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Passos-Geimba M, Heidrich do Amaral P, Cesar Tondo E. Antimicrobial resistance

**184**

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performed to exclude other diseases [27].

**Chapter 11**

**Abstract**

**1. Introduction**

Urine Tests for Diagnosis of

Antibiotic-Resistant Pathogens

*Nahla O. Eltai, Hashim Alhussain, Sanjay Doiphode,* 

The relation between disease and urine was recognized by physicians since the earliest civilization BC. Urine is considered an ideal diagnostic specimen for its noninvasive and easy method of collection. Urinalysis encompasses a wide range of tests, which includes a variety of chemical tests, urine microscopy, bacterial cultures, and molecular tests. Importantly, urine tests can diagnose patients with antibiotic-resistant urinary tract infections (UTI), directly from urine and/or bacterial culture. This chapter summarizes the most common urine tests in the infectious disease field, with a special focus on diagnosing UTI and characterizing their antibiotic resistant. In addition to describing the advantages and limitation of these tests, the chapter explores the promising emerging technologies and methods in this field. This chapter is beneficial for scientists and healthcare workers in the field.

**Keywords:** urine, infectious diseases, urinalysis, bacteria, antibiotic resistance

urine was the first body fluid to be examined by mankind for the diagnosis of diseases [1], it is still one of the most common specimens used in clinical and diagnostic laboratories. Urine samples have been used for the diagnosis of a wide and diverse range of disorders, including but not limited to renal diseases [2, 3], metabolic disorders [4], cancer [5], infectious diseases [6], and others [7–10]. In infectious disease field, urine tests are applied in diagnosing urinary tract infections (UTI) [11–13]. Further, several other infections can be diagnosed by urine tests at different levels [14] including community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) [15], legionellosis [16], tuberculosis [17, 18], congenital cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection [19], and dengue virus [20, 21], and recently, several papers suggest the high value of urinalysis in the detection of Zika virus [22, 23]. Parasites can also be diagnosed from the urine by detection of urinary egg, for example, diagnosis of *Schistosoma haematobium* (*S. haematobium)* [24]. Furthermore, urine has been used for screening of different sexually transmitted diseases (STD) such as *Neisseria gonorrhoeae* and *Chlamydia* sp. [25, 26]. The sensitivity and accuracy of urine test vary according to the agent being detected [14], and in some cases, urinalysis is only

Urinalysis has been a useful diagnostic tool since thousands of years. Although

Infectious Diseases and

*Asma Al Thani and Hadi Yassine*
