Introductory Chapter: Milestones in *Grasses and Grassland* Research

*Valentin Missiakô Kindomihou*

#### **1. Introduction**

In order to understand the significance of changes that have occurred in *Grasses and Grassland* Research and utilization, a short summary of the state of knowledge is required. The purpose of this chapter will be to briefly describe the milestones in *Grasses and Grassland* Research that have occurred. *Grasses and Grassland* are key links in biological resources. They are the sources of many agricultural productions, livestock systems, and environmental issues with positive and recognized impacts on water quality, biodiversity, and landscapes. However, their acreages have been steadily decreasing for many years.

Otherwise, if the livestock structures trend is accused, there is also the lack of knowledge of technicians about the potential of these areas so sensitive to climatic hazards, unproductive, and difficult to be managed. For example, securing fodder systems in organic ruminants farming remain questionable facing these plagues. *Grassland* would interest such systems by making them productive, stable, inputefficient, and environmentally friendly and guarantee good technological performance. In addition, the complexity of understanding the functioning of *Grassland* covers requires synergetic interdisciplinary skills (phytosociology, agronomy, animal technologies, etc.). Optimizing knowledge of *Grasses and Grassland* at scales of production systems should help conceiving self-sufficient, resilient, and sustainable livestock systems, which would meet society's new expectations.

In order to improve knowledge on these issues, this chapter aims to provide scientists, students, technicians, decision-makers, and other development actors with benchmarks for the diagnosis and management of these resources and ecosystem. Topics which were discussed specifically include properties, synthesis, and some applications of *Grasses and Grassland*. Ultimately, what is the contribution of *Grasses and Grassland* to the sustainable well-being of the living?

A "*Property*" is either (a) an original trait, concept, area of research leading to a significant advance in understanding; or (b) a research review acting as a base for further study and development. A "*Synthesis*" is a physical milestone or the production of a substance by the union of chemical elements, groups, or simpler compounds, or by the degradation of a complex compound (www.merriam-webster.com); while "*Application*" is a use to which *Grasses and Grassland* and components are put.

#### **2. Some general points**

#### **2.1 What is "Grasses and Grassland"?**

*Grasses* refers to the monocotyledonous green plant, mostly world widespread, rustic over times and circumstances. The Poaceae family as "real *Grasses*" includes

#### *Grasses and Grassland Aspects*

cereals, forages, and fodders plants from pastures and lawns. The concept appeared in the fifteenth century, derived from the root "grow." *Grasses* design the climatic vegetation in large areas of low rainfall.

species with higher biomass production were globally reported. But few are more widely grown to establish *Grassland*. Their adaptation to thermal, mineral, and water stress, resistance to diseases and pests, biomasses and productivities, seed production and nutritional values were studied. Natural and artificial crossings and new genetic techniques improved the species and offer physiological and morphological characteristics including leaves and stems rates, duration of vegetative cycle, sustainability, sexual reproduction, and vegetative and apomictic reproduction. *Grasses* provide raw materials for human and animal nutrition, i.e., food grains and forage. They have reached an advanced stage of development, such in miniaturizing

Globally, 150 *Grass* species were well investigated in tropical Africa [6]. This number was completed during the last 30 years (1989–2018). The Laboratory of Applied Ecology of Professor Brice Sinsin from University of Abomey-Calavi (Benin) has described about 100 additional *Grass* species. Two groups of *Grasses*

• Annual species grown in rainy season wither and die. Their reproduction requires mature seed, whose formation can be hindered by intense plant

• Perennial species with roots and lateral buds located at ground level in tropical

*Grasses* are well defined based on specific biological, agronomic, and nutritional

• Erect *Grasses* showing one single axis with reduced basal branching, no shelf of

• Bunching *Grasses* with tillers in many clumps, spots, beaches, or large areas, reproduced by seed, resisted to drought and burnings throughout leaf sheaths arrangements that protect the buds and mostly well adapted to intertropical zone [3, 4, 9]. The most common are *Andropogon gayanus, Hyparrhenia rufa,*

floral pieces and specialization in various environments.

*Introductory Chapter: Milestones in* Grasses and Grassland *Research*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90770*

zone [8], persistent for several consecutive years.

characters (**Figure 1**), with three types of morphology, including:

tillers and dotted distribution of ground cover [3, 4].

*Panicum maximum*, and *Pennisetum purpureum*.

exist based on development cycle duration:

exploitation [7].

**Figure 1.**

**3**

Grasses *main characters (adapted from [10]).*

*Grassland* is a community of herbaceous plants mainly *Grasses*, i.e., a grassy area that last at least several years. It is also a forage crop, mainly composed of *Grasses* and legumes, for grazing or mowing.

About 77% of plant species are *Grasses* on *permanent Grassland* exceeding 80% in the spring and only 65% in the fall; the diversity gradient is between 10 and 40 species

	- a. *Seven types of Grassland* occur based on *duration and composition*: (i) *Temporary Grassland* established on monocropping *Grasses* or fodder legumes, by their association for a short or long duration (i.e., 1–3 years versus 3–10 years); (ii) *Artificial Grassland* mainly sown with fodder legumes for 2–5 years, usually in a crop rotation; (iii) *Permanent Grassland*, long-sown (˃10 years) with one or various *Grasses* and legumes species; (iv) *Seminatural Grassland*, i.e., permanent *Grassland* with native *Grasses*, herbaceous, brush, trees, or groves species; (v) Range as wide areas holding native species that are grazed, fenced, or not; (vi) *Natural Grassland* enriched by native *Grasses* for a long time; (vii) *Multi-species Grassland* includes at least three different species from two different families, which ensure more regular production throughout the year and are more resistant to climatic hazards.
	- b. *Three types of Grassland defined by the objectives*: (viii) *Grazing meadow*; (ix) *Mixed Grassland* for grazing and mowing; and (x) *Hay meadow* for hay or silage in piles or with wrapping.
	- c. *Four types of Grassland* rise by *the situation and environment* [5], such as: (xi) *Woodland meadows* as part of a dense and meshed network of hedges, i.e., the hedgerows; (xii) *Wet meadows* rich in biodiversity under moderate grazing, regulating watercourses, preventing flooding, and maintaining habitats in open environments; (xiii) *Dry meadows* of the thermophiles and dry hillsides, with low agronomic value and high floristic richness, shelter threatened species; and (xiv) *Pharmaceutical meadows*, i.e., artificial land planted for both soil enriching and medicinal resources provision for livestock.
	- d. *Four types of Grassland* highlighted on the *ecosystem production and service system perspective*: (xv) *Agricultural Grassland* essentially *temporary Grassland* with at least two species, for stock building (mainly silage) and green feeding, but also including the most fertile permanent mowed *Grasslands*; (xvi) *Environmental Grassland* belong to *permanent Grassland* grazed by dairy heifers and suckling herds, including *Grasslands* mowed by unfertile environments and used in late mowing for ground-dried hay; (xvii) *Meadows "Close to ecological intensification"* including *permanent Grasslands* both grazed (by suckled herds, heifers, and dairy cows) and mowed for hay. Agricultural results are good in all areas: yield, flexibility, quality; and (xviii) *productive meadows*, which are part of the mono-specific, *temporary grassy*, low-*agricultural meadows*, lacking operational flexibility and energy quality, and used for silage, hay, or pasture.

#### **2.2 Some milestones in Grasses and Grassland research**

About 60 years of scientific investigations performed in sub-Saharan Africa resulted in a high biodiversity of *Grasses and Grassland*. Previously, 9700 *grass*

#### *Introductory Chapter: Milestones in* Grasses and Grassland *Research DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90770*

species with higher biomass production were globally reported. But few are more widely grown to establish *Grassland*. Their adaptation to thermal, mineral, and water stress, resistance to diseases and pests, biomasses and productivities, seed production and nutritional values were studied. Natural and artificial crossings and new genetic techniques improved the species and offer physiological and morphological characteristics including leaves and stems rates, duration of vegetative cycle, sustainability, sexual reproduction, and vegetative and apomictic reproduction. *Grasses* provide raw materials for human and animal nutrition, i.e., food grains and forage. They have reached an advanced stage of development, such in miniaturizing floral pieces and specialization in various environments.

Globally, 150 *Grass* species were well investigated in tropical Africa [6]. This number was completed during the last 30 years (1989–2018). The Laboratory of Applied Ecology of Professor Brice Sinsin from University of Abomey-Calavi (Benin) has described about 100 additional *Grass* species. Two groups of *Grasses* exist based on development cycle duration:


*Grasses* are well defined based on specific biological, agronomic, and nutritional characters (**Figure 1**), with three types of morphology, including:


**Figure 1.** Grasses *main characters (adapted from [10]).*

cereals, forages, and fodders plants from pastures and lawns. The concept appeared in the fifteenth century, derived from the root "grow." *Grasses* design the climatic

*Grassland* is a community of herbaceous plants mainly *Grasses*, i.e., a grassy area that last at least several years. It is also a forage crop, mainly composed of *Grasses*

About 77% of plant species are *Grasses* on *permanent Grassland* exceeding 80% in the spring and only 65% in the fall; the diversity gradient is between 10 and 40 species [1]. Knowing *Grassland* typology may help build sustainable production systems [2].

(i) *Temporary Grassland* established on monocropping *Grasses* or fodder legumes, by their association for a short or long duration (i.e., 1–3 years versus 3–10 years); (ii) *Artificial Grassland* mainly sown with fodder legumes for 2–5 years, usually in a crop rotation; (iii) *Permanent Grassland*, long-sown (˃10 years) with one or various *Grasses* and legumes species; (iv) *Seminatural Grassland*, i.e., permanent *Grassland* with native *Grasses*, herbaceous, brush, trees, or groves species; (v) Range as wide areas holding native species that are grazed, fenced, or not; (vi) *Natural Grassland* enriched by native *Grasses* for a long time; (vii) *Multi-species Grassland* includes at least three different species from two different families, which ensure more regular production throughout the year and are more resistant to climatic hazards.

b. *Three types of Grassland defined by the objectives*: (viii) *Grazing meadow*;

c. *Four types of Grassland* rise by *the situation and environment* [5], such as: (xi) *Woodland meadows* as part of a dense and meshed network of hedges, i.e., the hedgerows; (xii) *Wet meadows* rich in biodiversity under moderate grazing, regulating watercourses, preventing flooding, and maintaining habitats in open environments; (xiii) *Dry meadows* of the thermophiles and dry hillsides, with low agronomic value and high floristic richness, shelter threatened species; and (xiv) *Pharmaceutical meadows*, i.e., artificial land planted for both soil enriching and medicinal resources provision for livestock.

(ix) *Mixed Grassland* for grazing and mowing; and (x) *Hay meadow* for hay

d. *Four types of Grassland* highlighted on the *ecosystem production and service system perspective*: (xv) *Agricultural Grassland* essentially *temporary Grassland* with at least two species, for stock building (mainly silage) and green feeding, but also including the most fertile permanent mowed *Grasslands*; (xvi) *Environmental Grassland* belong to *permanent Grassland* grazed by dairy heifers and suckling herds, including *Grasslands* mowed by unfertile environments and used in late

*intensification"* including *permanent Grasslands* both grazed (by suckled herds, heifers, and dairy cows) and mowed for hay. Agricultural results are good in all areas: yield, flexibility, quality; and (xviii) *productive meadows*, which are part of the mono-specific, *temporary grassy*, low-*agricultural meadows*, lacking operational flexibility and energy quality, and used for silage, hay, or pasture.

About 60 years of scientific investigations performed in sub-Saharan Africa resulted in a high biodiversity of *Grasses and Grassland*. Previously, 9700 *grass*

mowing for ground-dried hay; (xvii) *Meadows "Close to ecological*

**2.2 Some milestones in Grasses and Grassland research**

**2**

Indeed, about 18 types of *Grassland* are distinguished [3, 4]:

a. *Seven types of Grassland* occur based on *duration and composition*:

vegetation in large areas of low rainfall.

*Grasses and Grassland Aspects*

and legumes, for grazing or mowing.

or silage in piles or with wrapping.

• Turfed *Grasses* with rhizomes, allowing horizontal colonization. It forms a dense-felted *Grass*, little fire-resistant, producing little viable seed, and propagates by vegetative pathway [3]. They are the main wetland pasture holding mainly *Brachiaria humidicola, Brachiaria mutica,* and *Brachiaria ruziziensis,* which produces many viable seeds, *Cynodon dactylon, Digitaria decumbens*, and *Stenotaphrum secundatum.*

N good absorption from soil by *Grasses* [11]. Rhizobacteria close to some *Grasses* roots allow atmospheric N recovering, a modality less effective than legumes

• *Grasses* have fasciculate roots from the neck, thatch with nodes, and internodes wearing leaves. These form a sheath with elongated blade between sheath and blade, presence of ligule, small and numerous flowers, each wrapped by two lemmas lower and upper made of two opposite pieces, shells protecting the egg

About 78 parameters are listed as indicators for describing *Grasses and Grassland*

44 Nutritional composition range with climate dependence (proteins, lipids, fibers, ash)

49 Physicochemical characteristics of grains

phytosterols, folate)

phenolic acids, flavonoids, lignans, tocols,

45 Optimum temperature for growth

(**Table 1**). However, molecular aspects need more attention as well as their

1 Ability to compete with weeds 40 Minimum temperature of growth

9 Anti-quality elements (Tannins, SiO2) 48 Phenolic acids and phenols contents

11 Chemical analysis and digestibility 50 Phytochemicals major families (β-glucan,

12 Common names 51 Pigments or coloring agents

16 Digestibility 55 Response to defoliation 17 Diseases 56 Response to fire 18 Distribution 57 Response to photoperiod

13 Compatibility with grasses and legumes 52 Quality index 14 Cultivars 53 Rainfall requirements

15 Description 54 Refusal rate

(seed), spikelets, or elemental inflorescence units composed of flowers surrounded by a lower and a upper glumes; inflorescences at top of stem, are composed of spikelets grouped into ears, panicles, digested, or geminated.

**3.** *Grasses and Grassland'* **traits from research**

*Introductory Chapter: Milestones in* Grasses and Grassland *Research*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90770*

**No Indicators No Indicators**

2 Ability to spread naturally 41 Natural habitat 3 Ability to zerograzing 42 Number of seed per kg 4 Altitude range 43 Nutraceutical properties

7 Animal preference 46 Palatability 8 Animal production 47 Pests

warming and adaptive responses.

5 Allelopathy properties: phytomolecules and

6 Amino acid contents (lysine, glutamic acid, leucine, alanine, proline, aspartic acid, valine, phenylalanine, serine, isoleucine, arginine, threonine, glycine, tyrosine, histidine, methionine, cysteine, tryptophan, phytosterols,

10 Bioactive phytochemicals (carbohydrates, proteins, alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, phenols, saponins, glycosides, steroids, terpenoids)

compound released

polyconasols)

**5**

symbiosis.

