**4.2 Cases of sachet water contamination in Nigeria**

Postproduction improper handling [59] and compromising safety and quality for profit during production [60] are factors that can affect sachet water contamination in Nigeria. Sachet water producers are expected to be food safety conscious in order not to jeopardize the health of the public. A large number of sachet water-producing companies in Nigeria are not registered and do not practice good manufacturing practices or follow international quality standards of water treatment [61] despite the efforts of NAFDAC to improve standards. Up to 25% of samples analyzed in this study had no regulation or expiration date code as recommended previously [62]. However, the fact that 75% of sachet water analyzed had date codes is a remarkable improvement from what was the norm (0%) when sachet water production started in the country. Unlike a previous study with larger sample size [11], which reported isolation of bacterial species in 54 out of 720 (7.5%) from 6 different brands of sachet water in northern Nigeria, all the samples in this study (100%) showed heterotrophic growth that were within permissible limits (<500 Cfu/mL).

Sachet water analysis from other parts of Nigeria has shown different levels of contamination. In this study, 10% (2 out of 20) of samples contained coliforms. In other studies carried out on samples sourced from Aba in the southeast, an analysis of 20 sachet water samples showed that 32% of the samples reportedly tested positive for *Staphylococcus* spp., 23% for *Pseudomonas*, 20% for *Klebsiella* spp., 15% for *Proteus*, and 10% for *Enterobacter* [59]. Another study in the same region reported a contamination in 8 out of the 10 sachet water samples analyzed, isolated microorganisms included *E. coli*, *Klebsiella* spp., *Pseudomonas* spp., *Bacillus* spp., *Proteus* spp., and *Staphylococcus* spp. [5]. Also 66% and 73% prevalence of pathogens have been reported [63] in this region after two batches of 30 sachet water samples were analyzed. In Oyo, which is situated in the southwest of Nigeria, *E. coli* (13.3%), *Pseudomonas aeruginosa* (39.9%), and *Enterobacter aerogenes* (53.3%) were isolated

**221**

*Bacteriological Quality of Borehole and Sachet Water from a Community in Southeastern Nigeria*

from commercially sold sachet water [64]. Another report in this region [26] highlighted that all brands of sachet water (100%) analyzed had the presence of

A recent SDGs progress report [3] shows that between 2000 and 2017, the proportion of the global population using safely managed drinking water increased from 61 to 71%. The report highlighted that despite the increase, water stress affects people on every continent, requiring immediate and accelerated collective action to provide billions of people with safely managed drinking water. The quality score for the boreholes and sachet water from the community studied showed that the water needs improvement to achieve the desired "A" rating. In this study, the borehole water quality in Area "2" is a source of concern, and the owners in that area were advised to boil and filter the water before drinking. It is common knowledge in Nigeria that some boreholes are not deep enough to produce clean water from the aquifer; hence, such boreholes are used for other domestic purposes but not for cooking food or drinking. Owners of such boreholes normally boil and filter the

Water quality specifications may depend on the particular use, but the presence of coliforms in drinking water indicates that disease-causing organisms could be in the water system and may pose an immediate health risk to the water consumers. When coliforms and other bacteria are found, it is always recommended [65] that an investigation should be carried out to establish the sources of contamination. This confirmation will enable risk assessment and identification of solutions that will eliminate or reduce the risk of waterborne disease within a large population [66].

**4.4 Etiology, virulence, epidemiology, and pathogenicity of bacteria associated** 

From the studies reviewed, the organisms found in borehole water are wellknown food- and waterborne bacteria that are constantly monitored by regulatory authorities in many parts of the world. Outbreaks can occur in a community and cause fatalities and economic losses. Hence, a constant review of the growth conditions that enable the bacteria to proliferate, the features that enable survival in different environments, infection mode, and prevalence pattern of these bacteria is

The bacterium *Staphylococcus aureus* from the genus *Staphylococcus* is known for methicillin resistance of some strains. The bacterium is a major environmental contaminant of food and water, and the human skin and nose are known to be major sources of the organism. Nasal colonization [67, 68] and atopic dermatitis of the skin [69, 70] are considered risk factors. Environmental contamination may be the source of contamination in borehole water analyzed in this study, whereas humans or personnel involved in sachet water production are likely to be contributors to contamination. In Nigeria, sachet water producers are known to lack resources; hence, it is possible that respiratory protective equipment like nose masks are not worn during production in some facilities. Since it is possible to distinguish community-associated MRSA from healthcare-associated MRSA based on genetic, epidemiologic, or microbiological profiles [71], it would be beneficial to screen the strains found in this study

to determine if they are methicillin resistant and community-related.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91812*

**4.3 Compliance with world standards**

**with borehole and sachet water**

important to reduce outbreaks.

*4.4.1* Staphylococcus

coliforms.

water for drinking.

from commercially sold sachet water [64]. Another report in this region [26] highlighted that all brands of sachet water (100%) analyzed had the presence of coliforms.
