*1.3.2 The role of the government*

Different governments play different roles in community water supply in Africa. In assessing the role of government, we targeted not only the regulatory roles but also mobilization of the community, financing the development and maintenance of the water sources.

The government of Kenya performs the following responsibilities in as far as community water projects are concerned: issue of permits for sinking of bore holes; registration of water service providers (WSPs); payment of water abstraction fee and regulation of water tariffs and quality. The Water and Sanitation Regulatory Board (WASREB) oversees, on behalf of the Ministry of Water and Irrigation, the implementation of the National Water Services Strategy and Pro-Poor Implementation Plan, which specifically focuses on expanding services to underserved low-income areas in Kenya.

The government of Tanzania initially provided water directly to communities by facilitating sinking of boreholes to residents of a locality before the strategy was overwhelmed and the government warmed up to private initiatives. The Water Supply and Sanitation Act 2009 provided room for the formal establishment of Community-owned Water Supply Organizations in various forms operating around the aegis of: Dar es Salaam City Council (DCC); the civil societies; political party organizations and private individuals as well as youth and women groups; and the donor community which provided facilities to fringe settlements. The organizations individually operated water-kiosks or boreholes in informal or peri-urban settlements, initially constructed by DAWASCO or by NGOs such as Water Aid and PLAN International. The flexibility is intended to allow them to build on trust and integrity already developed through existing social networks. According to the Water Policy, grassroot institutions linked to local government including the Village/Mtaa Water Committees (VWCs), are responsible for the management of water supply schemes in their localities. Recognition of these structures by the government through DCC gave the Mtaa some power of implementing community action plans prepared by the various committees. The Mtaa leadership had been playing a vital role in mobilizing resources and organizing community participation and private involvement in water provision to the fringe areas [19].

Similarly, the government of Ghana established Community Water and Sanitation Agency (CWSA) in 1998 by an act of Parliament (CWSA Act 564) to provide the institutional base for the implementation of the national community water and sanitation programme [20]. In conjunction with District Assemblies, the CWSA developed procedures which Communities applying for water and sanitation facilities should follow including composition of membership and proportion of women in the membership and bank account before the grant could be provided. This was to facilitate access to water for those without direct connection to the state owned Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL) and continue to rely on informal services or secondary and tertiary sources due to reasons including lack of land titles or non-affordability of the upfront connection fees [21]. The strategy was to involve the community in planning and management of their water supply systems and water resources through their elected Water and Sanitation (WATSAN) Committees, Local Water Boards, Water and Sanitation Development Boards, Unit Committees and Area Councils [22].

**63**

*Community Management and Water Service Delivery in Africa*

Although not necessarily to the same extent as Ghana, the government of Malawi also facilitated community water supply through Water service boards and establishment of Water Users Association (WUA). The government owned water management Boards own the main water infrastructure (treatment plants, etc.), and communities own public standpipes or water kiosks that are managed by their

The National Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Policy, 2000 enhanced the role of government of Nigeria at the centre of community water management by emphasizing rural water and sanitation through community participation. In most cases, Water Boards or Water Corporations are used at the state level for urban water services while rural water supply and sanitation (RWSS) is used for rural water supply and sanitation. All the 774 local government authorities are further involved in the provision and management of rural water supply and sanitation within their respective domains, mostly through various community organization including

In all the countries except Nigeria, community water supply had institutional domains by either being domiciled in Ministries of water and Health or equivalents. In Nigeria, different Ministries and Agencies assume relevance and arrogate water and sanitation responsibilities for their respective Ministries without clear mechanism of coordination. At the state and local government levels, there are further fragmentation and division of authorities to the extent that what emerge are inter-agency competition both between agencies of each state and between agencies of States and the Federal Government. This consequently leads to parallel drinking water projects in some areas and communities as well as duplication of responsibilities. Allocation of water and sanitation projects is often politicized to favor communities with influential public officials, bureaucrats or politicians [16]. Whereas there is direct intervention by the government in community water supply in Ghana, Malawi, Tanzania and Nigeria, in Kenya, there is indirect intervention with a lot of self-initiatives. In Nigeria, government has a selective intervention and makes little

The membership to community water projects depends on the type of supply. For individual and private water sources, there is no standing membership save for the payment to the owners. Most of community water projects in Kenya are communally owned by individuals who came up together and formed an association to source for funds to supply water to its members, usually those in the neighborhood. With time they expand to access other non-members through payment for water. The access could be either through water stand points or connection to individual households. The associations could equally draw water from main water utility company and set up a bulk meter outlet from where they could establish other connections. In a way, they serve as distributing agents at a profit on behalf of the main

The membership to community water projects in Tanzania is tied to area of residence, or village commonly known as "Mtaa", an extension of local government. Each village committee elects leaders who mobilize the community to run the government-sponsored water project. Water is managed by water committees and overseen by the political leaders such as street chairpersons. In Dar es Salaam, the performance of community water projects in ensuring reliable access of water to

Like in Tanzania, membership to community water projects in Ghana are also area specific and is indirectly driven by the state which has stipulated conditions

citizens greatly depend on the performance of local political leaders [13].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90746*

water and sanitation committees (WASCOMS).

attempt at mobilization of community participation.