*Grasses*, (i) require light to develop, growing in full sun or little shaded; (ii) colonize open fields with high seed production, regenerative capacity, and soil cover rate; (iii) fast-grow with high leaf-to-shoot ratios. The number of degree days to issue a sheet belongs to discriminative indicators.

Forage *Grasses* palatability reflects tissues soft texture, unobtrusive taste, and odor untainted by unpleasant or repulsive substances, low content of toxic substances (tannins, alkaloids, cyanides, and nitrates), high digestible carbohydrate content, nitrogenous matter, easy abilities to be eaten by tearing on the spot, and their abundance. However, these characters are distributed within the same family. Some species are abandoned while others are overgrazed in the same *Grassland*. Foliar nutritional qualities are low in tropics, less digestible because of higher contents in lignin and fibers, higher refusal rate than in temperate environments (i.e., 10–30% versus 5%).

Tropical *Grasses* differ from temperate at the photosynthesis basic energy metabolism. Tropical have a C4 carbon cycle and Temperate, a C3 cycle. C4 *Grasses* store energy for carbon chains production at night from where they grow faster while *Grasses* at C3 produce carbon chains only in light presence.

These cycles lead to carbohydrates mainly cellulose production. The C4 cycle is efficient in tropics with less nitrogen than in the C3 cycle. Species at C4 optimally develop at higher temperatures than C3 species (between 30 and 40°C versus 20–25°C) with rapid growth, making maximum use in a short growing season. C4 *Grasses* produce two to three times more biomass than C3. Otherwise, they produce more membranes rich in little digestible tissues, with low contents of digestible nitrogen, hence a much less good food value.

Vegetation steps consist of six phases (**Figure 2**).

• *Grasses* can grow in association with other plants based on management practices limiting interspecific competitive effects. Association with legumes offers advantages for soil enrichment in nitrogen mobilized by the legume and

**Figure 2.**

Grasses *phenological phases (adapted from [10]).*

*Introductory Chapter: Milestones in* Grasses and Grassland *Research DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90770*

• Turfed *Grasses* with rhizomes, allowing horizontal colonization. It forms a dense-felted *Grass*, little fire-resistant, producing little viable seed, and propagates by vegetative pathway [3]. They are the main wetland pasture holding mainly *Brachiaria humidicola, Brachiaria mutica,* and *Brachiaria ruziziensis,* which produces many viable seeds, *Cynodon dactylon, Digitaria*

*Grasses*, (i) require light to develop, growing in full sun or little shaded; (ii) colonize open fields with high seed production, regenerative capacity, and soil cover rate; (iii) fast-grow with high leaf-to-shoot ratios. The number of degree days

Forage *Grasses* palatability reflects tissues soft texture, unobtrusive taste, and odor untainted by unpleasant or repulsive substances, low content of toxic substances (tannins, alkaloids, cyanides, and nitrates), high digestible carbohydrate content, nitrogenous matter, easy abilities to be eaten by tearing on the spot, and their abundance. However, these characters are distributed within the same family. Some species are abandoned while others are overgrazed in the same *Grassland*. Foliar nutritional qualities are low in tropics, less digestible because of higher contents in lignin and fibers, higher refusal rate than in temperate environments

Tropical *Grasses* differ from temperate at the photosynthesis basic energy metabolism. Tropical have a C4 carbon cycle and Temperate, a C3 cycle. C4 *Grasses* store energy for carbon chains production at night from where they grow faster

• *Grasses* can grow in association with other plants based on management practices limiting interspecific competitive effects. Association with legumes offers advantages for soil enrichment in nitrogen mobilized by the legume and

These cycles lead to carbohydrates mainly cellulose production. The C4 cycle is efficient in tropics with less nitrogen than in the C3 cycle. Species at C4 optimally develop at higher temperatures than C3 species (between 30 and 40°C versus 20–25°C) with rapid growth, making maximum use in a short growing season. C4 *Grasses* produce two to three times more biomass than C3. Otherwise, they produce more membranes rich in little digestible tissues, with low contents of digestible

while *Grasses* at C3 produce carbon chains only in light presence.

nitrogen, hence a much less good food value.

Grasses *phenological phases (adapted from [10]).*

Vegetation steps consist of six phases (**Figure 2**).

*decumbens*, and *Stenotaphrum secundatum.*

to issue a sheet belongs to discriminative indicators.

(i.e., 10–30% versus 5%).

*Grasses and Grassland Aspects*

**Figure 2.**

**4**

N good absorption from soil by *Grasses* [11]. Rhizobacteria close to some *Grasses* roots allow atmospheric N recovering, a modality less effective than legumes symbiosis.

• *Grasses* have fasciculate roots from the neck, thatch with nodes, and internodes wearing leaves. These form a sheath with elongated blade between sheath and blade, presence of ligule, small and numerous flowers, each wrapped by two lemmas lower and upper made of two opposite pieces, shells protecting the egg (seed), spikelets, or elemental inflorescence units composed of flowers surrounded by a lower and a upper glumes; inflorescences at top of stem, are composed of spikelets grouped into ears, panicles, digested, or geminated.

#### **3.** *Grasses and Grassland'* **traits from research**

About 78 parameters are listed as indicators for describing *Grasses and Grassland* (**Table 1**). However, molecular aspects need more attention as well as their warming and adaptive responses.



Chenopodiaceae), and sesame (*Sesamum indicum*, Pedaliaceae). Among the several cereals that are used in feeding human over the world, only the high-growth and high-carrying capacity cereals prevent forage shortages in winter. They can also help controlling weeds. Oats are more forage than wheat, barley, rye, and triticale. Potential forage biomass depends on crops, varieties, pathology resistance, and

*Introductory Chapter: Milestones in* Grasses and Grassland *Research*

As for Asia, Europe, America, and Australia *Grasses and Grassland*, African landscape offers about six types of wide *Grasses and Grassland*. **Table 2** shows the values, productivities, and demand for equivalent land (i.e., the opposite of carrying capacities) of *Grassland* highlighting the main dominant *Grass* species over the

The southern Sahara reflects a dynamic presence of six *Grassland* groups (**Table 2**, [15]) burst into 50 *Grasslands,* including 6 Sudanese, 12 Guineo-Sudanese, 9 Sudano-Guinean, 6 Guinea-Sudanese and Sudano-Guinean transitional, 9 Northern Sudanese, and 8 Sudano-Sahelian. Apart from the most productive *Grasslands*,

*Grasses* **species**

*afzeliana* (SP1)

*Hyparrhenia involucrata* and *Andropogon pseudapricus* (SP2)

*Setaria longiseta* and *Sporobolus pyramidalis* (SP6)

Guineo-Sudanese (GS) *Andropogon chinensis* (GSP1) 65.82 5.00–5.73 0.46–0.40 *Andropogon gayanus* and *Hyparrhenia involucrata* (GSP2)

> *Andropogon macrophyllus* (artificial) (GSP5)

*Brachiaria ruziziensis* (artificial) (GSP6)

*Panicum maximum C1* (artificial) (GSP11)

**PV (%)**

*Loudetia flavidae* (SP3) 23.9 0.38–5.21 6.00–0.44 *Loxodera ledermanii* (SP4) 36.8 0.30–6.91 7.60–0.33 *Pennisetum unisetum* (SP5) 46.3 0.25–15.76 9.13–0.14

*Andropogon schirensis* (GSP3) 50.49 5.40–7.12 0.42–0.32 *Andropogon tectorum* (GSP4) 35.04 6.06–9.40 0.38–0.24

*Ctenium newtonii* (GSP7) 35.04 6.33–10.8 0.36–0.21 *Heteropogon contortus* (GSP8) 35.04 6.94–11.4 0.33–0.20 *Hyparrhenia smithiana* (GSP9) 46.89 5.63–7.10 0.41–0.32 *Imperata cylindrica* (GSP10) 22.82 0.29–5.12 7.87–0.45

*Sporobolus pyramidalis* (GSP12) 56.02 6.53–8.80 0.35–0.26

**t DM/ha ELD**

51.5 1.08–9.79 2.11–0.23

37.3 1.21–10.1 1.89–0.23

21.4 0.22–5.58 10.37–0.41

74.27 5.70–6.86 0.40–0.33

64.40 9.73–12.46 0.23–0.18

63.17 6.90–9.15 0.33–0.25

84.28 10.30–13.51 0.22–0.17

**(ha/TLU)**

which are artificial, the most productive native is *Andropogon gayanus* and

**Ecozones Types of** *Grassland* **and main**

Sudanese (S) *Aspilia paludosa* and *Anadelphia*

seeding time.

**7**

**4.2 Native Grasses and Grassland**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90770*

normal periods, i.e., 30 years.

#### **Table 1.**

*Alphabetical fields of information on* Grasses *species.*

#### **4.** *Grasses and Grassland diversity*

#### **4.1 Cereals**

A cereal is a plant grown mainly for its seeds (grains, fruits, and caryopses) used as food and fodder, being consumed in flour or grain form. "*Cereal*" refers to *Grasses* grains. About 43 cereals from nine main tribes have been documented including 17 Paniceae, 16 Triticeae, 2 Cyperaceae, 2 Oryzoideae, 2 Poeae, 1 Aveneae, 1 Chloridoideae, 1 Coccinea, and 1 Eragrostideae. The most world widely grown are rice, maize, wheat, barley, and sorghum, respectively. Otherwise, about four pseudo-cereals are also worldwide recognized but not yet well scientifically supported: buckwheat (*Fagopyrum esculentum,* Polygonaceae), quinoa (*Chenopodium quinoa,* Chenopodiaceae), amaranth (*Amaranthus* spp.,

Chenopodiaceae), and sesame (*Sesamum indicum*, Pedaliaceae). Among the several cereals that are used in feeding human over the world, only the high-growth and high-carrying capacity cereals prevent forage shortages in winter. They can also help controlling weeds. Oats are more forage than wheat, barley, rye, and triticale. Potential forage biomass depends on crops, varieties, pathology resistance, and seeding time.

#### **4.2 Native Grasses and Grassland**

As for Asia, Europe, America, and Australia *Grasses and Grassland*, African landscape offers about six types of wide *Grasses and Grassland*. **Table 2** shows the values, productivities, and demand for equivalent land (i.e., the opposite of carrying capacities) of *Grassland* highlighting the main dominant *Grass* species over the normal periods, i.e., 30 years.

The southern Sahara reflects a dynamic presence of six *Grassland* groups (**Table 2**, [15]) burst into 50 *Grasslands,* including 6 Sudanese, 12 Guineo-Sudanese, 9 Sudano-Guinean, 6 Guinea-Sudanese and Sudano-Guinean transitional, 9 Northern Sudanese, and 8 Sudano-Sahelian. Apart from the most productive *Grasslands*, which are artificial, the most productive native is *Andropogon gayanus* and


**4.** *Grasses and Grassland diversity*

*Alphabetical fields of information on* Grasses *species.*

**No Indicators No Indicators** 19 Dormancy 58 Season of growth

23 Economics 62 Seed vigor 24 Equilibrium moisture of hay 63 Seed yield 25 Fat and fatty acids contents 64 Soil requirements

21 Drought tolerance 60 Seed production and harvesting 22 Dry- and green- matter yields 61 Seed treatment before planting

26 Fertilizer requirements 65 Source of variation levels of compounds

27 Frost tolerance 66 Sowing depth and cover 28 Further reading 67 Sowing methods 29 Genetics and reproduction 68 Sowing time and rate

31 Grazing management 70 Therapeutic properties 32 Growing systems 71 Tolerance to flooding 33 Land preparation for establishment 72 Tolerance to herbicides 34 Latitudinal limits 73 Tolerance to salinity

36 Main deficiencies 75 Value as standover or deferred feed

37 Maximum temperature, low temperature 76 Value for erosion control

35 Main attributes 74 Toxicity

59 Seed or grain color, shape, size and anatomical

elements

released and effects

69 Suitability for hay and silage

77 Vigor of growth and growth rhythm

78 Vitamins contents (Niacin, Vita E, alpha tocopherol, Vit BE, pantothenic acid, thianine,

riboflavin, folate, fat, fatty acid)

Recommendation Integrated System (N/P, N/ Ca, N/Zn, K/P, P/Ca, S/P, Zn/P, K/Ca, S/K, K/

30 Grain composition (energy, DM, lipid, fibers,

38 Minerals content (K, P, Mg, Fe, Ca, Na, Zn, Cu,

39 Minimum germination and quality required for

ADF, seed, proteins, ash)

20 DRIS norms, i.e., Diagnosis and

*Grasses and Grassland Aspects*

Zn, S/Zn, Ca/Zn, S/Ca).

