*4.4.1* Staphylococcus

The bacterium *Staphylococcus aureus* from the genus *Staphylococcus* is known for methicillin resistance of some strains. The bacterium is a major environmental contaminant of food and water, and the human skin and nose are known to be major sources of the organism. Nasal colonization [67, 68] and atopic dermatitis of the skin [69, 70] are considered risk factors. Environmental contamination may be the source of contamination in borehole water analyzed in this study, whereas humans or personnel involved in sachet water production are likely to be contributors to contamination. In Nigeria, sachet water producers are known to lack resources; hence, it is possible that respiratory protective equipment like nose masks are not worn during production in some facilities. Since it is possible to distinguish community-associated MRSA from healthcare-associated MRSA based on genetic, epidemiologic, or microbiological profiles [71], it would be beneficial to screen the strains found in this study to determine if they are methicillin resistant and community-related.

#### *Pathogenic Bacteria*

The pathogenicity, epidemiology, and virulence factors of *Staphylococcus* have been comprehensively reviewed [72]. It was highlighted that colonization is aided by biofilm formation that is housed in extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) found in many bacteria and that virulence factors are expressed with accessory gene regulator (agr) system in response to cell density [73]. To avoid formation of biofilms and EPS in the sachet water-producing environment, adequate personnel hygiene and good manufacturing practices that meet food safety standards must be implemented.

### *4.4.2* Pseudomonas

The genus *Pseudomonas* especially *P. aeruginosa* is known globally as endemic [74] and an opportunistic pathogen that causes several infections [75]. They are often isolated in clinics [76], and other sources may include residential, recreational, or surface water [77]. The colonies are usually heavily mucoid on solid media. It has been reported that mechanisms of antimicrobial resistance in *Pseudomonas* strains and most bacteria include multidrug efflux pumps and downregulation of outer membrane porins, whereas virulence may include secretion of toxins and the ability to form biofilms [78, 79]. A natural property of *Pseudomonas* is the possession of multiple mechanisms for different forms of antibiotic resistance [80], and this may have facilitated its occurrence in boreholes and sachet water.

### *4.4.3* Klebsiella

*Klebsiella* causes many infections, which includes urinary tract infections, pneumonia, bacteremia, and liver abscesses [81]. The genus is associated with water, and this may be why it has been isolated in both borehole and sachet water. The organism is found in drinking water [82], rivers [83], and sewage water [84], which may encourage environmental spread. It has been reported that the organism has a variety of virulence and immune evasive factors, which contribute to uptake of genes associated with antimicrobial resistance and pathogenicity [85]. A report [86] suggested that the species *K. pneumoniae* acquired antimicrobial resistance genes independently and their population is highly diverse. An analysis of strains from human and animal isolates spanning four continents has shown convergence of virulence and resistance genes, which may lead to untreatable invasive *K. pneumoniae* infections [87].

#### *4.4.4* Escherichia

The most studied species of the *Escherichia* genus is *E. coli*, a coliform bacteria used to verify hygiene status in food and water. Usually, the presence of various strains of pathogenic or nonpathogenic *E. coli* in food or water samples indicates fecal contamination [88]. It has been reported that [89] a comparative analysis show that avian and human *E. coli* isolates contain similar sets of genes encoding virulence factors and that they belong to the same phylogenetic groups, which may indicate the zoonotic origin of extraintestinal pathogenic *E. coli*.

A study of the prevalence of *E. coli* strain O157:H7 in England and Scotland showed that it has a seasonal dependency, with greater fecal shedding of the organism in the warmer months together with increased reporting of *E. coli* O157:H7 infection among hospitalized patients [90]. This finding is very worrying because it suggests that there could be high prevalence when applied to Nigeria because the country has a warm climate all year round. However, good manufacturing practices irrespective of the climate appear to be the key factor in producing packaged

**223**

*4.4.7* Vibrio

*Bacteriological Quality of Borehole and Sachet Water from a Community in Southeastern Nigeria*

water free of coliforms. It has been shown that levels of coliform bacteria and *E. coli* detected in sachet water samples in Ghana, a country with similar climate to Nigeria, were statistically and significantly lower than levels detected from several

The genus *Enterobacter* consists of coliforms that are known to be of non-fecal origin. It is believed [92] that many *Enterobacter* species, which could act as pathogens, are widely encountered in nature but are most frequently isolated in human clinical specimens possibly because phenotypic identification of all species belonging to this taxon is usually difficult and not always reliable. Therefore, the identification of this genus in borehole and sachet water may need a revisit since molecular methods were not used. The organism is known as a ubiquitous and persistent Gram-negative bacterium in drinking water [17], but there are few studies of its occurrence or prevalence in borehole and sachet water or other water sources in

To understand the carbapenemase-producing *Enterobacter* spp. and the development of molecular diagnostics, Chavda et al. [93] used genomic analysis of 447 sequenced strains to establish diverse mechanisms underlying the molecular evolutionary trajectory of drug-resistant *Enterobacter* spp. Their findings showed the acquisition of an antibiotic resistance plasmid, followed by clonal spread and horizontal transfer of *blaKPC*-harboring plasmids between different phylogenomic groups. The report also showed repeated transposition of the *blaKPC* gene among

*Proteus* species are Gram-negative opportunistic rod-shaped bacteria known for its swarming motility and contamination of agar plates. Furthermore, on agar plates, the bacteria undergoes a morphological conversion to a filamentous swarmer cell expressing hundreds of flagella, and during infection, histological damage is caused by cytotoxins including hemolysin and a variety of proteases [94]. The organism is reported to have negative and positive advantages. According to Drzewiecka [95], *Proteus* species may be indicators of fecal pollution, which may cause food poisoning when the contaminated water or seafood is consumed, and it could be used for bioremediation activity due to its tolerance and ability to utilize

Virulence factors may include fimbriae, flagella, outer membrane proteins, lipopolysaccharide, capsule antigen, urease, immunoglobulin A, proteases, hemolysins, and amino acid deaminases [96]. The ability to swarm and survive is facilitated by the upregulation of FlhD(2)C(2) transcription activator, which activates the flagellar regulon [97]. The prevalence of *Proteus* spp. in borehole or sachet water may be

aided by its ability to swarm and colonize the production environment.

In Nigeria, the most reported species among the *Vibrio* species that cause water-related infection is *Vibrio cholerae*. The organism causes cholera, which is an infection that is characterized by watery stooling. The disease has killed hundreds of people in Nigeria in the last decade. According to Faruque et al. [98], a lysogenic bacteriophage designated CTXΦ encodes the Cholera toxin (CT), which is strongly influenced by environmental conditions [99]. The organism is responsible for the

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91812*

water sources including public taps [91].

*4.4.5* Enterobacter

Nigeria.

*4.4.6* Proteus

different plasmid backbones.

polluting compounds as sources of energy.

water free of coliforms. It has been shown that levels of coliform bacteria and *E. coli* detected in sachet water samples in Ghana, a country with similar climate to Nigeria, were statistically and significantly lower than levels detected from several water sources including public taps [91].