*1.3.3 Membership to community water projects*

water companies (Obosi).

respective WUAs.

*Resources of Water*

governments to provide adequate water.

*1.3.2 The role of the government*

served low-income areas in Kenya.

of the water sources.

the community water source, is an indication of the African governments' lethargy towards providing quality water to its citizens. The use of different sources of community water is therefore a coping mechanism to mitigate the failures of the

Different governments play different roles in community water supply in Africa. In assessing the role of government, we targeted not only the regulatory roles but also mobilization of the community, financing the development and maintenance

The government of Kenya performs the following responsibilities in as far as community water projects are concerned: issue of permits for sinking of bore holes; registration of water service providers (WSPs); payment of water abstraction fee and regulation of water tariffs and quality. The Water and Sanitation Regulatory Board (WASREB) oversees, on behalf of the Ministry of Water and Irrigation, the implementation of the National Water Services Strategy and Pro-Poor Implementation Plan, which specifically focuses on expanding services to under-

The government of Tanzania initially provided water directly to communities by facilitating sinking of boreholes to residents of a locality before the strategy was overwhelmed and the government warmed up to private initiatives. The Water Supply and Sanitation Act 2009 provided room for the formal establishment of Community-owned Water Supply Organizations in various forms operating around the aegis of: Dar es Salaam City Council (DCC); the civil societies; political party organizations and private individuals as well as youth and women groups; and the donor community which provided facilities to fringe settlements. The organizations individually operated water-kiosks or boreholes in informal or peri-urban settlements, initially constructed by DAWASCO or by NGOs such as Water Aid and PLAN International. The flexibility is intended to allow them to build on trust and integrity already developed through existing social networks. According to the Water Policy, grassroot institutions linked to local government including the Village/Mtaa Water Committees (VWCs), are responsible for the management of water supply schemes in their localities. Recognition of these structures by the government through DCC gave the Mtaa some power of implementing community action plans prepared by the various committees. The Mtaa leadership had been playing a vital role in mobilizing resources and organizing community participation

and private involvement in water provision to the fringe areas [19].

Similarly, the government of Ghana established Community Water and Sanitation Agency (CWSA) in 1998 by an act of Parliament (CWSA Act 564) to provide the institutional base for the implementation of the national community water and sanitation programme [20]. In conjunction with District Assemblies, the CWSA developed procedures which Communities applying for water and sanitation facilities should follow including composition of membership and proportion of women in the membership and bank account before the grant could be provided. This was to facilitate access to water for those without direct connection to the state owned Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL) and continue to rely on informal services or secondary and tertiary sources due to reasons including lack of land titles or non-affordability of the upfront connection fees [21]. The strategy was to involve the community in planning and management of their water supply systems and water resources through their elected Water and Sanitation (WATSAN) Committees, Local Water Boards, Water and Sanitation Development Boards, Unit

**62**

Committees and Area Councils [22].

Although not necessarily to the same extent as Ghana, the government of Malawi also facilitated community water supply through Water service boards and establishment of Water Users Association (WUA). The government owned water management Boards own the main water infrastructure (treatment plants, etc.), and communities own public standpipes or water kiosks that are managed by their respective WUAs.

The National Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Policy, 2000 enhanced the role of government of Nigeria at the centre of community water management by emphasizing rural water and sanitation through community participation. In most cases, Water Boards or Water Corporations are used at the state level for urban water services while rural water supply and sanitation (RWSS) is used for rural water supply and sanitation. All the 774 local government authorities are further involved in the provision and management of rural water supply and sanitation within their respective domains, mostly through various community organization including water and sanitation committees (WASCOMS).