A cereal is a plant grown mainly for its seeds (grains, fruits, and caryopses) used as food and fodder, being consumed in flour or grain form. "*Cereal*" refers to *Grasses* grains. About 43 cereals from nine main tribes have been documented including 17

Chloridoideae, 1 Coccinea, and 1 Eragrostideae. The most world widely grown are rice, maize, wheat, barley, and sorghum, respectively. Otherwise, about four pseudo-cereals are also worldwide recognized but not yet well scientifically supported: buckwheat (*Fagopyrum esculentum,* Polygonaceae), quinoa (*Chenopodium quinoa,* Chenopodiaceae), amaranth (*Amaranthus* spp.,

Paniceae, 16 Triticeae, 2 Cyperaceae, 2 Oryzoideae, 2 Poeae, 1 Aveneae, 1

**4.1 Cereals**

**6**

**Table 1.**

Mn, Se)

commercial sale

*Adapted from [3, 6–8, 10–14].*


*Hyparrhenia involucrata* from Guineo-sudanese and the lowest is *Setaria longiseta*

*Types of tropical pastures, grazing values, productivities, carrying capacities (1988–2018).*

*Grasses* **species**

*Pennisetum pedicellatum* of savannahs (SSP5)

*Pennisetum pedicellatum* of fallows (SSP6)

*Vetiveria nigritana* and *Oryza longistaminata* (SSP8)

**PV (%)**

*Panicum subalbidum* (SSP4) 31.72 3.35–4.08 0.68–0.56

*Schoenefeldia gracilis* (SSP7) 14.90 3.71–4.01 0.61–0.57

**t DM/ha ELD**

35.06 2.42–3.45 0.94–0.66

34.05 4.12–4.76 0.55–0.48

41.44 6.74–7.24 0.34–0.32

**(ha/TLU)**

Temperate wild or permanent and extensive *Grassland* can hold up to 100 plant species per hectare. More than 120 native tropical forage *Grasses* in Africa have been studied and found to less contribute to productivities of respective communities. Special attention has been given to their ecology for better production and rational

The temperate *Grassland* cultivated or more intensive breeding include the

*Festulolium* (more than 40 cultivars), High Fescue (*Festuca arundinacea*), Meadow Fescue (*Festuca pratensis*), Meadow Timothy (*Phleum pratense*), meadow Pâturin (*Poa pratensis*), English Ray-grass (*Lolium perenne*), Italian Ray-grass (*Lolium multiflorum* Lam.), Hybrid Ray-grass (*Lolium hybridum*)*,* legumes species such as Cornish lotier (*Lotus corniculatus*), cultivated Luzerne (*Medicago sativa*), cultivated Sainfoin (*Onobrychis viciifolia*), White Clover (*Trifolium repens*), Alexandria Clover (*Trifolium alexandrinum* L.), Micheli Clover (*Trifolium michelianum* Savi.), Hybrid Clover (*Trifolium hybridum*), Incarnate Clover (*Trifolium incarnatum* L.), and

About 30 exotic *Grasses* were introduced from 1987 to 2015 in Southern Sahara,

*coloratum*) and 5 species of *Brachiaria*] [15, 20]. These samples in seagrass beds and

with 17 mainly fodder [7 *Panicum* species (6 varieties of *P. maximum* and *P.*

on experimental plots are available in the National Institute of Agricultural Research (INRAB), the Faculty of Agronomic Sciences, other research institutions such as ILRI/ILCA (Kenya), FAO (Rome/Italy), CIAT (Colombia), IDESSA (Bouake/Côte d'Ivoire), Democratic Republic of Congo and ILCA (Nigeria).

following species: Brome (*Bromus secalinus*), Dactyle (*Dactylis glomerata*),

and *Sporobolus pyramidalis* from Sudanese zone.

**5.1 Grasses and Grassland food and fodder properties**

**Ecozones Types of** *Grassland* **and main**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90770*

*Introductory Chapter: Milestones in* Grasses and Grassland *Research*

**5. Grasses and Grassland properties**

*5.1.1 Native forage grasses*

**Table 2.**

use [3, 4, 12, 16–19].

*5.1.2 Introduced fodder grasses*

Purple Clover (*Trifolium pratense*).

**9**


**Table 2.**

**Ecozones Types of** *Grassland* **and main**

Sudano-Guinean (SG) *Andropogon schirensis* and

Transition Guineo-Sudanese/ Sudano-Guinean (TGS/SG)

*Grasses and Grassland Aspects*

**8**

*Grasses* **species**

*Andropogon gayanus* (SGP1)

*Andropogon schinensis* and *Andropogon chirensis* (SGP2)

*Pennisetum polystachion and Andropogon gayanus* (SGP4)

*Pennisetum polystachion* and *Hyparrhenia involucrata* (SGP5)

*Pennisetum unisetum* and *Rottboellia cochinchinensis* (SGP6)

*Sorghastrum bipennatum* and *Schizachyrium sanguineum* (SGP7)

*Sporobolus pyramidalis* and *Hyparrhenia involucrata* (SGP8)

*Schizachyrium sanguineum* and *Hyparrhenia rufa* (SGP9)

*Andropogon schirensis* and *Hyparrhenia subplumosa* (TP1)

*Andropogon tectorum* and *Chromolaena odorata* (TP2)

*Hyptis suaveolens* and *Hyparrhenia suplumosa* (TP4)

*Pennisetum polystachion* and *Securinega virosa* (TP5)

*Sporobolus pyramidalis* and *Hyparrhenia subplumosa* (TP6)

Northern Sudanese (NS) *Andropogon gayanus* (NSP1) 46.5 4.40–6.10 0.52–0.37 *Andropogon gayanus* and *Hyparrhenia involucrata* (NSP2)

> *Andropogon gayanus* and *Schizachyrium sanguineum* (NSP3)

*Andropogon pseudapricus* and *Pennisetum polystachion* (NSP4)

*Andropogon pseudapricus* and *Tephrosia pedicellata* (NSP5)

*Hyparrhenia involucrata* and *Andropogon gayanus* (NSP7)

Sudano-Sahelian (SS) *Andropogon pseudapricus* (SSP1) 26.28 2.83–3.21 0.81–0.71 *Andropogon pseudapricus* and *Panicum pansum* (SSP2)

**PV (%)**

*Brachiaria falcifera* (SGP3) 36.88 3.64–7.50 0.63–0.30

*Brachiaria falcifera* (TP3) 44.8 5.57–8.40 0.41–0.27

*Hyparrhenia involucrata* (NSP6) 36.2 3.95–5.90 0.58–0.39

*Loxodera ledermannii* (NSP8) 42.69 6.58–7.10 0.35–0.32 *Pennisetum pedicellatum* (NSP9) 23.9 2.60–5.50 0.88–0.41

*Diheteropogon amplectens* (SSP3) 28.43 3.45–4.10 0.66–0.56

**t DM/ha ELD**

45.74 5.26–8.50 0.43–0.27

53 4.70–8.80 0.49–0.26

28 3.93–7.20 0.58–0.32

49.33 7.86–9.80 0.29–0.23

36 3.24–6.80 0.70–0.37

50 4.90–7.90 0.47–0.29

32.15 5.70–8.40 0.40–0.27

45.53 4.89–7.01 0.47–0.33

45.8 7.01–10.2 0.33–0.22

47.6 7.47–10.9 0.31–0.21

38.2 2.03–5.20 1.12–0.44

48.15 8.25–11.2 0.28–0.20

33.4 7.00–11.4 0.33–0.20

32.71 7.53–7.98 0.30–0.29

52.5 4.80–5.02 0.48–0.45

16.77 5.36–5.87 0.43–0.39

14.89 5.64–5.94 0.40–0.38

38 4.80–6.30 0.48–0.36

31.56 4.21–5.12 0.54–0.45

**(ha/TLU)**

*Types of tropical pastures, grazing values, productivities, carrying capacities (1988–2018).*

*Hyparrhenia involucrata* from Guineo-sudanese and the lowest is *Setaria longiseta* and *Sporobolus pyramidalis* from Sudanese zone.

#### **5. Grasses and Grassland properties**

#### **5.1 Grasses and Grassland food and fodder properties**

#### *5.1.1 Native forage grasses*

Temperate wild or permanent and extensive *Grassland* can hold up to 100 plant species per hectare. More than 120 native tropical forage *Grasses* in Africa have been studied and found to less contribute to productivities of respective communities. Special attention has been given to their ecology for better production and rational use [3, 4, 12, 16–19].

#### *5.1.2 Introduced fodder grasses*

The temperate *Grassland* cultivated or more intensive breeding include the following species: Brome (*Bromus secalinus*), Dactyle (*Dactylis glomerata*), *Festulolium* (more than 40 cultivars), High Fescue (*Festuca arundinacea*), Meadow Fescue (*Festuca pratensis*), Meadow Timothy (*Phleum pratense*), meadow Pâturin (*Poa pratensis*), English Ray-grass (*Lolium perenne*), Italian Ray-grass (*Lolium multiflorum* Lam.), Hybrid Ray-grass (*Lolium hybridum*)*,* legumes species such as Cornish lotier (*Lotus corniculatus*), cultivated Luzerne (*Medicago sativa*), cultivated Sainfoin (*Onobrychis viciifolia*), White Clover (*Trifolium repens*), Alexandria Clover (*Trifolium alexandrinum* L.), Micheli Clover (*Trifolium michelianum* Savi.), Hybrid Clover (*Trifolium hybridum*), Incarnate Clover (*Trifolium incarnatum* L.), and Purple Clover (*Trifolium pratense*).

About 30 exotic *Grasses* were introduced from 1987 to 2015 in Southern Sahara, with 17 mainly fodder [7 *Panicum* species (6 varieties of *P. maximum* and *P. coloratum*) and 5 species of *Brachiaria*] [15, 20]. These samples in seagrass beds and on experimental plots are available in the National Institute of Agricultural Research (INRAB), the Faculty of Agronomic Sciences, other research institutions such as ILRI/ILCA (Kenya), FAO (Rome/Italy), CIAT (Colombia), IDESSA (Bouake/Côte d'Ivoire), Democratic Republic of Congo and ILCA (Nigeria).

*Panicum maximum* C1 and *Pennisetum purpureum* are adopted and grown on seedling in density ranging from 30 cm 30 cm to 40 cm 40 cm. Several introduced species such as cereals, forage, ornamental and medicinal plants, have already become part of local flora like *Bambusa vulgaris*.

*Vegetable bricks*: Cereals are *well* provided with protein a little less than meat (7–

combination with legumes (chickpeas, lentils, soya … ), one providing each other with the essential amino acid that they lack to cover human needs (cereals are deficient in lysine, well represented in legumes, which are lacking methionine). Hence, traditional associations are corn + red beans in Mexico, rice + lentils in India, wheat semolina + chickpeas in couscous, and rice + peas

*Smooth transit*: Unrefined cereals *are* naturally rich in fibers, which, when indigestible, increases stool volume and promotes stool elimination. These fibers also contribute to satiety through a mechanical effect on the stomach. *Mineral wealth*: Cereals contain *good* quantities of vitamins of the B group, beneficial for the nervous system, but also vitamin E, antioxidant and many minerals, with mainly magnesium and calcium. **Table 3** highlights some main

An important cereal food property is Gluten availability. Gluten or prolamin is a protein fraction. Cereals mainly contain it, especially wheat, oat, and barley flour while rice flour is almost exempt from it. Cereals hold sugar (Starch) and protein

> Interesting for vegans Beaded, crushed, flakes, flour

Thyroid moderator

control, cooked, sprouted

Risottos, pilaf, entremets

Bread, whole, crushed, flakes, flour Soft laxative and depurative

Sensitive stomach and intestines Flour, soups, cakes, coffee substitute

Good for nervous balance Flakes, flour, bread, syrup

Flakes, flour

Blood thinner

Hypotoxic diet Anti-stress

Grains, starch, flakes, flour, syrup

Flakes + soy milk, soup, porridge Bread, pancakes, Muesli cakes

Anti-asthenic, invigorating, stimulant infection

14%), the richest being wheat and oats). Optimizing them require

*Introductory Chapter: Milestones in* Grasses and Grassland *Research*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90770*

in Cantonese rice.

advantages.

**Cereals Characteristics Use**

Rich in fibers, Vitamin B12,

High glycemic index,

Digestive, diuretic, tonic,

Low in proteins (about 7 g)

Silicon, Vitamins B, fibers

Rich in K and B vitamins Less "dirty" than wheat Contains gluten

8 essential amino acids 11–16% of proteins, high Mg

Highly digestible Less gluten than wheat

Wheat Rich in Mg, vitamins B1, PP, E Gliadin

Barley Low energy and fat

Corn Sweet taste

Gluten

energetics

Millet Rich in iron, high vitamin A and phosphorus

Oats Richest in proteins (14.2 g), lipids, Ca, Cu Most energetic Gluten light

> hypoglycemic Lower bad cholesterol Thyroid gland stimulators

Rice Richest in carbohydrates

and lipids

Rye High proteins (about 12 g)

Spelt (primitive wheat)

*Cereals feeding properties.*

**Table 3.**

**11**

*Grasses* are for several uses: food, fodder, industrial, medicinal, etc. Smaller local cereals are *Digitaria exilis, Oryza glaberrima, Eleusine coracana*, and *Digitaria iburua. Eleusine coracana*, quite recent expansion is mostly grown in mountains. *Digitaria* spp. are famine consumed, mainly *D. exilis* in West Africa, *D. debilis* and *D. iburua* in East Africa (Cameroon). Industrial cereals are rice (*Oryza sativa*) grown in plains and valleys. Wheat (*Triticum aestivum*) is grown on plates in batch production. *Oryza longistaminata* and *O. barthii* are not yet cultivated. *Panicum laetum* and *Cenchrus biflorus* are eaten locally as well as *Brachiaria xantholeuca, Dactyloctenium aegyptium, Echinochloa colona, E. pyramidalis, E. stagnina, Setaria pumila*, and *Sorghum arundinaceum*. Sugar cane (*Saccharum officinarum*) is grown in rural gardens from the south of West Africa (Benin, Cameroon, Sierra Leone, Ghana, Nigeria, Togo, and Guinea) and mainly used for sucking. *Sorghum*, which is not a new crop, is a regional cereal, subjected to large international commercial transactions. It is one of the most important cereals grown especially in arid and semiarid land ecosystems. Holding multiple-use properties, all *Grasses* are browsed by livestock, mostly at juvenile stages and recent is *Grasses and Grassland* developments. *Grassland* improvement by livestock farming and forage stations is based on species such as *Brachiaria ruziziensis*, *Cenchrus ciliaris*, *Panicum* varieties, *Pennisetum clandestinum*, *Pennisetum purpureum*, and *Tripsacum laxum*. *Pennisetum clandestinum* is found on some mountain *Grassland*. *Ischaemum timorense* and *I. indicum* belong to introduced species.

A cultivated forage species is selected based on the following criteria:


#### *5.1.3 Cereals*

Cereals belong to *Grasses* family. Following are some of their feeding properties: *A natural fuel*: Cereals hold 70–80% carbohydrates especially starch. They are complex or slow carbohydrates, gradually intestine absorbed, and diffusing energy over time, unlike simple sugars. In its complete form, their shell and fibers slow down this absorption even further. The glycemic index (GI) measures a food ability to increase blood sugar levels within 2 h of ingestion. The higher this GI is, the faster the food is assimilated, and the sooner the feeling of hunger can manifest itself. Whole grains have a low GI, which increases when grains are processed (ground, mixed, blown, extruded … ) because their sugars are then more quickly and easily assimilated.

*Introductory Chapter: Milestones in* Grasses and Grassland *Research DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90770*

*Panicum maximum* C1 and *Pennisetum purpureum* are adopted and grown on seedling in density ranging from 30 cm 30 cm to 40 cm 40 cm. Several introduced species such as cereals, forage, ornamental and medicinal plants, have already

A cultivated forage species is selected based on the following criteria:

1.Ability to produce good seeds, spread by runners, rhizomes, or stem cuttings;

2.Being vigorous, high-yielding, palatable and nutritious, leafy, good foliar

4.Ability to survive a dry season, provide pasture for a good part of the dry

5. Intended for temporary use, being capable of being eradicated with relative

Cereals belong to *Grasses* family. Following are some of their feeding properties: *A natural fuel*: Cereals hold 70–80% carbohydrates especially starch. They are complex or slow carbohydrates, gradually intestine absorbed, and diffusing energy over time, unlike simple sugars. In its complete form, their shell and fibers slow down this absorption even further. The glycemic index (GI) measures a food ability to increase blood sugar levels within 2 h of ingestion. The higher this GI is, the faster the food is assimilated, and the sooner the feeling of hunger can manifest itself. Whole grains have a low GI, which increases when grains are processed (ground, mixed, blown, extruded … )

because their sugars are then more quickly and easily assimilated.

