**

**134**

**Figure 10.**

NO3 concentration with elevated discharge above 300 mcm/y as monitored during 1970–2018 is indicated (**Figure 11**). Nevertheless, the dynamic of nitrate flux from the peat soil in the Hula Valley is highly precipitation-dependent. The oxygenation process of the nitrogen rich peat soil produces latent nitrate which is easily released and migrates by precipitation water fluxes. Therefore, the relation between winter rain and nitrate concentration is highly positive. A study carried out in the winters

*Fractional polynomial regression between annual mean of the total dissolved phosphorus concentration (ppm)* 

*in Jordan water (left) and Jordan water yield (mcm/y) (left) and with years (1970–2018) (right).*

*Fractional polynomial regression between annual mean of the total phosphorus concentration (ppm) in Jordan* 

*Fractional polynomial regression between annual mean of the organic nitrogen concentration (ppm) in Jordan* 

*water and Jordan water yield (mcm/y) (left) and with years (1970–2018) (right).*

*water and Jordan water yield (mcm/y) (left) and with years (1970–2018) (right).*

*Fractional polynomial regression between annual mean of the Nitrate concentration (ppm) in Jordan water and Jordan water yield (mcm/y) (left) and with years (1970–2018) (right).*

#### **Figure 12.**

*Linear regression between annual loads (tons) of nitrates contributed by the organic-peat soil of the Hula Valley and the river Jordan annual water yields (m3 /mcm/y; 106 year) during 1969/70–1980/8 (Geifman, 1981, unpublished data).*


#### **Table 4.**

*Monthly (rainy season: January–March) mean concentrations (ppm) in two sampling stations on the Jordan River: "Josef Bridge" located before crossing the Hula Valley and "Huri Bridge" at the southern part of the region after leaving the Hula valley.*


**Table 5.**

*Annual mass balance (input minus output) (tons/y) of nutrients in Lake Agmon system during 2005.*

during 1875–1981 (Geifman, 1981) documented the relative contribution of nitrate by the Hula Valley Peat soils (**Table 4**).

Results shown in **Table 4** indicate a supplemental mean peat soil contribution of nitrogen concentration (ppm) of 0.32 (March), 0.88 (February), and 0.83 (January). The Nitrate increment decline from January high precipitation gauge to lower rain regime in March is prominent.

The major objectives of the Hula Reclamation Project (HRP) were to ensure agricultural beneficiary and protect the quality of Lake Kinneret water. The achievement of agricultural development improvement was successfully accomplished; nevertheless, the removal of polluted nutrients was summarized as insignificant. Nitrogen removal was achieved mostly through the restriction of fishponds and sewage treatment; both were separately operated but not through the HRP operation. Results given in **Table 5** indicate the minor impact of Lake Agmon System (HPR) on polluted nutrient removal from the Lake Kinneret input loads. Kinneret Nitrogen sources are mostly external from the watershed and after restriction of fishpond and domestic sewage removal significant loads of organic Nitrogen were removed. Phosphorus supplemental resources to Lake Kinneret are dust deposition and lake bottom release; therefore, sewage removal and fishpond restriction did not lower supplement flux into lake water.

Results in **Table 5** indicate Lake Agmon system functioning as a sink for retained Phosphorus and removal of minor loads of nitrogen. The source of supplemental TP concentration in the Lake Agmon ecosystem is probably submerged plant mediated P intake from bottom sediments. The removal of 10.8 tons of TN is probably due to de-nitrification and sedimentation processes. Earlier studies documented the following long-term changes in the epilimnion of Lake Kinneret.

The cyanobacteria: Chlorophyta and diatoms proliferated and the dominance was shifted from large cell bloom forming dinoflagellate Peridinium gatunenze to cyanobacteria phytoplankton dominance where some of them are nitrogen fixers and the majority non-Nitrogen fixers. The nutritional structure of the Kinneret Epilimnion shifted from phosphorus to nitrogen limitation.

