**4.3 Compliance with world standards**

*Pathogenic Bacteria*

are not properly constructed.

**4.2 Cases of sachet water contamination in Nigeria**

Postproduction improper handling [59] and compromising safety and quality for profit during production [60] are factors that can affect sachet water contamination in Nigeria. Sachet water producers are expected to be food safety conscious in order not to jeopardize the health of the public. A large number of sachet water-producing companies in Nigeria are not registered and do not practice good manufacturing practices or follow international quality standards of water treatment [61] despite the efforts of NAFDAC to improve standards. Up to 25% of samples analyzed in this study had no regulation or expiration date code as recommended previously [62]. However, the fact that 75% of sachet water analyzed had date codes is a remarkable improvement from what was the norm (0%) when sachet water production started in the country. Unlike a previous study with larger sample size [11], which reported isolation of bacterial species in 54 out of 720 (7.5%) from 6 different brands of sachet water in northern Nigeria, all the samples in this study (100%) showed heterotrophic growth that were within permissible limits

Sachet water analysis from other parts of Nigeria has shown different levels of contamination. In this study, 10% (2 out of 20) of samples contained coliforms. In other studies carried out on samples sourced from Aba in the southeast, an analysis of 20 sachet water samples showed that 32% of the samples reportedly tested positive for *Staphylococcus* spp., 23% for *Pseudomonas*, 20% for *Klebsiella* spp., 15% for *Proteus*, and 10% for *Enterobacter* [59]. Another study in the same region reported a contamination in 8 out of the 10 sachet water samples analyzed, isolated microorganisms included *E. coli*, *Klebsiella* spp., *Pseudomonas* spp., *Bacillus* spp., *Proteus* spp., and *Staphylococcus* spp. [5]. Also 66% and 73% prevalence of pathogens have been reported [63] in this region after two batches of 30 sachet water samples were analyzed. In Oyo, which is situated in the southwest of Nigeria, *E. coli* (13.3%), *Pseudomonas aeruginosa* (39.9%), and *Enterobacter aerogenes* (53.3%) were isolated

when the concentration of coliforms and fecal *Streptococci* bacteria increased in a water network system, there was also an increased concentration of heterotrophic bacteria. These contrasts with the work of others [42] where it was shown that high heterotrophic count inhibits coliform proliferation. Despite increased heterotrophic count and coliforms in the study of Amanidaz et al. [41], it was concluded that no correlation exists, and increased numbers could be due to variability in nutrient composition [43]. Another factor could be biofilm formation because it has been shown that attached bacteria in biofilms of a water system are more metabolically active than the ones that are free-living [44]. Groundwater is susceptible to contamination by both organic and inorganic contaminants [45–48]. Contamination could happen through natural processes, such as geological weathering and dissolution of numerous minerals beneath the earth's surface, which results in low natural concentrations of contaminants in groundwater [49]. Anthropogenic sources, such as seepages from agricultural wastewaters, domestic sewages, mining activities, and industrial effluents, can also affect the quality of groundwater in many parts of the world [50–52]. Other reports showed that borehole contamination may occur through domestic wastewater and livestock manure [53] industrialization and urbanization [54] and leakages from septic tanks [55] or pit latrines [56]. Seasonal environmental conditions may also contribute to increased bacteria count from borehole water because other investigators [57, 58] have demonstrated that higher bacterial count in borehole water occurs during the rainy season. This has been attributed to flooding which may allow floodwater to get into borehole systems that

**220**

(<500 Cfu/mL).

A recent SDGs progress report [3] shows that between 2000 and 2017, the proportion of the global population using safely managed drinking water increased from 61 to 71%. The report highlighted that despite the increase, water stress affects people on every continent, requiring immediate and accelerated collective action to provide billions of people with safely managed drinking water. The quality score for the boreholes and sachet water from the community studied showed that the water needs improvement to achieve the desired "A" rating. In this study, the borehole water quality in Area "2" is a source of concern, and the owners in that area were advised to boil and filter the water before drinking. It is common knowledge in Nigeria that some boreholes are not deep enough to produce clean water from the aquifer; hence, such boreholes are used for other domestic purposes but not for cooking food or drinking. Owners of such boreholes normally boil and filter the water for drinking.

Water quality specifications may depend on the particular use, but the presence of coliforms in drinking water indicates that disease-causing organisms could be in the water system and may pose an immediate health risk to the water consumers. When coliforms and other bacteria are found, it is always recommended [65] that an investigation should be carried out to establish the sources of contamination. This confirmation will enable risk assessment and identification of solutions that will eliminate or reduce the risk of waterborne disease within a large population [66].