*Grasses* are for several uses: food, fodder, industrial, medicinal, etc. Smaller local cereals are *Digitaria exilis, Oryza glaberrima, Eleusine coracana*, and *Digitaria iburua. Eleusine coracana*, quite recent expansion is mostly grown in mountains. *Digitaria* spp. are famine consumed, mainly *D. exilis* in West Africa, *D. debilis* and *D. iburua* in East Africa (Cameroon). Industrial cereals are rice (*Oryza sativa*) grown in plains and valleys. Wheat (*Triticum aestivum*) is grown on plates in batch production. *Oryza longistaminata* and *O. barthii* are not yet cultivated. *Panicum laetum* and *Cenchrus biflorus* are eaten locally as well as *Brachiaria xantholeuca, Dactyloctenium aegyptium, Echinochloa colona, E. pyramidalis, E. stagnina, Setaria pumila*, and *Sorghum arundinaceum*. Sugar cane (*Saccharum officinarum*) is grown in rural gardens from the south of West Africa (Benin, Cameroon, Sierra Leone, Ghana, Nigeria, Togo, and Guinea) and mainly used for sucking. *Sorghum*, which is not a new crop, is a regional cereal, subjected to large international commercial transactions. It is one of the most important cereals grown especially in arid and semiarid land ecosystems. Holding multiple-use properties, all *Grasses* are browsed by livestock, mostly at juvenile stages and recent is *Grasses and Grassland* developments. *Grassland* improvement by livestock farming and forage stations is based on species such as *Brachiaria ruziziensis*, *Cenchrus ciliaris*, *Panicum* varieties, *Pennisetum clandestinum*, *Pennisetum purpureum*, and *Tripsacum laxum*. *Pennisetum clandestinum* is found on some mountain *Grassland*. *Ischaemum timorense* and *I.*

become part of local flora like *Bambusa vulgaris*.

*Grasses and Grassland Aspects*

*indicum* belong to introduced species.

quality and late flowering;

season;

ease.

*5.1.3 Cereals*

**10**

3.Resistant under intensive grazing;


An important cereal food property is Gluten availability. Gluten or prolamin is a protein fraction. Cereals mainly contain it, especially wheat, oat, and barley flour while rice flour is almost exempt from it. Cereals hold sugar (Starch) and protein


**Table 3.** *Cereals feeding properties.*

#### *Grasses and Grassland Aspects*

(Gluten). Gluten contains glutellins and prolamins. There are different types of prolamins and glutellins: wheat, for example, is composed of glutenin (glutin side) and gliadin (prolamin side). It is these combined elements that give elasticity to the bread dough and allow the air bubbles to be enclosed. The higher the prolamin content, the higher the leaven on bread. Several cereals are used in feeding human over the world.

*Grasses* contain toxic prolamins such as rye secalin, orange hordein, corn zenin, oat avenin, or wheat prolamin (gliadin), which are well known for toxicity. For this reason, these cereals are generally banned from the diet of people more sensitive to gluten toxicity. All cereal *Grasses* contain gluten (**Table 4**). However, prolamin levels are sometimes so low that prolamin intolerants may consume some of them.

Wheat, Kamut, and Spelt are the richest in gluten while rice contains insignificant amounts, as well as buckwheat. These cereals could perfectly fit intolerant persons as gluten-free flours in shops and supermarkets.

Fonio (*Digitaria exile* and *D. iburua*) as the oldest cereal of ethical minorities in arid sub-Saharan Africa is of nutritional properties as the richest in Mg, Ca, Fe, and Zn, which contributes to properly functioning of the immune system. It is glutenfree and contains twice as many amino acids as other cereals. It can be consumed by coeliac disease victims or wheat allergy, as it contains less protein than others and similar to white rice in composition. No major scientific studies have looked specifically at Fonio. However, being considered as a whole grain, we know about their positive impacts on the risk of cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, constipation, overweight, cancers including colorectal cancer.

Gradually, these elements rise until an arena beach becomes a field. Bundles of millet stalks and certain *Grasses* (**Table 5**) are arranged to also retain fine

**Anti-erosive practices** *Grasses* **species used Organs used Localities**

Stoloniferous roots

Stems Walls

Roots, stolons Uplands

Stems, stolons Plains and

Stems Mountains

foothills

Mountains

*Digitaria argillacea* (Hitchcock and Chase) *Rottboellia cochinchinensis* (Lour.) W.

*Setaria sphacelata* (Schumach.) Stapf and

*Sorghum caudatum* (Lithosols Sorghums) *Sorghum durra* (Transplanted Sorghums)

Bunds gridding Off- seasoned Sorghums Stems Uplands

*Sorghum caudatum* (Hack.) Stapf. *Sorghum durra* (Forssk.) Trab.

*Cynodon dactylon (L.) Persoon*

Terraces *Adiantum philippense* L. (Ferns)

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90770*

Clayton

1817

C.E.Hubb.

Rock slabs *Pennisetum typhoides* (Burm.) Stapf. and Hubb.

*Introductory Chapter: Milestones in* Grasses and Grassland *Research*

Improved fallow lands *Setaria pumila* (Poir.) Roem. and Schult.,

Terraces are maintained by particular crops in the blocks interstices, including *Stoloniferous Grasses* such as *Cynodon dactylon* and *Adiantum philipensis,* i.e., a small fern. *Rottboellia cochinchinensis* and *Digitaria argillacea* are cutting and offer 2–3 cuts

Facing foothills and plains land insecurity, new intensive and elaborate antierosive practices help to recover hard land (halomorphic soils), which have often been abandoned as a village cattle parking lot. Farmers dig holes 1.5–2 m apart and 35–40 cm in diameter with as much depth in the compacted horizon. They spread all around the manure, fill the holes in the second or third year, and cultivate a first time with the plow, early *sorghum*. Seasoned *sorghums* are grown annually. At this stage, a grid of bunds of 30 cm height is mounted for better water contention. Planting *Setaria pumila* and *Setaria sphacelata* improve fallow lands [22]. Halomorphous soils restoration occurs between 4 and 6 years. In such context, clusters of rocks, as well as halomorphic areas deemed uncultivated, can give fields. The anti-erosive aspect serves essential crops, *Sorghums* of Lithosols Mountain and

*Grasses* from wetlands mostly grew for ornamental purposes in dryland irrigation systems (**Table 6**). *Axonopus compressus*, *Cynodon dactylon*, and *Paspalum conjugatum* grew in urban and peri-urban areas, particularly in South Africa (Cape Town, Johannesburg, Pretoria), Benin (Cotonou, Ouidah, Parakou, Porto-Novo), Cameroon (Ngaoundé, Bertoua, Yaounde, Douala), Sierra Leone (Freetown, Njala), Liberia (Monrovia), Senegal (Dakar, Saint Louis, Ziguinchor), Congo (Kisangani, Kinshasa, Brazzaville), Ethiopia (Addis Ababa), Ghana (Cape Coast, Tema, Kumasi, Accra), Nigeria (Abuja, Abeokuta, Shagamu, Idjebu-Ode, Lagos, Ibadan, Ogbomosho, Oyo, Iseyin, Makurdi, Awka, Kaduna, Maiduguri, Yenagoa, Asaba,

elements [21].

Plant defensive systems

Pseudo-terraces Restored halomorphic

floors

**Table 5.**

**13**

for cattle feeding in rainy seasons.

*Anti-erosive* grasses *(adapted from IRD1995–1996).*

transplanted *Sorghums*, all of which are free from fallow.

**5.3 Grasses and Grassland ornamental properties**

#### **5.2 Grasses and Grassland anti-erosive properties**

Anti-erosive practices favor mounts terraces and foothills covering massifs. Terraces create fields on slopes and among blocks. Millet stalks retain elements from disintegration in place of granite rock slabs of walls sealed with gravel.


#### **Table 4.**

*Classification of food* grasses *according to gluten content.*


#### **Table 5.**

(Gluten). Gluten contains glutellins and prolamins. There are different types of prolamins and glutellins: wheat, for example, is composed of glutenin (glutin side) and gliadin (prolamin side). It is these combined elements that give elasticity to the bread dough and allow the air bubbles to be enclosed. The higher the prolamin content, the higher the leaven on bread. Several cereals are used in feeding human

*Grasses* contain toxic prolamins such as rye secalin, orange hordein, corn zenin, oat avenin, or wheat prolamin (gliadin), which are well known for toxicity. For this reason, these cereals are generally banned from the diet of people more sensitive to gluten toxicity. All cereal *Grasses* contain gluten (**Table 4**). However, prolamin levels are sometimes so low that prolamin intolerants may consume some of them. Wheat, Kamut, and Spelt are the richest in gluten while rice contains insignificant amounts, as well as buckwheat. These cereals could perfectly fit intolerant

Fonio (*Digitaria exile* and *D. iburua*) as the oldest cereal of ethical minorities in arid sub-Saharan Africa is of nutritional properties as the richest in Mg, Ca, Fe, and Zn, which contributes to properly functioning of the immune system. It is glutenfree and contains twice as many amino acids as other cereals. It can be consumed by coeliac disease victims or wheat allergy, as it contains less protein than others and similar to white rice in composition. No major scientific studies have looked specifically at Fonio. However, being considered as a whole grain, we know about their positive impacts on the risk of cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, constipation,

Anti-erosive practices favor mounts terraces and foothills covering massifs. Terraces create fields on slopes and among blocks. Millet stalks retain elements from disintegration in place of granite rock slabs of walls sealed with gravel.

**(prolamin)**

Alpha gliadin 69

Not identified ˂10

**Prolamin content (%)**

persons as gluten-free flours in shops and supermarkets.

overweight, cancers including colorectal cancer.

1 Wheat *Triticum aestivum L. subsp. spelta* (L.)

11 Fonio *Digitaria exilis*(Kippist) Stapf

*Classification of food* grasses *according to gluten content.*

**Table 4.**

**12**

**5.2 Grasses and Grassland anti-erosive properties**

**Rank Cereal Scientific name Gluten type**

Thell.

*Digitaria iburua Stapf*

12 Rice *Oryza sativa L.* Oryznin 5

2 Spelt *Triticum spelta* L. Alpha gliadin 69 3 Kamut *Triticum turanicum* D. Love Alpha gliadin 69 4 Corn *Zea mays L.* Zenin 55 5 Sorghum *Sorghum bicolor* (L.) Moench Cafirin 52 6 Barley *Hordeum vulgare L.* Hordenin 46–52 7 Rye *Secale cereale L.* Secalin 30–50 8 Millet *Pennisetum glaucum* (L.) R.Br. Panicin 40 9 Oat *Avena sativa L.* Avenin 20–30 10 Tef *Eragrotis abyssinica* (Jacq.) Link Not identified 12

over the world.

*Grasses and Grassland Aspects*

*Anti-erosive* grasses *(adapted from IRD1995–1996).*

Gradually, these elements rise until an arena beach becomes a field. Bundles of millet stalks and certain *Grasses* (**Table 5**) are arranged to also retain fine elements [21].

Terraces are maintained by particular crops in the blocks interstices, including *Stoloniferous Grasses* such as *Cynodon dactylon* and *Adiantum philipensis,* i.e., a small fern. *Rottboellia cochinchinensis* and *Digitaria argillacea* are cutting and offer 2–3 cuts for cattle feeding in rainy seasons.

Facing foothills and plains land insecurity, new intensive and elaborate antierosive practices help to recover hard land (halomorphic soils), which have often been abandoned as a village cattle parking lot. Farmers dig holes 1.5–2 m apart and 35–40 cm in diameter with as much depth in the compacted horizon. They spread all around the manure, fill the holes in the second or third year, and cultivate a first time with the plow, early *sorghum*. Seasoned *sorghums* are grown annually. At this stage, a grid of bunds of 30 cm height is mounted for better water contention. Planting *Setaria pumila* and *Setaria sphacelata* improve fallow lands [22]. Halomorphous soils restoration occurs between 4 and 6 years. In such context, clusters of rocks, as well as halomorphic areas deemed uncultivated, can give fields. The anti-erosive aspect serves essential crops, *Sorghums* of Lithosols Mountain and transplanted *Sorghums*, all of which are free from fallow.

#### **5.3 Grasses and Grassland ornamental properties**

*Grasses* from wetlands mostly grew for ornamental purposes in dryland irrigation systems (**Table 6**). *Axonopus compressus*, *Cynodon dactylon*, and *Paspalum conjugatum* grew in urban and peri-urban areas, particularly in South Africa (Cape Town, Johannesburg, Pretoria), Benin (Cotonou, Ouidah, Parakou, Porto-Novo), Cameroon (Ngaoundé, Bertoua, Yaounde, Douala), Sierra Leone (Freetown, Njala), Liberia (Monrovia), Senegal (Dakar, Saint Louis, Ziguinchor), Congo (Kisangani, Kinshasa, Brazzaville), Ethiopia (Addis Ababa), Ghana (Cape Coast, Tema, Kumasi, Accra), Nigeria (Abuja, Abeokuta, Shagamu, Idjebu-Ode, Lagos, Ibadan, Ogbomosho, Oyo, Iseyin, Makurdi, Awka, Kaduna, Maiduguri, Yenagoa, Asaba,


#### **Table 6.**

*Main ornamental* grasses.

Calabar, Enugu, Akure, Port Harcourt, Bonny, Ahoada, South and North Sokoto, Lafia, Kano, Owerri, Minna, Ilorin, Gombe, Ado Ekiti, Dutse, Katsina, Benin-City, Abakaliki, Lokoja, Osogbo, Jos, Jalingo, Donga, Damaturu and Gusau), Morocco (Casablanca, Tanger, Marrackech, Raba). In addition, two cosmopolitan seal (*Axonopus compressus* and *Paspalum conjugatum*) with *Chrysopogon aciculatus* mark lawns of African, Asian, European, American and Australian coastal cities. *C. aciculatus* outcrops gardens of East and West African airports.

