**6. Rural spaces: development scenarios and options**

With progressive urbanization, rural spaces have lost some of their former demographic weight and economic importance. Nevertheless, rural populations continue to represent a large share of the tropical Andean states, and the rural realm forms an important part of national identities and cultures. Economically, many areas can still be rated as marginal spaces, but many regions are important as diversified agrarian areas, as water reservoirs, as mining sites, as destinations for urban amenity migrants and tourists and most important as livelihoods for people. Some rural core areas have become new growth poles and arenas for development and modernization; other regions, in particular the poorly accessible and resourcedeficient areas, are threatened by natural hazards, by poverty, stagnation and marginalization, aggravated by political, economic and social neglect and discrimination. External influences and impulses pervade the entire rural realm, even the remote areas. Today, electronic information and communication media bring rural people in touch with national and global developments. In addition, temporary or permanent out-migrants furnish their home community external information, in many cases also remittance cash flows or investments. This has a significant economic, social and cultural impact on their former home communities. Further external actors are government agencies, an array of non-governmental organizations, international institutions and powerful corporations and companies. The consequence of these impacts are significant "livelihood transitions" and "place transformations" [29] which may even transform some Andean core regions into globalized spaces [30].

The result of these multiple endogenous and exogenous influences may have positive or negative impacts on rural communities and livelihoods:

In some of the more accessible areas, technological innovations and market developments have stimulated agricultural developments and changes in crop patterns, leading to serious consequences for exchange relationships and trade between zones. In other zones, people have diversified their livelihood through non-agrarian activities (crafts, wage labour, etc.) or have migrated. ([31]:3).

Yarnall and Price [32] have examined the impacts of migration and remittance flows on communities in the Valle Alto of the Department of Cochabamba in Bolivia. They observed a "new rurality" transforming the traditional rural environment and society. The communities have benefited by being linked to new "diaspora knowledge networks", from increased material resources and new stimuli of development. Some formerly poor peasant communities have even become materially better off than nearby colonial towns. But at the same time, the remittance dependence has made these communities vulnerable; as for various reasons, these cash and investment flows may not be reliable and sustainable. Furthermore, traditional forms of agricultural activities and employment may be eroded, and emerging rather sharp economic and social disparities result in a fragmentation of the rural realm.

It follows that rural development is complex, highly differentiated and at times also controversial. A generally accepted approach is to harmonize environmental, sociocultural and economic goals. Bebbington [33] views rural development neither solely rooted in conventional cultural values, economic pursuits and social structures and to the persistence of a subsistence-based economy nor in an uncritical opening to external influences, modernization, new technologies and an unrestricted adherence to national and global market processes. An array of development interventions are directed toward an attenuation of natural risks and their impacts, a protection of natural resources and a preservation of the genetic pool of biodiversity. But these efforts can only have a long-term success if the livelihoods of rural communities

**179**

support.

*Horizontal and Vertical Archipelagoes of Agriculture and Rural Development in the Andean…*

and the basic needs of the local population are secured or enhanced in a sustainable fashion [34]. Furthermore, it is today generally recognized that local and regional cultural aspects should be the fundamental basis in the development discourse ([21]: 311). In the past, rural economic development was often guided by external views and strategies without considering the "meaning that campesinos impart to the economy as actors in a social context" ([35], Abstract, 310). Rist therefore pleads for an "actor-oriented approach that is not based on preconceived, nonlocal concepts" (ibid.). This has been referred to as "ethno-development" [36], "development with identity" [37], "participatory cultural development" and other terms. Andolina et al. [38] call this approach "alternative modernities" enabling and mobilizing local human resources and strengthening local ownership and responsibility [39]. Local cultures and the traditional heritage are no longer seen as obstacles and barriers to development, but as enriching, locally accepted and sustainable factors. Local knowledge and practices should not be seen as static and paralyzing, but as dynamic and evolving: "transformed by autochthonous innovations, by an adaptation to changing circumstances, and by an adoption of knowledge, capabilities and tech-

Based on his empirical research in the tropical Andes, Stadel [20] derived the

• Appreciation of the knowledge and experience of *campesinos* (*saber campesino*)

• Esteem for the traditions, cultural values, customs and rituals of local commu-

• Respect for nature (*cosmovisión andina*) and an aspiration to harmonize

• Exploration of the potentials and limitations of the natural and human

• Strengthening of the resilience and adaptive capacities of the local population, facing environmental risks, economic and social vulnerabilities and potential

• Improvement of the living conditions of the population, with a special focus on poor people and enhancement of the infrastructures and services in water

• Promotion of environmentally compatible and sustainable forms of agriculture

• Mobilization of local human resources and creation of attractive local perspec-

(*agroecología*) and silviculture and of agricultural niche products.