#### **3.3 The impact of climate change on Lake Kinneret ecosystem**

The decline of water level (WL) in Lake Kinneret (**Figures 13** and **14**) is an obvious result of climate change (precipitation and discharge decline). Nevertheless,

**137**

**Figure 14.**

*decade no. 10 is total average.*

**Figure 13.**

*1934–2018.*

*The Synergistic Impact of Climate Change and Anthropogenic Management on the Lake…*

it is likely that agricultural consumption might be an impact factor as well. Therefore, this anthropogenic factor was studied. The following data confirmed that anthropogenic usage of headwater discharges in the upper Jordan watershed until 1985 water consumption was declined from 100 to 120 mcm/y to 85 in 2015 and continuation of restriction came down to 68 mcm/y in 2018. The only significant long-term change of agricultural water usage in the Upper Jordan watershed is significant reduction. The outcome of WL decline was decline of nutrient content in the epilimnion of Lake Kinneret (**Figures 15** and **16**): the lower the WL, the lower the nutrient capacities in the epilimnion. Nevertheless, water quality implication is attributed to phytoplankton assemblages and the interrelations between

*Trend of changes (LOWESS 0.8) of monthly means of water level (MBSL) in Lake Kinneret during* 

*Decade means of monthly averages of daily measured water level (MBSL) in Lake Kinneret during 1933–2018;* 

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86512*

*The Synergistic Impact of Climate Change and Anthropogenic Management on the Lake… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86512*

it is likely that agricultural consumption might be an impact factor as well. Therefore, this anthropogenic factor was studied. The following data confirmed that anthropogenic usage of headwater discharges in the upper Jordan watershed until 1985 water consumption was declined from 100 to 120 mcm/y to 85 in 2015 and continuation of restriction came down to 68 mcm/y in 2018. The only significant long-term change of agricultural water usage in the Upper Jordan watershed is significant reduction. The outcome of WL decline was decline of nutrient content in the epilimnion of Lake Kinneret (**Figures 15** and **16**): the lower the WL, the lower the nutrient capacities in the epilimnion. Nevertheless, water quality implication is attributed to phytoplankton assemblages and the interrelations between

**Figure 13.**

*Sustainability Assessment at the 21st Century*

by the Hula Valley Peat soils (**Table 4**).

lower rain regime in March is prominent.

during 1875–1981 (Geifman, 1981) documented the relative contribution of nitrate

*Annual mass balance (input minus output) (tons/y) of nutrients in Lake Agmon system during 2005.*

**Nutrient Inlet Outlet Balance (tons/y)**

**ppm tons/y ppm tons/y** TP 0.10 0.8 0.20 1.2 −0.4 TDP 0.04 0.2 0.04 0.2 0 TN 17.8 38.1 6.5 27.3 +10.8 TDN 17.4 34.7 6.4 21.6 +13.1 NO3 11.8 19.4 5.3 3.3 +16.1 NH4 5.3 10.1 1.2 7.2 +2.9

Results shown in **Table 4** indicate a supplemental mean peat soil contribution of nitrogen concentration (ppm) of 0.32 (March), 0.88 (February), and 0.83 (January). The Nitrate increment decline from January high precipitation gauge to

The major objectives of the Hula Reclamation Project (HRP) were to ensure agricultural beneficiary and protect the quality of Lake Kinneret water. The achievement of agricultural development improvement was successfully

accomplished; nevertheless, the removal of polluted nutrients was summarized as insignificant. Nitrogen removal was achieved mostly through the restriction of fishponds and sewage treatment; both were separately operated but not through the HRP operation. Results given in **Table 5** indicate the minor impact of Lake Agmon System (HPR) on polluted nutrient removal from the Lake Kinneret input loads. Kinneret Nitrogen sources are mostly external from the watershed and after restriction of fishpond and domestic sewage removal significant loads of organic Nitrogen were removed. Phosphorus supplemental resources to Lake Kinneret are dust deposition and lake bottom release; therefore, sewage removal and fishpond restriction did not lower supplement flux

Results in **Table 5** indicate Lake Agmon system functioning as a sink for retained Phosphorus and removal of minor loads of nitrogen. The source of supplemental TP concentration in the Lake Agmon ecosystem is probably submerged plant mediated P intake from bottom sediments. The removal of 10.8 tons of TN is probably due to de-nitrification and sedimentation processes. Earlier studies documented the

The cyanobacteria: Chlorophyta and diatoms proliferated and the dominance was shifted from large cell bloom forming dinoflagellate Peridinium gatunenze to cyanobacteria phytoplankton dominance where some of them are nitrogen fixers and the majority non-Nitrogen fixers. The nutritional structure of the Kinneret

The decline of water level (WL) in Lake Kinneret (**Figures 13** and **14**) is an obvious result of climate change (precipitation and discharge decline). Nevertheless,

following long-term changes in the epilimnion of Lake Kinneret.