*zizanioides*, *Cymbopogon schoenanthus* and *C. densiflorus*, cultivated in Cameroon's Adamaoua region, offer essential oils which are widely used in crop protection,

**Grass species Aromes Utilizations References**

Essential oil Tenacious smell, perfumery, cosmetics, strong,

Coumarins Medicinal, culinary, cosmetic and economic *properties*, cultivation

herbicides, anti-microbial, antioxidant

Essential oil Bio-energy, biofuel, bio-crude oil, diesel [27]

Aroma Purgative, spines, burrs, toxics, pest host [30, 31]

neurobehaviorial

Burnt panicles with odoriferous fumes for ceremonials, anti-amoebic, antibacterial, antidiarrheal, antifilarial, antifungal, antioxidants, antimalarial, hypoglycemic, anti-inflammatory, antimutagenicity, antimycobacterial,

Pesticids, acaricids, ovycids [25]

Biogas, construction, medicinal [28]

pleasant and lasting notes from flavors, insecticides,

[23, 24]

[26]

[29]

Ninety-five volatile compounds, representing 75.4% of the total area, were identified in essential oils from *Grasses and Grassland* plants, with each of remaining peaks accounting for less than 0.01%. Terpenoid family is mostly abundant with 14 monoterpenes, 24 monoterpene derivatives, 18 sesquiterpenes, and 11 sesquiterpene derivatives, together accounting for 61.1% of total peak area. Besides, were seven benzenic compounds accounting for 12%. Benzenic compounds dill apiole and carvacrol were mostly abundant in essential oil after sesquiterpene germacrene D. The other compounds (1 ketone, 6 aldehydes, 4 alcohols, 3 esters, and 7 alkanes) accounted for 2.3%. Essential oil from *Grasses and Grassland* contained the usual

All organs from *Grasses* are found with specific medicinal virtues for human and

*Grass seeds* generally exert a particular action on the nervous system, which

result in dizziness, and a body tremor as the case for ryegrass and *Festuca*

storages, veterinary and human medicines.

*Some aromatic* grasses*, aromes and usages.*

terpenes [32–34].

**15**

*Cymbopogon citratus (D.C) Stapf. Cymbopogon densiflorus (Steud.)*

*Melinis minutiflora* P. Beauv.

*Vetiveria zizanoides* (L.) Nash

*Miscanthus spp. Miscanthus sacchariflorus* (Maxim.) Franch

*Arundo donax L. A. phragmites L.*

*Nardus stricta* L.,

*Bromus catharticus* Vahl, 1791

1753 *Anthoxantum odoratum* L., 1753

**Table 7.**

Essential oil Citral

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90770*

*Introductory Chapter: Milestones in* Grasses and Grassland *Research*

Cumin aroma, essential oil

Oils, lignin, alkaloids

*Stapf Cymbopogon schoenanthus* (L.) Spreng., 1815

animal well-being (**Table 8**).

*5.4.2 Grasses and Grassland essential oils composition*

*5.4.3* Grasses and Grassland *medicinal properties*

African landscapes are dominated by bamboo (*Phyllostachys aurea*) while those of northern cities (Europe, America, Australia, and Asia) are distinguished by cultivation of *Oxythenantera abyssinica*. *Cymbopogon citratus* is dominant in ornamental and medicinal gardens. *Stenotaphrum secundatum* marks lawns of East African marine coasts, and *Polytrias diversiflora*, Municipal and University botanical gardens. Linear foliage and flowers in form of ears sometimes feathery appear in autumn and bring a graceful and light touch. Near a resting place or water garden, the rustling and swaying of leaves and ears of corn bring into Morpheus' arms. Moreover, *Miscanthus* (*Miscanthus*), Panic (*Panicum*) and *Calamagrostis* (*Calamagrostis*) are other values.

#### **5.4 Grasses and Grassland aromatic properties**

#### *5.4.1 Aromatic properties*

Several aromatic species are grown mostly for oils i.e. lemongrass *Cymbopogon citratus* and *Melinis minutiflora* grown in African gardens (**Table 7**). *Vetiveria*


#### **Table 7.**

Calabar, Enugu, Akure, Port Harcourt, Bonny, Ahoada, South and North Sokoto, Lafia, Kano, Owerri, Minna, Ilorin, Gombe, Ado Ekiti, Dutse, Katsina, Benin-City, Abakaliki, Lokoja, Osogbo, Jos, Jalingo, Donga, Damaturu and Gusau), Morocco (Casablanca, Tanger, Marrackech, Raba). In addition, two cosmopolitan seal (*Axonopus compressus* and *Paspalum conjugatum*) with *Chrysopogon aciculatus* mark lawns of African, Asian, European, American and Australian coastal cities. *C.*

**Species Locations Utilizations Ecoregions**

Cosmopilites Ornamental, fodder

Home gardens Ornamental and

Botanical Gardens Ornamental and

Botanical Gardens, Southern Cities (Wetlands)

Ornamental, fodder and, medicinal

and medicinal

Airports — Cosmopolites

medicinal

medicinal

Tropical wet and dry

Tropical dry and wet

Tropical wet, dry

dry Temperate

and dry

Tropical, temperate

Fences and medicinal Tropical wet,

Fences and handcrafts Tropical wet

Cities bordering African

marine Coast

*Axonopus compressus* (Sw.) P.

*Grasses and Grassland Aspects*

*Chrysopogon aciculatus* (Retz.)

*Paspalum conjugatum* P.J.

*Vetiveria nigritana* (Benth.)

*Axonopus compressus* (Sw.) P.

*Cynodon dactylon (L.) Persoon Paspalum conjugatum* P.J.

*Chrysopogon aciculatus* (Retz.)

*Cymbopogon citratus (D.C)*

*Oxythenantera abyssinica* A.

*Polytrias diversiflora* (Steud.)

*Stenotaphrum secundatum* (Walter) Kuntze

*Main ornamental* grasses.

*Phyllostachys aurea Koï* Gardens of northern cities

(drylands)

Beauv.

Trin.

Bergius

Stapf

Beauv.

Bergius

Trin.

*Stapf.*

Nash

**Table 6.**

Rich. Munro

African landscapes are dominated by bamboo (*Phyllostachys aurea*) while those of northern cities (Europe, America, Australia, and Asia) are distinguished by cultivation of *Oxythenantera abyssinica*. *Cymbopogon citratus* is dominant in ornamental and medicinal gardens. *Stenotaphrum secundatum* marks lawns of East African marine coasts, and *Polytrias diversiflora*, Municipal and University botanical gardens. Linear foliage and flowers in form of ears sometimes feathery appear in autumn and bring a graceful and light touch. Near a resting place or water garden, the rustling and swaying of leaves and ears of corn bring into Morpheus' arms. Moreover, *Miscanthus* (*Miscanthus*), Panic (*Panicum*) and *Calamagrostis* (*Calamagrostis*) are other values.

Several aromatic species are grown mostly for oils i.e. lemongrass *Cymbopogon*

*citratus* and *Melinis minutiflora* grown in African gardens (**Table 7**). *Vetiveria*

*aciculatus* outcrops gardens of East and West African airports.

**5.4 Grasses and Grassland aromatic properties**

*5.4.1 Aromatic properties*

**14**

*Some aromatic* grasses*, aromes and usages.*

*zizanioides*, *Cymbopogon schoenanthus* and *C. densiflorus*, cultivated in Cameroon's Adamaoua region, offer essential oils which are widely used in crop protection, storages, veterinary and human medicines.

#### *5.4.2 Grasses and Grassland essential oils composition*

Ninety-five volatile compounds, representing 75.4% of the total area, were identified in essential oils from *Grasses and Grassland* plants, with each of remaining peaks accounting for less than 0.01%. Terpenoid family is mostly abundant with 14 monoterpenes, 24 monoterpene derivatives, 18 sesquiterpenes, and 11 sesquiterpene derivatives, together accounting for 61.1% of total peak area. Besides, were seven benzenic compounds accounting for 12%. Benzenic compounds dill apiole and carvacrol were mostly abundant in essential oil after sesquiterpene germacrene D. The other compounds (1 ketone, 6 aldehydes, 4 alcohols, 3 esters, and 7 alkanes) accounted for 2.3%. Essential oil from *Grasses and Grassland* contained the usual terpenes [32–34].

#### *5.4.3* Grasses and Grassland *medicinal properties*

All organs from *Grasses* are found with specific medicinal virtues for human and animal well-being (**Table 8**).

*Grass seeds* generally exert a particular action on the nervous system, which result in dizziness, and a body tremor as the case for ryegrass and *Festuca*


*quadridentata* seeds in Peru. *Grasses* stems contain sugar before the seeds mature, which gradually disappears. It is especially abundant in sorghum, corn, and optimal only in sugar cane (*Saccharum officinarum*). Fresh sugar cane contains 18% of his sugar weight. However, these odorless stems show aromatic properties in some grasses, such as *Cymbopogon schoenanthus* (sweet rush), *Anthoxanthum odoratum* (sweet rush), *Cymbopogon nardus* (*Ceylon citronella*), and *Cymbopogon citratus*

Aromatic *Grasses* are known to be responsible for benzoic acid presence and an associated essential oil in herbivores urine. More specifically, *Saccharum fatuum* from Otahiti (French Polynesia) and *Bromus catharticus* from Peru are used to

*Grasses roots* are sometimes used in medicine. Most are odorless, providing only little sugar and gum to the water. Main ones are: *Carex arenaria* (fake sarsaparilla), dogs: *Panicum repens* (Torpedo grass), *Imperata cylindrica* (Spear *grass*), *Cynodon*

Some *Grass* roots are aromatic. This is the case with *Vetiveria odorata*, which contains a resin with a myrrh smell associated with volatile oil. *Vetiveria*' roots from

*Grass seeds* provide a viscous drink in water; this seed decoction contains sugar, and gluten which dissolves with acetic and phosphoric acids. An herbal tea is made by mixing rice seed, oatmeal and barley. This drink contains grape sugar, dextrin, starch and gluten. The cane and quackgrass root are used to prepare soft drinks: quackgrass scales washed in cold water, contoured in a mortar and boiled for a quarter of an hour. Quackgrass (*Imperata cylindrica*) extracts are also obtained by roots leaching. *Grass starch* is used in many preparations to treat some humans and

Evidently, restoring native *Grasses* and *Grassland* is highly desirable. To that end, scientists might build models predicting human disturbance on global *Grassland* and assessing the climate-biosphere feedbacks as light grazing promoted soil C and N sequestration whereas moderate and heavy grazing significantly accelerated C and N losses. Indeed, light grazing also increase the above and belowground biomass, stimulate more fixed C allocated to roots and increase root exudates and biomass [47]. This enhances soil C accumulation as well N inputs into soils [48]. Meanwhile, light grazing also stimulate soil respiration by increasing temperature and moisture, enhancing ground cover, decreasing compaction, stimulating plant growth and microbial activities [49, 50]. However, both moderate and heavy grazing markedly decrease soil carbon pool and soil nitrogen pool as grazing decrease litter biomass, root C pool and microbial biomass and then lower C

Fire remains a major disruption to evolution and management as well as determining *Grasses and Grassland* ecosystems. Fire is known for improving framework and resource environments, i.e., animal and livestock habitat. Prescribed fire is a tool for modern pasture management. Seasonal uses of fires, herbicide and nitrogen applications become promising, as desirable *grass* biomass increases while invasive plant biomass decreases. About three types of fires are mostly used in Tropics [52] for example, i.e. (a) *early fires* applied when the soil moisture degree is still sufficient to produce *grass* regrowth that is highly valued by livestock and covers their forage needs during the dry season. It cleans the straw left on the ground at the end of dry season. Its ignition date coincides with the end of the rainy season

(Citronella and Indian verbena).

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90770*

Brazil served as a powerful sudorific.

*dactylon* (Couch *grass*), and *Arundo donax* (cane root).

*Introductory Chapter: Milestones in* Grasses and Grassland *Research*

**5.5** *Grasses and Grassland* **ecological properties**

intoxicate fishes.

animals' diseases.

inputs to soils [51].

**17**

#### **Table 8.**

*Forage* grasses *and cereals specific medicinal properties.*

*Introductory Chapter: Milestones in* Grasses and Grassland *Research DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90770*

*quadridentata* seeds in Peru. *Grasses* stems contain sugar before the seeds mature, which gradually disappears. It is especially abundant in sorghum, corn, and optimal only in sugar cane (*Saccharum officinarum*). Fresh sugar cane contains 18% of his sugar weight. However, these odorless stems show aromatic properties in some grasses, such as *Cymbopogon schoenanthus* (sweet rush), *Anthoxanthum odoratum* (sweet rush), *Cymbopogon nardus* (*Ceylon citronella*), and *Cymbopogon citratus* (Citronella and Indian verbena).

Aromatic *Grasses* are known to be responsible for benzoic acid presence and an associated essential oil in herbivores urine. More specifically, *Saccharum fatuum* from Otahiti (French Polynesia) and *Bromus catharticus* from Peru are used to intoxicate fishes.

*Grasses roots* are sometimes used in medicine. Most are odorless, providing only little sugar and gum to the water. Main ones are: *Carex arenaria* (fake sarsaparilla), dogs: *Panicum repens* (Torpedo grass), *Imperata cylindrica* (Spear *grass*), *Cynodon dactylon* (Couch *grass*), and *Arundo donax* (cane root).

Some *Grass* roots are aromatic. This is the case with *Vetiveria odorata*, which contains a resin with a myrrh smell associated with volatile oil. *Vetiveria*' roots from Brazil served as a powerful sudorific.

*Grass seeds* provide a viscous drink in water; this seed decoction contains sugar, and gluten which dissolves with acetic and phosphoric acids. An herbal tea is made by mixing rice seed, oatmeal and barley. This drink contains grape sugar, dextrin, starch and gluten. The cane and quackgrass root are used to prepare soft drinks: quackgrass scales washed in cold water, contoured in a mortar and boiled for a quarter of an hour. Quackgrass (*Imperata cylindrica*) extracts are also obtained by roots leaching. *Grass starch* is used in many preparations to treat some humans and animals' diseases.

#### **5.5** *Grasses and Grassland* **ecological properties**

Evidently, restoring native *Grasses* and *Grassland* is highly desirable. To that end, scientists might build models predicting human disturbance on global *Grassland* and assessing the climate-biosphere feedbacks as light grazing promoted soil C and N sequestration whereas moderate and heavy grazing significantly accelerated C and N losses. Indeed, light grazing also increase the above and belowground biomass, stimulate more fixed C allocated to roots and increase root exudates and biomass [47]. This enhances soil C accumulation as well N inputs into soils [48]. Meanwhile, light grazing also stimulate soil respiration by increasing temperature and moisture, enhancing ground cover, decreasing compaction, stimulating plant growth and microbial activities [49, 50]. However, both moderate and heavy grazing markedly decrease soil carbon pool and soil nitrogen pool as grazing decrease litter biomass, root C pool and microbial biomass and then lower C inputs to soils [51].