• Enhancement and diversification of alternative income and employment

• Improved access to microloans and other forms of financial and technical

following postulates for a "*campesino*-oriented development":

and strengthening of their cultural pride.

nities (*lo andino*, [41]; *sagesse des Andes,* [42]).

• Strengthening of communal solidarity and cooperation.

supply, sanitation, health, nutrition and housing.

opportunities (e.g. in eco- or agrotourism).

tives for young people to stem their migration to cities.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86841*

nologies" ([40]: 14, translated).

environment and society.

environments.

disaster.

*Horizontal and Vertical Archipelagoes of Agriculture and Rural Development in the Andean… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86841*

and the basic needs of the local population are secured or enhanced in a sustainable fashion [34]. Furthermore, it is today generally recognized that local and regional cultural aspects should be the fundamental basis in the development discourse ([21]: 311). In the past, rural economic development was often guided by external views and strategies without considering the "meaning that campesinos impart to the economy as actors in a social context" ([35], Abstract, 310). Rist therefore pleads for an "actor-oriented approach that is not based on preconceived, nonlocal concepts" (ibid.). This has been referred to as "ethno-development" [36], "development with identity" [37], "participatory cultural development" and other terms. Andolina et al. [38] call this approach "alternative modernities" enabling and mobilizing local human resources and strengthening local ownership and responsibility [39]. Local cultures and the traditional heritage are no longer seen as obstacles and barriers to development, but as enriching, locally accepted and sustainable factors. Local knowledge and practices should not be seen as static and paralyzing, but as dynamic and evolving: "transformed by autochthonous innovations, by an adaptation to changing circumstances, and by an adoption of knowledge, capabilities and technologies" ([40]: 14, translated).

Based on his empirical research in the tropical Andes, Stadel [20] derived the following postulates for a "*campesino*-oriented development":


*Sustainability Assessment at the 21st Century*

globalized spaces [30].

**6. Rural spaces: development scenarios and options**

With progressive urbanization, rural spaces have lost some of their former demographic weight and economic importance. Nevertheless, rural populations continue to represent a large share of the tropical Andean states, and the rural realm forms an important part of national identities and cultures. Economically, many areas can still be rated as marginal spaces, but many regions are important as diversified agrarian areas, as water reservoirs, as mining sites, as destinations for urban amenity migrants and tourists and most important as livelihoods for people. Some rural core areas have become new growth poles and arenas for development and modernization; other regions, in particular the poorly accessible and resourcedeficient areas, are threatened by natural hazards, by poverty, stagnation and marginalization, aggravated by political, economic and social neglect and discrimination. External influences and impulses pervade the entire rural realm, even the remote areas. Today, electronic information and communication media bring rural people in touch with national and global developments. In addition, temporary or permanent out-migrants furnish their home community external information, in many cases also remittance cash flows or investments. This has a significant economic, social and cultural impact on their former home communities. Further external actors are government agencies, an array of non-governmental organizations, international institutions and powerful corporations and companies. The consequence of these impacts are significant "livelihood transitions" and "place transformations" [29] which may even transform some Andean core regions into

The result of these multiple endogenous and exogenous influences may have

In some of the more accessible areas, technological innovations and market developments have stimulated agricultural developments and changes in crop patterns, leading to serious consequences for exchange relationships and trade between zones. In other zones, people have diversified their livelihood through non-agrarian

Yarnall and Price [32] have examined the impacts of migration and remittance flows on communities in the Valle Alto of the Department of Cochabamba in Bolivia. They observed a "new rurality" transforming the traditional rural environment and society. The communities have benefited by being linked to new "diaspora knowledge networks", from increased material resources and new stimuli of development. Some formerly poor peasant communities have even become materially better off than nearby colonial towns. But at the same time, the remittance dependence has made these communities vulnerable; as for various reasons, these cash and investment flows may not be reliable and sustainable. Furthermore, traditional forms of agricultural activities and employment may be eroded, and emerging rather sharp economic and social disparities result in a fragmentation of

It follows that rural development is complex, highly differentiated and at times also controversial. A generally accepted approach is to harmonize environmental, sociocultural and economic goals. Bebbington [33] views rural development neither solely rooted in conventional cultural values, economic pursuits and social structures and to the persistence of a subsistence-based economy nor in an uncritical opening to external influences, modernization, new technologies and an unrestricted adherence to national and global market processes. An array of development interventions are directed toward an attenuation of natural risks and their impacts, a protection of natural resources and a preservation of the genetic pool of biodiversity. But these efforts can only have a long-term success if the livelihoods of rural communities

positive or negative impacts on rural communities and livelihoods:

activities (crafts, wage labour, etc.) or have migrated. ([31]:3).