In all the countries except Nigeria, community water supply had institutional domains by either being domiciled in Ministries of water and Health or equivalents. In Nigeria, different Ministries and Agencies assume relevance and arrogate water and sanitation responsibilities for their respective Ministries without clear mechanism of coordination. At the state and local government levels, there are further fragmentation and division of authorities to the extent that what emerge are inter-agency competition both between agencies of each state and between agencies of States and the Federal Government. This consequently leads to parallel drinking water projects in some areas and communities as well as duplication of responsibilities. Allocation of water and sanitation projects is often politicized to favor communities with influential public officials, bureaucrats or politicians [16]. Whereas there is direct intervention by the government in community water supply in Ghana, Malawi, Tanzania and Nigeria, in Kenya, there is indirect intervention with a lot of self-initiatives. In Nigeria, government has a selective intervention and makes little attempt at mobilization of community participation.

### *1.3.3 Membership to community water projects*

The membership to community water projects depends on the type of supply. For individual and private water sources, there is no standing membership save for the payment to the owners. Most of community water projects in Kenya are communally owned by individuals who came up together and formed an association to source for funds to supply water to its members, usually those in the neighborhood. With time they expand to access other non-members through payment for water. The access could be either through water stand points or connection to individual households. The associations could equally draw water from main water utility company and set up a bulk meter outlet from where they could establish other connections. In a way, they serve as distributing agents at a profit on behalf of the main water companies (Obosi).

The membership to community water projects in Tanzania is tied to area of residence, or village commonly known as "Mtaa", an extension of local government. Each village committee elects leaders who mobilize the community to run the government-sponsored water project. Water is managed by water committees and overseen by the political leaders such as street chairpersons. In Dar es Salaam, the performance of community water projects in ensuring reliable access of water to citizens greatly depend on the performance of local political leaders [13].

Like in Tanzania, membership to community water projects in Ghana are also area specific and is indirectly driven by the state which has stipulated conditions

including quota for women and initial 5% of the cost, for support to establish community water supply through the District Assemblies and CWSA. Community projects formed this way receive government support to the tune of 95%. Most of them (56.3%) were jointly initiated by the government (represented by the District Assemblies and the CWSA) and the community. The community water projects, in reality, are largely donor-sponsored projects, which were implemented by the government through the CWSA [14].

Membership of community water projects in Malawi is tied to proximity and is state driven through Water Users Associations (WUA). Each community has one WUA that is expected to represent the interests of all water users. The utility provides technical expertise to WUAs through trained plumbers and other certified workers. WUAs collect revenue from water sales and pay the utility on a monthly basis. The Water Board (WB) benefits from this organized, streamlined revenue collection system and can operate more efficiently, not having to supervise and pay for employee (vendor) salaries. Each WUA typically comprises an appointed board of trustees that is the final decision-making body and disciplinary arm; an executive committee that is voted into office to oversee the day-to-day running of the association; a secretariat with employees headed by an administrator; inspectors who audit water meter readings and report faults to the WUA office; and water vendors who sell water at the kiosks. Community member customers contribute financially to the WUAs by purchasing water and participate in the election of executives.

The fact that all the four countries have relied on government for community water supply yet they still have challenges is an indication that reliance on the government by residents may not guarantee them unlimited access to water supply. Like in Kenya, there is need to engage in self- help water supply projects by pooling resources together to either sink boreholes or dig wells for their common use. This should be coupled with community involvement in the water management process, which is existent in all the countries except Nigeria. This will help residents to have a sense of responsibility and thus curb the occurrence of vandalism of water equipment [17].

#### *1.3.4 Involvement of public private partnership*

Public private partnership is an arrangement in which the private sector in form of individuals, corporates or community get into a co-production with the state through shared responsibilities. In water supply the arrangement have included Public Enterprise, Joint Ventures, Affermage, Built Operate Transfer, Built Operate Transfer, Concession, Lease, Management Contracts and Private Ventures [12]. The timing and extent is a prerogative of the partners. Most of community water projects in Kenya operate through public private partnerships. In addition to engaging government for regulatory services, they also apply for government funds as self-help projects either through constituency Development Funds (CDF) or through Water services Trust Fund (WSTF) mainly to improve their infrastructural development for uptake, supply and storage. These are usually one off assistance and no compelling continued partnership. However for the funding from the WSTF, the condition for qualifying for the grant is access to the rest of the community. In the urban areas, some utility companies, like Kisumu Water and Sanitation Company (KIWASCO) in Kisumu, have as part of its approach to providing services in low-income areas of Kisumu implemented a delegated management model since 2004, in which it partners with small-scale private operators which are formed from within the community that is to be served [23].

Under this model "the utility sells bulk water to an agent who has been contracted to operate and manage part of the system". These agents who operate and manage the last part of the service delivery system are known as 'Master Operators' (MOs) [6].