Fire remains a major disruption to evolution and management as well as determining *Grasses and Grassland* ecosystems. Fire is known for improving framework and resource environments, i.e., animal and livestock habitat. Prescribed fire is a tool for modern pasture management. Seasonal uses of fires, herbicide and nitrogen applications become promising, as desirable *grass* biomass increases while invasive plant biomass decreases. About three types of fires are mostly used in Tropics [52] for example, i.e. (a) *early fires* applied when the soil moisture degree is still sufficient to produce *grass* regrowth that is highly valued by livestock and covers their forage needs during the dry season. It cleans the straw left on the ground at the end of dry season. Its ignition date coincides with the end of the rainy season

**Scientific name**

*Andropogon spp*

*Cenchrus ciliaris* L.

*Cynodon dactylon* Pers.

*Eleusine indica* Gaertn

*Imperata cylindrica* (L.) Raeusch.

*Lolium temulentum* L.

*Panicum italicum* L.

*Setaria italic* Beauv.

*Hordeum vulgare* L.

*Triticum aestivum* L. subsp. *spelta* (L.) Thell.

**Table 8.**

**16**

*Cymbopogon spp*

**Common name**

> Leaf, root, stem

root part

Plant, Rhizome

Rhizome, leaves, flowers

Barley Grain Hydroalcoholic

Cotyledons, leaves

Wiregrass Leaves Oil Anti-inflammatory,

Decoction, powder

extract

Darnel Seed Powder Anti-arthritic [36]

Seed Extract Anti-arthritic [35]

Grain Parching Anti-arthritic [35]

cognition

Extract, juice Immunoprophylactic, anti-

astringent, immunomodulatory, phosphorus, antibacterial, anti-venomous, sources of vitamins A and C, calcium, magnesium, potassium

anemia, anti-leukemia, antiinflammatory, diuretic, antioxidant, laxative, antiaging anticarcinogenic;

Buffel grass Aerial and

True lemon grass

*Grasses and Grassland Aspects*

Melissa grass, Geranium grass

Bahama grass

Thatch grass, Cogon grass

Italian millet

Foxtail millet

Wheat grass

*Forage* grasses *and cereals specific medicinal properties.*

**Part used Dosage form Medicinal properties References**

Leaves Oil Anti-amoebic, antibacterial,

Oil, paste Anti-arthritic [35, 36]

anticancer, antidiarrheal, anti-filarial, antifungal and anti-inflammatory, antimalarial, antimutagenicity, antioxidants, anti-arthritic, antimycobacterial, hypoglycemic, neurobehavioral

[24, 38]

[39]

[40–42]

[43, 44]

[45, 46]

Oil Anti-cancer [37]

Extract Anti-arthritic [36]

Diuretic, anti-

antioxidants, anti-arthritic

inflammatory, antioxidant, immunomodulatory, neuroprotective

Anti-chronic diseases, promote sleep, antidiabetes, enhance immunity, protective liver, beauty antiacne, antioxidants, antidepressant, anticancer, improve gastrointestinal, anti-inflammation, hypolipidemic, preventive heart diseases, preventive constipation, improve

(mid-November to end of December, depending on the case). As results, it stimulates the growth of hemicryptophytes, improves primary biomass production of pastoral ecosystems and allows better land cover. (b) *Off-season fires* lit in the middle wet season and depends on: (i) the effort to conserve standing straw used as combustible for fire, (ii) the biomass ratio of "green matter/straw," which must be less than or equal to 1; where perennial *Grasses* abound, prescribed fires provide livestock with tender and palatable forage in a forage-deficit season. (c) *Late fires* applied when the degree of drying is maximum, very violent, compromising the regeneration of forest recruits and chamephytes species often despised by animals. It reduces woody plants density, promotes *Grass* growth, and accelerates bare beaches reducing by the way the pastures' carrying capacity.

But, using fire for sustainable *Grasses and Grassland* require optimal ecological conditions as well as specific well trained staffs.

Some species are important in regards to their roots which were highly used for human and animal medicine. These species (*Andropogon* spp., *Cenchrus* spp., *Cynodon dactylon* and *Imperata cylindrica*) appeared to be highly threatened and thus, their culture should be encouraged in order to make them more available for all needs.

It appears that all the listed *Grasses* are heavily attacked by a multitude of diseases and parasites (**Table 9**). Although efforts have been made to enable each of these plant species to provide the expected yields (productivity, food quality … ), from another point of view, it is important to highlight their overall major ecological


interest. Indeed, these species also serve as shelters and refuges or habitats as well as food resources for many of these parasites, i.e., insects, bacteria, fungi, etc. They therefore participate in the development of ecological niches in a context of habitat fragmentation, an overall major role. Therefore, how can we perpetuate the usefulness of *Grasses* in the midst of various plagues and attacks from grasshoppers, striga,

mold, ergot, snow

scald

Conservation and enhancement for the majority of introduced forage species are aimed at scientific, cultural, and touristic purposes. Herbarium and *ex situ* conservation, i.e., laboratories, are still on a very small scale in Central and West Africa.

• Fire-sensitive species that, lose fruit-bearing performance. These are therophytes *Grasses*, mainly *Hyparrhenia involucrata* and *Pennisetum polystachion* [61].

Some tropical native *Grasses* deserve special attention such as:

cantharids and anthracnose?

Grasses and Grassland *pressures and extents of diseases.*

*Grasses* **Model species Number**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90770*

*Alopecurus pratensis*

*dactyloides*

*Andropogon* spp.

*Elymus* spp. *Koeleria cristata*

Bentgrass *Agrostis* spp. 13 Patchs, molds, spots,

Fescue, Red *Festuca rubra* 14 Anthracnose, molds,

*Phleum* spp. 06 Spot, blight, rot,

Foxtail Millet

Meadow Foxtail

Beardgrass/ Bluestem

Wild-rye grasses Junegrass

Timothy grass

**Table 9.**

**19**

Buffalo grass *Buchloë*

**diseases**

*Introductory Chapter: Milestones in* Grasses and Grassland *Research*

*Setaria itálica* 22 Spots (Cercospora,

helminthosporium, bacterial, gray), downy mildew

anthracnose, cattail,

powdery mildew, spots, blight, stripe,

leaf blotch, Pythium Blight, red thread

red thread, silver top, spots, scald, smuts, Brown stripe, blotch, powdery mildew, rust

11 Spots, false smut *Cercospota seminalis* [53]

19 Stripe, water-soaked, blotches, scalds, streak, rust

— Rusts, choke,

14 Rusts, smuts,

spots

speckle

**Main foliar diseases Economic parasites References**

*Phyllachora luteomaculata*

*Piricularia grísea, Sclerospora graminicola*

*Rhynchosporium spp, Drechslera sp., Sclerotinia borealis; Puccinia graminis*

*Epichloe typhina* [53]

*Rhizoctonia solani, Typhula spp, Coprinus spp, Drechslera, Sclerotinia, Leptosphaeria korrae, Fusarium, Pythium, Laetisaria spp*

*Colletotrichum graminicola,Typhula spp, Coprinus spp, Fusarium spp, Clitocybe spp Marasmius spp, Lycoperdon spp, Psalliota*

*Heterosporium phleum, Drechslerai, Pythium, Claviceps purpurea, Sclerotinia*

*boreali*

[53]

[53, 56]

[57]

[58]

[59]

[60]


#### *Introductory Chapter: Milestones in* Grasses and Grassland *Research DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90770*

#### **Table 9.**

(mid-November to end of December, depending on the case). As results, it stimulates the growth of hemicryptophytes, improves primary biomass production of pastoral ecosystems and allows better land cover. (b) *Off-season fires* lit in the middle wet season and depends on: (i) the effort to conserve standing straw used as combustible for fire, (ii) the biomass ratio of "green matter/straw," which must be less than or equal to 1; where perennial *Grasses* abound, prescribed fires provide livestock with tender and palatable forage in a forage-deficit season. (c) *Late fires* applied when the degree of drying is maximum, very violent, compromising the regeneration of forest recruits and chamephytes species often despised by animals. It reduces woody plants density, promotes *Grass* growth, and accelerates bare

But, using fire for sustainable *Grasses and Grassland* require optimal ecological

Some species are important in regards to their roots which were highly used for

blotches, spots, scald, scolecotrichum stripe, powdery mildew

selenophoma, stem), stagonospora .blotch,

powdery mildew, anthracnose, smut, fairy ring, meltingout, silvertop, slime

**Main foliar diseases Economic parasites References**

*Scolecotrichum graminis*

*Laetisaria spp, Entyloma spps, Clitocybe, Lycoperdon, Psalliota,Typhula, mites, Drechslera, Fusarium, Erysiphe graminis*

*Helminihosporium ravenelii*

*Balansia strangulans, Balansia hemicrypta*

*Pseudomonas, Ustilago bullata, Fusarium, Pyrenophora sp, Selenophoma bromigena, Xanthomonas translucens, Alternaria spp., Claviceps spp, Erysiphe graminis*

*coronajaciens*

*Erisyphe graminis* [53]

[53]

[53]

[54]

[55]

[53]

[56]

human and animal medicine. These species (*Andropogon* spp., *Cenchrus* spp., *Cynodon dactylon* and *Imperata cylindrica*) appeared to be highly threatened and thus, their culture should be encouraged in order to make them more available for

It appears that all the listed *Grasses* are heavily attacked by a multitude of diseases and parasites (**Table 9**). Although efforts have been made to enable each of these plant species to provide the expected yields (productivity, food quality … ), from another point of view, it is important to highlight their overall major ecological

beaches reducing by the way the pastures' carrying capacity.

**diseases**

*Stipa* spp. >50 Spots (septoria,

Blue-grasses *Poa* spp. 50 Rusts, stripe, spots,

70 Rusts, smuts,

stripes

molds

36 Rusts, spots, powdery mildew, mold, Smut

30 Rust, spots, choke, scald, black ring

*Phalaris* spp. 30 Tawny spot on leaves *Pseudomonas*

Node

powdery mildew, mold, scalds, rot, speckle, blotch, stripes, rusts, Smut, Silvertop, Blight,

*Bromus* spp. 38 Spots, anthracnose,

conditions as well as specific well trained staffs.

*Grasses and Grassland Aspects*

*Grasses* **Model species Number**

*Sporobolus* spp.

*Bouteloua* spp. *Aristida* spp.

*Agropyron* spp. *Hordeum* spp. *Triticum* spp.

all needs.

Wheatgrasses

Needlegrasses

Smutgrasses dropseeds

Grama grasses

Canary grasses

Brome grasses (Mountain, meadow, smooth)

**18**

Grasses and Grassland *pressures and extents of diseases.*

interest. Indeed, these species also serve as shelters and refuges or habitats as well as food resources for many of these parasites, i.e., insects, bacteria, fungi, etc. They therefore participate in the development of ecological niches in a context of habitat fragmentation, an overall major role. Therefore, how can we perpetuate the usefulness of *Grasses* in the midst of various plagues and attacks from grasshoppers, striga, cantharids and anthracnose?

Conservation and enhancement for the majority of introduced forage species are aimed at scientific, cultural, and touristic purposes. Herbarium and *ex situ* conservation, i.e., laboratories, are still on a very small scale in Central and West Africa.

Some tropical native *Grasses* deserve special attention such as:

• Fire-sensitive species that, lose fruit-bearing performance. These are therophytes *Grasses*, mainly *Hyparrhenia involucrata* and *Pennisetum polystachion* [61].


**6.** *Grasses and Grassland* **syntheses**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90770*

radioactivity.

linked tricin synthesis [79].

Rice Amino acid in grains

acids

Oat Avenancins as saponins

Barley Starch and

**Table 10.**

**21**

*Some cereals synthesis.*

amino acid in grains

Aromatic amino-

Vitamins in grains

amino acids relative contents in rice grain.

pathway in rice grains remains questionable.

[68], dysmenorrheal and uterine relaxing activities.

*Introductory Chapter: Milestones in* Grasses and Grassland *Research*

*Grasses* hold a lot of syntheses as about 27 have been partly listed from the main cereals (sorghum, oat, barley, wheat, maize, Spelt). These chemicals and biologicals act as anticancer [37, 66], increasing milk production [67], antifungal, antibacterial [37], anthelmintic, anti-amoebic, cyclooxygenase (COX) I and II inhibitory activity

Among the *Sorghum* synthesis (**Table 10**), very little is still known on the Dhurrin genetic control. However, Dhurrin content was recently found in consistent association with biosynthetic genes in N-fertilized environments, while with catabolic loci in the controls [78]. Several phenolic compounds also accumulated

Engineering strategies targeting plant biomass lignin develop sustainable bio economy. Tricin native monocots lignin polymer initiate the lignin chains polymerization. Its bio-synthesis requires two methylation reactions involving the pathway intermediate selgin. O-methyltransferase is producing S lignin units as in the lignin-

The 1,3-propanediol is bio-produced from white sorghum starch and glycerol inoculated by a mixture culture of *Escherichia coli* and *Klebsiella* species [80]. Meeting the human nutrition balance needs require improving protein and

The use of genetic engineering strategy can improve essential amino acids contents, and nutritional quality of rice grain. But, how to regulate lipid metabolism

**Species Bio-synthesis Characteristics References**

• Low-juveniles vs. high-older plants contents • Highest in *Caudatum* and lowest in *Guinea*

• Lysine, first limiting amino acid in cereals • Lysine, methionine, threonine and isoleucine

• Vitamin E as tocopherol, trienol family • Vitamin E as anti-oxidative damage protection • Vitamin C as antioxidant, antiatherosclerosis, anti-cancer

Wheat Storage protein • Prolamin gene stimulation at storage onset [74] Gluten • Gluten proteins heredity by starch gel electrophoresis

• Increasing tryptophan and phenylalanine rates • Cysteine, serine, methionine change into isoleucine

• Foliar β-carotenoid synthesize humans vitamin A • Transgenic produce β-carotenoids in endosperm. • Transgenic folic acid as 1.5 times of original • Thiamine/vitamin B1 low in plastids causing beriberi

• Protective properties, i.e. anti-inflammatory, antifungals, anti-bacterial, anti-parasitism, anti-cancers and anti-viral

• Less starch, dry weight in transgenic endosperms [77]

• No gluten effect on Canthatch variety D genome

Antioxidants • Antioxidant by reducing glycoside, polyphenolics [76]

[13]

[69]

[70]

[73]

[75]

[71, 72]

Sorghum Dhurrin • Cyanogenic glucoside in early grain development

• Shift from leaves to stem

• Site indicator, i.e., *Brachiaria brachylopha* for dry sites and *B. falcifera* for subhumid sites [62].