**178**

the rural realm.

#### **Figure 10.**

*Sustainable campesino communities – a conceptual model (Stadel 2008).*


In a simplified summarizing table (**Figure 10**), Stadel [20] has proposed a conceptual model for "sustainable *campesino* communities". It is argued that *campesino* communities can benefit by various positive intrinsic factors, as well as by favorable extrinsic factors.

## **7. Conclusion**

In spite of rapidly expanding metropolitan centres and a progressing urbanization, the identity of the Andean realm is still rooted in agricultural traditions and in rural societies. Based on the mountainous character but also because of the opportunities for rural living, the Andes can be portrayed as a rich and varied mosaic of agricultural fields, pastures, farms, villages and towns, forming archipelagos of favorable environmental conditions, of human activities, and of cultural heritages.

**181**

*Horizontal and Vertical Archipelagoes of Agriculture and Rural Development in the Andean…*

The diversity of rural spaces is the result of the extraordinary variety of natural and cultural traits, both in the horizontal and vertical dimensions of the Andes. In the horizontal perspective, agricultural land use in the tropical regions is distinguished from that of the extratropical one and is also differentiated by climatic influences from the Pacific Ocean or from the continental basins of the Amazon and Orinoco watersheds. Distinct agricultural patterns and rural landscapes are further resulting from the human factors of accessibility to roads and markets, cultural traditions, as

While the core and most widespread functional identity of the Andes lies in farming, pastoralism and agricultural settlements, the rural space is also shaped by other activities, foremost mining, industry and commercial activities. More recently, urban real-estate interests have "invaded" selected regions outside larger cities, especially in areas with a specific landscape or climatic appeal. Urban "amenity migrants" have moved into secluded peri-urban clusters, often into "gated communities" (*ciudades valladas*). Another newer form of rural functional orientation is the recreational appeal and the national and international tourism potential in attractive landscapes and cultural sites. Therefore, the extraordinary complexity of micro-spatial rural clusters has generated an intricate pattern of diverse "archi-

The rural Andes are a dynamic realm undergoing many changes and deep transformations. This applies to agriculture with its adaptation to changing environmental conditions, to new market orientations and in some cases to altered perceptions and strategies of farmers. Rural regions, even in formerly remote locations, are no longer isolated areas; in some cases, they may also no longer be regarded as peripheral spaces. New transportation arteries and communication channels connect rural residents to national core areas, even to global regions and actors. But the changes in the rural realm have not eliminated its disparities, and the "new rurality" has old and new winners and losers. Some regions are stagnating, and some rural people remain poor or are becoming marginalized, while others are dynamic, with its

The viability of the rural Andes is endangered by a number of internal and external threats. The vagaries of the climate and environmental deterioration processes are threatening agriculturally based livelihoods, especially those of small farmers. The persistent imbalance in the land tenure system, rural unemployment and underemployment, poverty and deficient infrastructures and services, combined with the lure of cities and other countries, have depleted many rural regions of the human capital of young and enterprising people. Furthermore, the growing external control of the land and its natural resources by external interests and

What are the options for a sustainable future of the rural Andes? Generally speaking, the rural realm must be effectively assisted to overcome inequality, discrimination, poverty and marginality and thus become an attractive living space and an alternative to the life in large cities or overseas. Rural population should be empowered to control and mobilize their resources and to develop mechanisms for enhanced local autonomy and self-determination. The author has proposed a generalized conceptual model for "sustainable *campesino* communities". But every region and community has its own identity, needs and priorities and will undoubtedly find their ways to enable them to seek appropriate development paths, likely in a careful balance between proven environmentally and culturally adapted strategies and new ones, innovative but also sensitive to the environment, societies and cultures of the region: "The pursuit of sustainability is a local undertaking not only because each community is ecologically and culturally unique but also its citizens have specific

stakeholders progressing and seizing new opportunities.

stakeholders threaten the livelihoods of the rural population.

place-based needs and requirements" ([37]: 1).

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86841*

well as external impacts.

pelagos" in the Andes.

