**4. Conclusion**

*Pathogenic Bacteria*

Some *Mycobacterium tuberculosis* strains developed what is called extensively drugresistant (XDR), a rare form of MDR which shows resistance to at least one of the

antibiotics by producing β- Lactamases, rendering this class of antibiotic to a large extended ineffective [37]. As mentioned above, with the lack of new drug

Enterobacteriaceae, the leading cause of UTIs, developed resistance to β-lactam

**n Estimated** 

*Schematic demonstrating how antibiotics can contribute to the AMR crisis and how it can change the* 

Amoxicillin 215 62.0 (55.5–68.9) 116 38.0 (31.1–44.5) Amoxicillin/clavulanate 307 91.3 (87.9–94.6) 12 3.5 (1.5–5.5) Cefuroxime 323 98.0 (96.4–99.7) 8 2.0 (0.3–3.6) Cefotaxime 323 98.1 (96.5–99.7) 6 1.5 (0.1–3.0) Ceftazidime 323 98.1 (96.5–99.7) 3 0.9 (0.0–2.1) Carbapenems 331 100.0 0 0.0 Fosfomycin 331 100.0 0 0.0 Nitrofurantoin 328 99.6 (99.0–99.9) 3 0.4 (0.0–1.0) Nalidixic acid 311 94.6 (92.1–97.1) 17 4.6 (0.2–7.1) Ofloxacin 312 94.9 (92.6–97.3) 11 2.8 (1.1–4.4) Ciprofloxacin 323 98.1 (96.5–99.7) 6 1.5 (0.1–3.0) Aminoglycoside 327 98.7 (97.0–99.9) 4 1.3 (0.0–3.0) Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole 278 81.9 (75.9–88.0) 51 17.8 (11.7–24.0)

*Resistance rates among 331* Escherichia coli *from urinary tract infection of women over 18 visiting a French GP* 

**proportion [% (95% CI)]\***

**Susceptible Resistant**

**n Estimated** 

**proportion [% (95% CI)]\***

second-line drugs, isoniazid, rifampin, and fluoroquinolone [83, 84].

**194**

**Table 1.**

**Figure 1.**

*microbiome of the patient.*

*in 2012–2013 [85].*

*\*Estimated proportion with the sampling design and 95% CI.*

*n size in the study population.*

Over the ages, urine proved to be an extremely valuable diagnostic specimen; today, it constitutes one of the most common samples processed in clinical and diagnostic laboratories. Its role in the diagnosis of a wide and diverse range of disorders cannot be argued against, ranging from drugs test and metabolic diseases identification to the diagnosis of STDs and lethal infectious disease. Its importance in antimicrobial resistance tests is also of great value, contributing to achieving the antimicrobial stewardship program recommendations.

With the advances in today's technologies, urinalysis now has great potentials, and the merging of test strip technologies with smartphone technologies can lead to tremendous changes in healthcare system and can deeply integrate point-of-care testing into the health system. Furthermore, advances in mass spectrometry can lead to great achievement not only in the diagnostic field by providing a much faster and accurate results, but it can also contribute greatly in the medical and biomedical research fields.