**65**

*Community Management and Water Service Delivery in Africa*

The first appearance of PPP in water sector in Tanzania was the setting up of Water kiosks by DAWASCO as a means to supply water to communities that do not have in-house water connection. The kiosks are run by private agents who in return pay rent to DAWASCO [24]. The other aspect of Partnerships involved drilling of boreholes in which both public and private water drilling companies mediate citizens' access to water. The partnership usually brings together public services and NGOs to provide water [25]. The strongest move towards actualization of PPP in Tanzania was setting up of a Community Liaison Unit by DAWASA in 2003 to help community-managed suppliers [26]. Various resources such as expertise and experience, ideas, ability to organize, materials, labour and finance were mobilized and used to improve potable water in informal settlements through participation of various grassroots and external actors were involved. The grassroots actors include the water users, i.e. individual households, vendors and the Mtaa leaders. External actors came in as advisors, financiers and contractors in the construction of the wells and include DCC, DAWASA, the Water Resource's Institute (WRI) and the UNDP and Lions Club. While DCC has been acting as a facilitator, DAWASA staff have been providing free professional support in the form of, for example, amount of chemical materials for treating water, to the WMCs and to individual private owners. The community, private individuals (vendors), government institutions, training institution, NGOs, e.g. Lions Club, local informal and formal businesses and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). The community had contributed funds through the initiation and co-ordination by the then village government (known also as CCM leadership) of the area - financial assistance from the Lions Club of Dar es Salaam and technical assistance from the Water Resource

In 2006, the government of Malawi, in an attempt to address chronic water scarcity in urban informal settlements, promoted community-public partnerships (CPPs), a form of service co-production in which state water utilities work together with community-elected water user associations (WUAs) [27]. The CPPs involved community elected representatives and state water-delivery agencies over an indefinite period: communities primarily oversee the management water services and revenue collection, while the utility manages infrastructure, delivers water to community pipes, and provides technical assistance [27]. Nongovernmental organizations, Water Aid and the Centre for Community Organization and Development (CCODE), and the Lilongwe Water Board (LWB), a public water utility, mobilized community leaders to form Water User Associations (WUAs). The partnerships are intended to enhance water supply in underserved urban settlements and create opportunities for communities to participate actively in water service delivery. Community-elected WUAs manage revenue from water sales, oversee community water points (kiosks), organize community elections to appoint representatives, and report community complaints about service delivery to the LWB. LWB, in turn, supplies water to WUA communities, provides technical assistance, and manages

Private sector participation in the Rural Water and Sanitation (RWSS) subsector in Nigeria has been in the form of consultants, suppliers, manufacturers, artisans. Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) are even becoming equally relevant in the RWSS through collaboration with relevant authorities, communities and donor organizations including: UNICEF assisted State Water and Sanitation Projects (1981–2010); Japanese International Cooperation Agency's (JICA) rural water supply projects (1992–1994); United Nations Development Project (UNDP)- Rural Water supply (1988–1993); European Union (EU) water and sanitation programme (2002–2009); Department for International Development's (DFID) water and sanitation pilot project (2002–2008); Water Aid's rural water supply

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90746*

Institute also of Dar es Salaam.

Lilongwe's main water infrastructure.

*Resources of Water*

government through the CWSA [14].

*1.3.4 Involvement of public private partnership*

within the community that is to be served [23].

including quota for women and initial 5% of the cost, for support to establish community water supply through the District Assemblies and CWSA. Community projects formed this way receive government support to the tune of 95%. Most of them (56.3%) were jointly initiated by the government (represented by the District Assemblies and the CWSA) and the community. The community water projects, in reality, are largely donor-sponsored projects, which were implemented by the

Membership of community water projects in Malawi is tied to proximity and is state driven through Water Users Associations (WUA). Each community has one WUA that is expected to represent the interests of all water users. The utility provides technical expertise to WUAs through trained plumbers and other certified workers. WUAs collect revenue from water sales and pay the utility on a monthly basis. The Water Board (WB) benefits from this organized, streamlined revenue collection system and can operate more efficiently, not having to supervise and pay for employee (vendor) salaries. Each WUA typically comprises an appointed board of trustees that is the final decision-making body and disciplinary arm; an executive committee that is voted into office to oversee the day-to-day running of the association; a secretariat with employees headed by an administrator; inspectors who audit water meter readings and report faults to the WUA office; and water vendors who sell water at the kiosks. Community member customers contribute financially to the

WUAs by purchasing water and participate in the election of executives.

The fact that all the four countries have relied on government for community water supply yet they still have challenges is an indication that reliance on the government by residents may not guarantee them unlimited access to water supply. Like in Kenya, there is need to engage in self- help water supply projects by pooling resources together to either sink boreholes or dig wells for their common use. This should be coupled with community involvement in the water management process, which is existent in all the countries except Nigeria. This will help residents to have a sense of responsibility and thus curb the occurrence of vandalism of water equipment [17].