### *Horizontal and Vertical Archipelagoes of Agriculture and Rural Development in the Andean… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86841*

The diversity of rural spaces is the result of the extraordinary variety of natural and cultural traits, both in the horizontal and vertical dimensions of the Andes. In the horizontal perspective, agricultural land use in the tropical regions is distinguished from that of the extratropical one and is also differentiated by climatic influences from the Pacific Ocean or from the continental basins of the Amazon and Orinoco watersheds. Distinct agricultural patterns and rural landscapes are further resulting from the human factors of accessibility to roads and markets, cultural traditions, as well as external impacts.

While the core and most widespread functional identity of the Andes lies in farming, pastoralism and agricultural settlements, the rural space is also shaped by other activities, foremost mining, industry and commercial activities. More recently, urban real-estate interests have "invaded" selected regions outside larger cities, especially in areas with a specific landscape or climatic appeal. Urban "amenity migrants" have moved into secluded peri-urban clusters, often into "gated communities" (*ciudades valladas*). Another newer form of rural functional orientation is the recreational appeal and the national and international tourism potential in attractive landscapes and cultural sites. Therefore, the extraordinary complexity of micro-spatial rural clusters has generated an intricate pattern of diverse "archipelagos" in the Andes.

The rural Andes are a dynamic realm undergoing many changes and deep transformations. This applies to agriculture with its adaptation to changing environmental conditions, to new market orientations and in some cases to altered perceptions and strategies of farmers. Rural regions, even in formerly remote locations, are no longer isolated areas; in some cases, they may also no longer be regarded as peripheral spaces. New transportation arteries and communication channels connect rural residents to national core areas, even to global regions and actors. But the changes in the rural realm have not eliminated its disparities, and the "new rurality" has old and new winners and losers. Some regions are stagnating, and some rural people remain poor or are becoming marginalized, while others are dynamic, with its stakeholders progressing and seizing new opportunities.

The viability of the rural Andes is endangered by a number of internal and external threats. The vagaries of the climate and environmental deterioration processes are threatening agriculturally based livelihoods, especially those of small farmers. The persistent imbalance in the land tenure system, rural unemployment and underemployment, poverty and deficient infrastructures and services, combined with the lure of cities and other countries, have depleted many rural regions of the human capital of young and enterprising people. Furthermore, the growing external control of the land and its natural resources by external interests and stakeholders threaten the livelihoods of the rural population.

What are the options for a sustainable future of the rural Andes? Generally speaking, the rural realm must be effectively assisted to overcome inequality, discrimination, poverty and marginality and thus become an attractive living space and an alternative to the life in large cities or overseas. Rural population should be empowered to control and mobilize their resources and to develop mechanisms for enhanced local autonomy and self-determination. The author has proposed a generalized conceptual model for "sustainable *campesino* communities". But every region and community has its own identity, needs and priorities and will undoubtedly find their ways to enable them to seek appropriate development paths, likely in a careful balance between proven environmentally and culturally adapted strategies and new ones, innovative but also sensitive to the environment, societies and cultures of the region: "The pursuit of sustainability is a local undertaking not only because each community is ecologically and culturally unique but also its citizens have specific place-based needs and requirements" ([37]: 1).

*Sustainability Assessment at the 21st Century*

types of investment.

**Figure 10.**

and training.

extrinsic factors.

**7. Conclusion**

and struggles against external exploitation.

*Sustainable campesino communities – a conceptual model (Stadel 2008).*

ownership of projects by local communities.

and implementation methods.

• Sensible use of external funds, especially of the remittances, to meaningful

• Safeguards against economic, social and political discrimination and exclusion

• Development emphasis on locally perceived and formulated needs, priorities

• Participation, enablement and empowerment in rural development and

• Enhanced communication channels, accessibility and transport facilities.

• Improvement of the quantity and quality of formal and informal education

In a simplified summarizing table (**Figure 10**), Stadel [20] has proposed a conceptual model for "sustainable *campesino* communities". It is argued that *campesino* communities can benefit by various positive intrinsic factors, as well as by favorable

In spite of rapidly expanding metropolitan centres and a progressing urbanization, the identity of the Andean realm is still rooted in agricultural traditions and in rural societies. Based on the mountainous character but also because of the opportunities for rural living, the Andes can be portrayed as a rich and varied mosaic of agricultural fields, pastures, farms, villages and towns, forming archipelagos of favorable environmental conditions, of human activities, and of cultural heritages.

**180**

*Sustainability Assessment at the 21st Century*