*Grasses and Grassland* biodiversity conservation requires (i) a comprehensive census to define the biodiversity conservation strategy; (ii) programming and planning to regulate grazing pressure; (iii) updating revision of herbaria; (iv) *in situ* conservation, and (v) wild *Grasses* domestication.

However, a specialist look is requiring for following concerns: (i) Are livestock grazing and burning compatible? (ii) How to reduce invasive species impact on *Grasses and Grassland* facing biodiversity erosion? (iii) What alternatives to issues in temperate environments as well as facing pests' damage extent? (iv) What would be *Grasses and Grassland'* contribution to agricultural and environmental services in a variety of systems that value permanent *Grassland* in the forage system?

#### **5.6** *Grasses and Grassland* **cultural properties**

*Grasses* are important both in everyday life and during mourning ceremonies, links, knot of all kinds (portage, forbidden, calendars, stubble or signs of fallow land ...) [63]. They are surrounded by several spells, superstitions, myths, legends as well as popular beliefs. Among 15 of these properties reported for example on the wheat are the following:


#### **6.** *Grasses and Grassland* **syntheses**

• Forage sensitive to trampling, i.e., *Aristida kerstingii*, *Urochloa indica*.

• Rare genera: *Elymandra androphyla, Loxodera ledermannii, Hyperthelia*

• Grazing-sensitive including *Hyparrhenia smithiana* and *Pennisetum unisetum* [3, 4, 9], *Setaria sphacelata, Anadelphia afzeliana, Brachiaria falcifera,* and *Loxodera ledermannii,* less silicified under grazing pressure making them more

• Site indicator, i.e., *Brachiaria brachylopha* for dry sites and *B. falcifera* for

*Grasses and Grassland* biodiversity conservation requires (i) a comprehensive census to define the biodiversity conservation strategy; (ii) programming and planning to regulate grazing pressure; (iii) updating revision of herbaria; (iv) *in situ*

However, a specialist look is requiring for following concerns: (i) Are livestock grazing and burning compatible? (ii) How to reduce invasive species impact on *Grasses and Grassland* facing biodiversity erosion? (iii) What alternatives to issues in temperate environments as well as facing pests' damage extent? (iv) What would be *Grasses and Grassland'* contribution to agricultural and environmental services in a variety of systems that value permanent *Grassland* in the forage

*Grasses* are important both in everyday life and during mourning ceremonies, links, knot of all kinds (portage, forbidden, calendars, stubble or signs of fallow land ...) [63]. They are surrounded by several spells, superstitions, myths, legends as well as popular beliefs. Among 15 of these properties reported for example on the

• *Wheat is a tool in religious rites* of ancient Egyptians, Assyrians, Chaldeans, Romans, Greeks, as well as in India. Its bread has become the central mystery of Christianity. As a symbol of food, fertility and the annual rebirth of life, wheat is the offering of the Harvest Day in Luna sad, Ireland (August 1 in the

• *Wheat is a symbol of fertility* often used newlyweds' home decoration [64], offering happy inspiration, gratitude, prudence united to goodness, legitimate

• *Lucky sheaves*: for hares, partridges and farmers because of the Wheat genius

• *Uncompromising guardians*: Other wheat geniuses such as *Polievik* in Russia or *Polevik* in Poland hunt pests and weeds and promote harvests. But he will strangle those who would take a nap instead of plowing their land! *Poludnica*

ensures breaks observance. *Polednice* in Czechoslovakia and Slovakia prevents damage before harvest while *Polednicek* prevents fields from being

Northern Hemisphere, February 1 in the Southern Hemisphere).

which embodies a last sheaf shaped like a wolf.

*dissoluta*, which require further attention

conservation, and (v) wild *Grasses* domestication.

**5.6** *Grasses and Grassland* **cultural properties**

vulnerable [12].

*Grasses and Grassland Aspects*

system?

wheat are the following:

acquisition [65].

ransacked.

**20**

subhumid sites [62].

*Grasses* hold a lot of syntheses as about 27 have been partly listed from the main cereals (sorghum, oat, barley, wheat, maize, Spelt). These chemicals and biologicals act as anticancer [37, 66], increasing milk production [67], antifungal, antibacterial [37], anthelmintic, anti-amoebic, cyclooxygenase (COX) I and II inhibitory activity [68], dysmenorrheal and uterine relaxing activities.

Among the *Sorghum* synthesis (**Table 10**), very little is still known on the Dhurrin genetic control. However, Dhurrin content was recently found in consistent association with biosynthetic genes in N-fertilized environments, while with catabolic loci in the controls [78]. Several phenolic compounds also accumulated radioactivity.

Engineering strategies targeting plant biomass lignin develop sustainable bio economy. Tricin native monocots lignin polymer initiate the lignin chains polymerization. Its bio-synthesis requires two methylation reactions involving the pathway intermediate selgin. O-methyltransferase is producing S lignin units as in the ligninlinked tricin synthesis [79].

The 1,3-propanediol is bio-produced from white sorghum starch and glycerol inoculated by a mixture culture of *Escherichia coli* and *Klebsiella* species [80].

Meeting the human nutrition balance needs require improving protein and amino acids relative contents in rice grain.

The use of genetic engineering strategy can improve essential amino acids contents, and nutritional quality of rice grain. But, how to regulate lipid metabolism pathway in rice grains remains questionable.


**Table 10.** *Some cereals synthesis.*

Little is known about Vitamin C biosynthesis in monocotyledonous plants. Therefore, solving low vitamin content in rice grains, require increasing vitamin of rice seeds and improving nutritional quality by making rice, full use of its genes. Achieving this might consider the introduction of exogenous genes, metabolic engineering, genetic engineering and other modern technical methods.

#### **7. Grasses and Grassland applications**

Ecosystem services of *Grasses and Grassland* are expressed through grazing areas, watershed water, biodiversity reserves, tourist sites, recreation areas, religious sites, wild food sources, and natural medicine sources, mainly through the sequestration and storage of C.

Several species of large *Grasses* are also very important for the manufacture of mats and for the roof. Normally, they are protected against fire and grazing, but rarely cultivated. For the manufacture of mats along the Logone, *Hyparrhenia rufa* is planted. *Vetiveria nigritana* is used for the fields' demarcation on floodplains, and anti-erosion. Vetiver's thatch is traditionally used to cover the roofs of straw huts, and to make basketry or carpets. *Bambusa vulgaris* is planted for timber in southern countries while *Oxytenanthera abyssinica* is often more notable in the north.

*Arundo donax* provides all-lignocellulosic fiberboards without synthetic binders, raw good material for fiberboard production and its pulp is rich in cellulose and

*Introductory Chapter: Milestones in* Grasses and Grassland *Research*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90770*

**Figures 3** and **4** highlight some applications from Rice and Fonio, respectively.

This chapter highlights some milestones in *Grasses and Grassland* research: (1) 18 types of *Grassland* identified; (2) only 250 tropical *grass* species among 9700, i.e., 2.58% studied before 1990 and 100 over the last 30 years; (3) *Grasses* have been field characterized throughout 78 parameters; (4) biodiversity results in 43 cereals and 50 tropical *Grasslands*; (5) mostly, *Grassland* of *Andropogon gayanus* and *Hyparrhenia involucrata* (74% PV, 6.28 tons DM/ha; 0.37 ha/TLU) from Guineo-Sudanese opposed *Setaria longiseta* and *Sporobolus pyramidalis* (21% PV; 2.9 tons DM/ha; 5.4 ha/TLU) from Sudanian zone; (6) cultivated *grasses* belong to *Panicum* spp., *Brachiaria* spp. and *Pennisetum* spp.; (7) cereals contain gluten from 5% in rice to 69% in wheat; (8) properties result in 7 anti-erosive, 10 ornamental, 17 medicinal, 15 cultural and 11 aromatic with 95 oil volatile compounds; (8) Twenty-seven bio-syntheses recorded with Dhurrin genetic control, mechanism of lipid metabolism pathway and vitamin C biosynthesis remaining concerns; (9) applications are bioenergetic, cosmetic, industrial and environmental with sequestering carbon and

Otherwise, most of cereals'syntheses are found in fighting century diseases including cancers, high blood pressure, etc. that devastate human resources and

So many virtues for more or less demanding resources like *Grasses and Grassland*! The whole world can certainly make a big profit from its. In a context of increasing difficulties in adequately feeding a growing world population threatened by major plagues, interest in these natural resources must certainly be attracted. Given the rapid precariousness of the food and health situation in some parts of the

sustainable well-being? Whether ecological intensification is a pastoral contribution

world, would it be too much to consider *Grasses and Grassland* as a hope for

to agricultural and environmental services in a variety of systems that value

moderate in lignin.

*Applications from the Fonio.*

**Figure 4.**

nitrogen into soil.

**23**

thus negatively impact Nations economies.

**8. Concluding remarks**

*Miscanthus* from Asia as well as sweet sorghum (*Sorghum bicolor*) and switchgrass (*Panicum virgatum*) from USA [81] are material for biofuel and buildings. Ciments Calcia and Alkern as Industrial company substitute's traditional aggregates with crushed to reach 60% *Miscanthus* in the concrete; a prototype block of 20 50 20 cm weighing 17 kg is three times more insulating than conventional concrete [82]. Insulating panels and biomaterial in term of acoustic comfort with noise attenuation, it is 4 h fire resistance. First experimental use of concrete in early 2018 deployed on 1700 m2 of facade of 46 social housing units in Chanteloup-en-Brie (France) requires 50 tons of *Miscanthus*.

These are biosourced materials, grown without pesticides and irrigation, adapts to polluted, degraded or abandoned land, out of competing food agriculture, offering additional resources and economic opportunities for farmers. Production is spread over 15–20 years without reseeding or fertilizing. In addition, *Miscanthus* is sterile, rhizome and non-invasive, yielding 10 tons/ha per year. It reduces the building's carbon footprint by saving on the transport of aggregates over long distances.

**Figure 3.** *Applications from the rice.*

**Figure 4.** *Applications from the Fonio.*

Little is known about Vitamin C biosynthesis in monocotyledonous plants. Therefore, solving low vitamin content in rice grains, require increasing vitamin of rice seeds and improving nutritional quality by making rice, full use of its genes. Achieving this might consider the introduction of exogenous genes, metabolic engineering, genetic engineering and other modern technical methods.

Ecosystem services of *Grasses and Grassland* are expressed through grazing areas, watershed water, biodiversity reserves, tourist sites, recreation areas, religious sites, wild food sources, and natural medicine sources, mainly through the sequestration

Several species of large *Grasses* are also very important for the manufacture of mats and for the roof. Normally, they are protected against fire and grazing, but rarely cultivated. For the manufacture of mats along the Logone, *Hyparrhenia rufa* is planted. *Vetiveria nigritana* is used for the fields' demarcation on floodplains, and anti-erosion. Vetiver's thatch is traditionally used to cover the roofs of straw huts, and to make basketry or carpets. *Bambusa vulgaris* is planted for timber in southern countries while *Oxytenanthera abyssinica* is often more notable in

*Miscanthus* from Asia as well as sweet sorghum (*Sorghum bicolor*) and switchgrass (*Panicum virgatum*) from USA [81] are material for biofuel and buildings. Ciments Calcia and Alkern as Industrial company substitute's traditional aggregates

These are biosourced materials, grown without pesticides and irrigation, adapts to polluted, degraded or abandoned land, out of competing food agriculture, offering additional resources and economic opportunities for farmers. Production is spread over 15–20 years without reseeding or fertilizing. In addition, *Miscanthus* is sterile, rhizome and non-invasive, yielding 10 tons/ha per year. It reduces the building's carbon footprint by saving on the transport of aggregates over long

with crushed to reach 60% *Miscanthus* in the concrete; a prototype block of 20 50 20 cm weighing 17 kg is three times more insulating than conventional concrete [82]. Insulating panels and biomaterial in term of acoustic comfort with noise attenuation, it is 4 h fire resistance. First experimental use of concrete in early 2018 deployed on 1700 m2 of facade of 46 social housing units in Chanteloup-en-

**7. Grasses and Grassland applications**

Brie (France) requires 50 tons of *Miscanthus*.

and storage of C.

*Grasses and Grassland Aspects*

the north.

distances.

**Figure 3.**

**22**

*Applications from the rice.*

*Arundo donax* provides all-lignocellulosic fiberboards without synthetic binders, raw good material for fiberboard production and its pulp is rich in cellulose and moderate in lignin.

**Figures 3** and **4** highlight some applications from Rice and Fonio, respectively.

#### **8. Concluding remarks**

This chapter highlights some milestones in *Grasses and Grassland* research: (1) 18 types of *Grassland* identified; (2) only 250 tropical *grass* species among 9700, i.e., 2.58% studied before 1990 and 100 over the last 30 years; (3) *Grasses* have been field characterized throughout 78 parameters; (4) biodiversity results in 43 cereals and 50 tropical *Grasslands*; (5) mostly, *Grassland* of *Andropogon gayanus* and *Hyparrhenia involucrata* (74% PV, 6.28 tons DM/ha; 0.37 ha/TLU) from Guineo-Sudanese opposed *Setaria longiseta* and *Sporobolus pyramidalis* (21% PV; 2.9 tons DM/ha; 5.4 ha/TLU) from Sudanian zone; (6) cultivated *grasses* belong to *Panicum* spp., *Brachiaria* spp. and *Pennisetum* spp.; (7) cereals contain gluten from 5% in rice to 69% in wheat; (8) properties result in 7 anti-erosive, 10 ornamental, 17 medicinal, 15 cultural and 11 aromatic with 95 oil volatile compounds; (8) Twenty-seven bio-syntheses recorded with Dhurrin genetic control, mechanism of lipid metabolism pathway and vitamin C biosynthesis remaining concerns; (9) applications are bioenergetic, cosmetic, industrial and environmental with sequestering carbon and nitrogen into soil.

Otherwise, most of cereals'syntheses are found in fighting century diseases including cancers, high blood pressure, etc. that devastate human resources and thus negatively impact Nations economies.

So many virtues for more or less demanding resources like *Grasses and Grassland*! The whole world can certainly make a big profit from its. In a context of increasing difficulties in adequately feeding a growing world population threatened by major plagues, interest in these natural resources must certainly be attracted. Given the rapid precariousness of the food and health situation in some parts of the world, would it be too much to consider *Grasses and Grassland* as a hope for sustainable well-being? Whether ecological intensification is a pastoral contribution to agricultural and environmental services in a variety of systems that value

permanent *Grasslands* in the forage system, what would life on earth really be without these *Grasses and Grassland*? Facing array of properties, synthesis and applications which force the hope, politicians would science-based manage for ensuring secured future for humanity, even in the increasingly alarming global warming; because *Grasses and Grassland* could be solutions to eventualities. In this debate, however, government officials, policy makers, professionals, and the general public would ensure that proactive and sustained production, processing and development, as well as commercialization of *Grasses and Grassland* are for the sustainable well-being of the respective communities; Decisions needed for sustainably managing these properties, synthesis, and applications so that serious threats can be mitigated. This includes students, teachers, and operators, who are tracking accurate and updated inventories of *Grasses and Grassland*' knowledge.