Public private partnership is an arrangement in which the private sector in form of individuals, corporates or community get into a co-production with the state through shared responsibilities. In water supply the arrangement have included Public Enterprise, Joint Ventures, Affermage, Built Operate Transfer, Built Operate Transfer, Concession, Lease, Management Contracts and Private Ventures [12]. The timing and extent is a prerogative of the partners. Most of community water projects in Kenya operate through public private partnerships. In addition to engaging government for regulatory services, they also apply for government funds as self-help projects either through constituency Development Funds (CDF) or through Water services Trust Fund (WSTF) mainly to improve their infrastructural development for uptake, supply and storage. These are usually one off assistance and no compelling continued partnership. However for the funding from the WSTF, the condition for qualifying for the grant is access to the rest of the community. In the urban areas, some utility companies, like Kisumu Water and Sanitation Company (KIWASCO) in Kisumu, have as part of its approach to providing services in low-income areas of Kisumu implemented a delegated management model since 2004, in which it partners with small-scale private operators which are formed from

Under this model "the utility sells bulk water to an agent who has been contracted to operate and manage part of the system". These agents who operate and manage the last part of the service delivery system are known as 'Master Operators' (MOs) [6].

**64**

The first appearance of PPP in water sector in Tanzania was the setting up of Water kiosks by DAWASCO as a means to supply water to communities that do not have in-house water connection. The kiosks are run by private agents who in return pay rent to DAWASCO [24]. The other aspect of Partnerships involved drilling of boreholes in which both public and private water drilling companies mediate citizens' access to water. The partnership usually brings together public services and NGOs to provide water [25]. The strongest move towards actualization of PPP in Tanzania was setting up of a Community Liaison Unit by DAWASA in 2003 to help community-managed suppliers [26]. Various resources such as expertise and experience, ideas, ability to organize, materials, labour and finance were mobilized and used to improve potable water in informal settlements through participation of various grassroots and external actors were involved. The grassroots actors include the water users, i.e. individual households, vendors and the Mtaa leaders. External actors came in as advisors, financiers and contractors in the construction of the wells and include DCC, DAWASA, the Water Resource's Institute (WRI) and the UNDP and Lions Club. While DCC has been acting as a facilitator, DAWASA staff have been providing free professional support in the form of, for example, amount of chemical materials for treating water, to the WMCs and to individual private owners. The community, private individuals (vendors), government institutions, training institution, NGOs, e.g. Lions Club, local informal and formal businesses and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). The community had contributed funds through the initiation and co-ordination by the then village government (known also as CCM leadership) of the area - financial assistance from the Lions Club of Dar es Salaam and technical assistance from the Water Resource Institute also of Dar es Salaam.

In 2006, the government of Malawi, in an attempt to address chronic water scarcity in urban informal settlements, promoted community-public partnerships (CPPs), a form of service co-production in which state water utilities work together with community-elected water user associations (WUAs) [27]. The CPPs involved community elected representatives and state water-delivery agencies over an indefinite period: communities primarily oversee the management water services and revenue collection, while the utility manages infrastructure, delivers water to community pipes, and provides technical assistance [27]. Nongovernmental organizations, Water Aid and the Centre for Community Organization and Development (CCODE), and the Lilongwe Water Board (LWB), a public water utility, mobilized community leaders to form Water User Associations (WUAs). The partnerships are intended to enhance water supply in underserved urban settlements and create opportunities for communities to participate actively in water service delivery. Community-elected WUAs manage revenue from water sales, oversee community water points (kiosks), organize community elections to appoint representatives, and report community complaints about service delivery to the LWB. LWB, in turn, supplies water to WUA communities, provides technical assistance, and manages Lilongwe's main water infrastructure.

Private sector participation in the Rural Water and Sanitation (RWSS) subsector in Nigeria has been in the form of consultants, suppliers, manufacturers, artisans. Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) are even becoming equally relevant in the RWSS through collaboration with relevant authorities, communities and donor organizations including: UNICEF assisted State Water and Sanitation Projects (1981–2010); Japanese International Cooperation Agency's (JICA) rural water supply projects (1992–1994); United Nations Development Project (UNDP)- Rural Water supply (1988–1993); European Union (EU) water and sanitation programme (2002–2009); Department for International Development's (DFID) water and sanitation pilot project (2002–2008); Water Aid's rural water supply

and sanitation programme (1996–2010); United State Agency for International Development; World Health Organization and World Bank [28]. Involvements of these bodies have been restricted to financing, infrastructural provisions in urban, rural areas and public spaces.