Epilimnion shifted from phosphorus to nitrogen limitation.

**3.3 The impact of climate change on Lake Kinneret ecosystem**

**136**

into lake water.

**Table 5.**

*Trend of changes (LOWESS 0.8) of monthly means of water level (MBSL) in Lake Kinneret during 1934–2018.*

#### **Figure 14.**

*Decade means of monthly averages of daily measured water level (MBSL) in Lake Kinneret during 1933–2018; decade no. 10 is total average.*

nitrogen and phosphorus. **Figure 17** represents significant decline of nitrogen and a slight increase of the epilimnetic loads. The outcome was decline of the mass ratio between N and P from 70 to 23 (**Figures 17** and **18**). Such conditions are known as favored by nitrogen toxic cyanobacteria (17). Moreover, the insufficiency of

#### **Figure 15.**

*Trend of changes (LOWESS 0.8) of epilimnetic load (T) of TN (upper left) and TN (lower left) and the TN/ TP mass ratio (upper right in relation to water level (MBSL)) decline during 1969–2001.*

#### **Figure 16.**

*Trend of changes (LOWESS 0.8) of epilimnetic load (T) of total Kjeldahl in relation to water level (MBSL) decline during 1969–2001.*

**139**

**Figure 18.**

*Lake Kinneret during 1969–2001.*

**Figure 17.**

*The Synergistic Impact of Climate Change and Anthropogenic Management on the Lake…*

enhancement of Chlorophyta and diatoms (**Figures 19** and **20**).

nitrogen is unfavored by the long-term dominant bloom forming dinoflagellated Peridinium gatunenze and cyanobacteria became dominant accompanied by

*Trend of temporal changes (LOWESS 0.8) of the concentration (ppm) of TP (upper left), TN (lower left),* 

*Linear regression with 95% CI of temporal changes of total Kjeldahl and dissolved Kjeldahl in the epilimnion of* 

*and TN/TP mass ratio in the epilimnion of Lake Kinneret during 1969–2001.*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86512*

*The Synergistic Impact of Climate Change and Anthropogenic Management on the Lake… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86512*

nitrogen is unfavored by the long-term dominant bloom forming dinoflagellated Peridinium gatunenze and cyanobacteria became dominant accompanied by enhancement of Chlorophyta and diatoms (**Figures 19** and **20**).

#### **Figure 17.**

*Sustainability Assessment at the 21st Century*

nitrogen and phosphorus. **Figure 17** represents significant decline of nitrogen and a slight increase of the epilimnetic loads. The outcome was decline of the mass ratio between N and P from 70 to 23 (**Figures 17** and **18**). Such conditions are known as favored by nitrogen toxic cyanobacteria (17). Moreover, the insufficiency of

*Trend of changes (LOWESS 0.8) of epilimnetic load (T) of TN (upper left) and TN (lower left) and the TN/*

*Trend of changes (LOWESS 0.8) of epilimnetic load (T) of total Kjeldahl in relation to water level (MBSL)* 

*TP mass ratio (upper right in relation to water level (MBSL)) decline during 1969–2001.*

**138**

**Figure 16.**

*decline during 1969–2001.*

**Figure 15.**

*Trend of temporal changes (LOWESS 0.8) of the concentration (ppm) of TP (upper left), TN (lower left), and TN/TP mass ratio in the epilimnion of Lake Kinneret during 1969–2001.*

#### **Figure 18.**

*Linear regression with 95% CI of temporal changes of total Kjeldahl and dissolved Kjeldahl in the epilimnion of Lake Kinneret during 1969–2001.*

#### **Figure 19.**

*Temporal trend of changes (LOWESS 0.8) of monthly means of the biomass (g(ww)/m2 ) of chlorophyta (upper left), cyanobacteria (upper right), diatoms (lower left), and Pyrrhophyta (lower right) in Lake Kinneret during 1969–2002.*

#### **Figure 20.**

*Linear regression between multiannual averages of epilimnetic TN concentrations (ppm) and Peridinium biomass (g(ww)/m<sup>2</sup> ) in Lake Kinneret during 1969–2001.*