**References**

85-97

pp. 11-27

Bruxelles; 1993

de Bruxelles; 1993

No. 23. 1990. 832p

15-24

9355-y

**25**

[1] Pottier E, Michaud A, Farrié JP, Plantureux S, Baumont R. Les prairies permanentes françaises au cœur

d'enjeux agricoles et environnementaux. Innovations Agronomiques. 2012;**25**:

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90770*

*Introductory Chapter: Milestones in* Grasses and Grassland *Research*

[8] Kindomihou VM, Oumorou M, Mensah GA, Sinsin BA. Morphological traits and germination of *Loxodera ledermannii* (Pilger) W.D. Clayton caryopses in southern-Benin. Bulletin de Recherche Agronomique du Bénin.

[9] Sinsin B. Individualisation et hiérarchisation des phytocénoses soudaniennes du Nord-Bénin. Belgian Journal of Botany. 1994;**127**(1):87-103

Gembloux; 2014. 264 p

[10] Klein HD, Rippstein G, Huguenin J, Toutain B, Guerin H, Louppe D. Les cultures fourragères. Quae, CTA, Gembloux: Presses agronomiques de

[11] Kindomihou V, Adandédjan C, Sinsin B. Performances agronomiques et zootechniques d'associations d'espèces fourragères tropicales au nord-Bénin (Zone soudanienne). In: Godet G, Grimaux P, Guerin H, editors. Actes de

l'Atelier Régional sur "Cultures

pp. 80-85

Fourragères et Développement Durable en Zone Humide". Côte d'Ivoire: CIRDES/IDESSA Korhogo; 1998.

[12] Kindomihou MV. Tropical *grasses silicification:* Genetic interspecific variation, influence of growth conditions and relationship with the foliar structure [thesis]. Belgium: Free

University of Brussels; 2005

[14] Dagbenonbakin GD, Kindomihou V, Agbangba EC, Sokpon N, Sinsin B. Diagnosis and recommendation integrated system (DRIS) model establishment for diagnosing *Sorghum* (*Sorghum bicolor*) nutrient status in Benin (West Africa).

[13] Kindomihou MV. Sorghum: Properties, Synthesis and Applications. Serie Agriculture, Issues and Policies. New York, USA: Nova Science Publishers Inc.; 2019 319p

2009;**65**:37-43

[2] Meynard JM. Introduction générale— Produire autrement: réinventer les systèmes de culture, Systèmes de culture innovants et durables: Quelles méthodes pour les mettre au point et les évaluer? Dijon: Educ agri éd.; 2008.

[3] Sinsin B. Phytosociologie, écologie, valeur pastorale, production et capacité de charge des pâturages naturels du périmètre Nikki-Kalalé au Nord-Bénin [thesis]. Belgium: Université Libre de

[4] Sinsin B. Dans le Parc National de la Pendjari, la prise en compte des plantes herbacées est nécessaire pour définir valablement les associations végétales [thesis index]. Belgium: Université Libre

[5] Balay C, Cournut S, Michelin Y, Capitaine M, Boisdon I. Services écosystémiques rendus par les prairies dans une commune de moyenne montagne d'Auvergne: évaluation et déterminants. Fourrages. 2015;**221**:

[6] Skerman PJ, Riveros F, editors. Tropical grasses. In: FAO Plant Production and Protection Series.

[7] Kindomihou MV, Sinsin B,

Holou RYA, Ambouta J-MK, Gruber W, Adjolohoun S, et al. The effect of seasonal variations, covariations with minerals and forage value on Itchgrass' foliar silicification from Sudanian Benin. SILICON. 2016;**8**(4): 487-496. DOI: 10.1007/s12633-015-

## **Acknowledgements**

This research was co-funded by the Laboratory of Applied Ecology—LEA (University of Abomey-Calavi, Benin—UAC), the Ecological and Organic Agriculture Network and the Association Béninoise pour le Pastoralisme (ABEPA). I am acknowledging my Master Professor Brice Sinsin, Former UAC Rector and Head of LEA for mentoring, DiasporaEngager (Georgia, USA) and it CEO, Roland Holou (PhD Agronomy) and Ozias Hounkpatin (PhD Agronomy) from Uppsala University (Sweden) for friendship and paper review, Bishop Barthelemy Tiando Bona and Pastor Arnaud Assogba (BSc Sociology) for prayers. Irma Cale Pascaline Kpakpo-Kindomihou (BSc Accounting) provides good working atmosphere while Iva Simcic, Ivana Spajic and Edi Lipovic' collaborative efforts, timely boost in publishing this chapter.

## **Author details**

Valentin Missiakô Kindomihou Laboratory of Applied Ecology, Faculty of Agronomic Sciences, Republic of Benin, West Africa

\*Address all correspondence to: kindomihou@gmail.com; valentin.kindomihou@fsa.uac.bj

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Introductory Chapter: Milestones in* Grasses and Grassland *Research DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90770*

#### **References**

permanent *Grasslands* in the forage system, what would life on earth really be without these *Grasses and Grassland*? Facing array of properties, synthesis and applications which force the hope, politicians would science-based manage for ensuring secured future for humanity, even in the increasingly alarming global warming; because *Grasses and Grassland* could be solutions to eventualities. In this debate, however, government officials, policy makers, professionals, and the general public would ensure that proactive and sustained production, processing and development, as well as commercialization of *Grasses and Grassland* are for the sustainable well-being of the respective communities; Decisions needed for sustainably managing these properties, synthesis, and applications so that serious threats can be mitigated. This includes students, teachers, and operators, who are tracking accurate and updated inventories of *Grasses and Grassland*' knowledge.

This research was co-funded by the Laboratory of Applied Ecology—LEA (University of Abomey-Calavi, Benin—UAC), the Ecological and Organic Agriculture Network and the Association Béninoise pour le Pastoralisme (ABEPA). I am acknowledging my Master Professor Brice Sinsin, Former UAC Rector and Head of LEA for mentoring, DiasporaEngager (Georgia, USA) and it CEO, Roland Holou (PhD Agronomy) and Ozias Hounkpatin (PhD Agronomy) from Uppsala University (Sweden) for friendship and paper review, Bishop Barthelemy Tiando Bona and Pastor Arnaud Assogba (BSc Sociology) for prayers. Irma Cale Pascaline Kpakpo-Kindomihou (BSc Accounting) provides good working atmosphere while Iva Simcic, Ivana Spajic and Edi Lipovic' collaborative efforts, timely boost in publish-

Laboratory of Applied Ecology, Faculty of Agronomic Sciences, Republic of Benin,

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

\*Address all correspondence to: kindomihou@gmail.com;

**Acknowledgements**

*Grasses and Grassland Aspects*

ing this chapter.

**Author details**

West Africa

**24**

Valentin Missiakô Kindomihou

valentin.kindomihou@fsa.uac.bj

provided the original work is properly cited.

[1] Pottier E, Michaud A, Farrié JP, Plantureux S, Baumont R. Les prairies permanentes françaises au cœur d'enjeux agricoles et environnementaux. Innovations Agronomiques. 2012;**25**: 85-97

[2] Meynard JM. Introduction générale— Produire autrement: réinventer les systèmes de culture, Systèmes de culture innovants et durables: Quelles méthodes pour les mettre au point et les évaluer? Dijon: Educ agri éd.; 2008. pp. 11-27

[3] Sinsin B. Phytosociologie, écologie, valeur pastorale, production et capacité de charge des pâturages naturels du périmètre Nikki-Kalalé au Nord-Bénin [thesis]. Belgium: Université Libre de Bruxelles; 1993

[4] Sinsin B. Dans le Parc National de la Pendjari, la prise en compte des plantes herbacées est nécessaire pour définir valablement les associations végétales [thesis index]. Belgium: Université Libre de Bruxelles; 1993

[5] Balay C, Cournut S, Michelin Y, Capitaine M, Boisdon I. Services écosystémiques rendus par les prairies dans une commune de moyenne montagne d'Auvergne: évaluation et déterminants. Fourrages. 2015;**221**: 15-24

[6] Skerman PJ, Riveros F, editors. Tropical grasses. In: FAO Plant Production and Protection Series. No. 23. 1990. 832p

[7] Kindomihou MV, Sinsin B, Holou RYA, Ambouta J-MK, Gruber W, Adjolohoun S, et al. The effect of seasonal variations, covariations with minerals and forage value on Itchgrass' foliar silicification from Sudanian Benin. SILICON. 2016;**8**(4): 487-496. DOI: 10.1007/s12633-015- 9355-y

[8] Kindomihou VM, Oumorou M, Mensah GA, Sinsin BA. Morphological traits and germination of *Loxodera ledermannii* (Pilger) W.D. Clayton caryopses in southern-Benin. Bulletin de Recherche Agronomique du Bénin. 2009;**65**:37-43

[9] Sinsin B. Individualisation et hiérarchisation des phytocénoses soudaniennes du Nord-Bénin. Belgian Journal of Botany. 1994;**127**(1):87-103

[10] Klein HD, Rippstein G, Huguenin J, Toutain B, Guerin H, Louppe D. Les cultures fourragères. Quae, CTA, Gembloux: Presses agronomiques de Gembloux; 2014. 264 p

[11] Kindomihou V, Adandédjan C, Sinsin B. Performances agronomiques et zootechniques d'associations d'espèces fourragères tropicales au nord-Bénin (Zone soudanienne). In: Godet G, Grimaux P, Guerin H, editors. Actes de l'Atelier Régional sur "Cultures Fourragères et Développement Durable en Zone Humide". Côte d'Ivoire: CIRDES/IDESSA Korhogo; 1998. pp. 80-85

[12] Kindomihou MV. Tropical *grasses silicification:* Genetic interspecific variation, influence of growth conditions and relationship with the foliar structure [thesis]. Belgium: Free University of Brussels; 2005

[13] Kindomihou MV. Sorghum: Properties, Synthesis and Applications. Serie Agriculture, Issues and Policies. New York, USA: Nova Science Publishers Inc.; 2019 319p

[14] Dagbenonbakin GD, Kindomihou V, Agbangba EC, Sokpon N, Sinsin B. Diagnosis and recommendation integrated system (DRIS) model establishment for diagnosing *Sorghum* (*Sorghum bicolor*) nutrient status in Benin (West Africa). Scientific Research and Essays. 2013; **8**(25):1562-1569. DOI: 10.5897/SRE11

[15] Kindomihou V. Diversité des plantes fourragères et des pâturages naturels au Bénin. In: Rapport de Mission. Cotonou, Bénin: Projet Stratégie Nationale Biodiversité/MEHU; 2000 42 p

[16] Houinato MBR. Phytosociologie, écologie, production et capacité de charge des formations végétales pâturées dans la région des Monts Kouffé (Bénin) [thesis]. Belgium: Université Libre de Bruxelles; 2001

[17] Natta AK. Ecological assessment of riparian forests in Bénin: Phytodiversity, phytosociology and spatial distribution of tree species [thesis]. Holland: Wageningen University; 2003

[18] Aboh A. Phytosociologie, écologie, potentialités et aménagement des pâturages naturels envahis par *Chromolaena odorata* et *Hyptis suaveolens* en Zone Soudano-guinéenne (Bénin) [thesis]. Benin: Université d'Abomey-Calavi; 2008

[19] Djenontin J. Dynamique des stratégies et des pratiques d'utilisation des parcours naturels pour l'alimentation des troupeaux bovins au Nord-Est du Bénin [thesis]. Benin: Université d'Abomey-Calavi; 2010

[20] Sinsin B, Owolabi B. Monographie nationale de la biodiversité. In: Rapport de Mission. Cotonou, Bénin: Projet Stratégie Nationale Biodiversité/MEHU; 2002 42p

[21] Seignobos C, Donfack P. Des plantes indicatrices dans un agrosystème incluant la jachère: les exemples des Peuls et des Giziga du Nord-Cameroun. Journal d'Agriculture Traditionnelle et de Botanique Appliquée*.* 1996;**18**(1): 231-250

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[39] Sagnia B, Fedeli D, Casetti R, Montesano C, Falcioni G, Colizzi V. Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of extracts from *Cassia alata, Eleusine indica, Eremomastax speciosa, Carica papaya* and *Polyscias fulva* medicinal plants collected in Cameroon.

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[34] Tornambe G, Cornu A, Verdier-Metz I, Pradel P, Kondjoyan N, Figueredo G, et al. Addition of pasture plant essential oil in milk: Influence on chemical and sensory properties of milk and cheese. Journal of Dairy Science. 2008;**91**(1):58-69. DOI: 10.3168/

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[25] Prates HT, Leite RC, Craveiro AA, Alaíde BO. Identification of some chemical components of the essential oil from molasses *grass* (*Melinis minutiflora* Beauv.) and their activity against cattletick (*Boophilus microplus*). Journal of the Brazilian Chemical Society. 1998;**9**(2): 193-197. DOI: 10.1590/S0103-505319 98000200013

[26] Chahal KK, Urvashi B, Kauchal S, Sandhu AK. Chemical composition and biological properties of *Chrysopogon zizanioides* (L.) Roberty Syn. (L.) Nash. A review. Indian Journal of Natural Products and Resources. 2015;**6**(4): 251-260

[27] Choi N, Lee JS, Kwak J. Production of biodiesel from acid oil via a two-step enzymatic trans-esterification. Journal of Oleo Science. 2016;**65**:913-921

[28] Ramos DM, Diniz P, Ooi MKJ, Borghetti F, Valls JFM. Avoiding the dry *Introductory Chapter: Milestones in* Grasses and Grassland *Research DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90770*

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2011;**2**(1):3-8. DOI: 10.4103/

[24] Boukhatem MN, Ferhat MA, Kameli A, Saidi F, Kebir HT. Lemon *grass* (*Cymbopogon citratus*) essential oil as potent anti-inflammatory and antifungal drugs. Libyan Journal of Medicine. 2014;**9**. DOI: 10.3402/ljm.

[25] Prates HT, Leite RC, Craveiro AA, Alaíde BO. Identification of some chemical components of the essential oil from molasses *grass* (*Melinis minutiflora* Beauv.) and their activity against cattletick (*Boophilus microplus*). Journal of the Brazilian Chemical Society. 1998;**9**(2): 193-197. DOI: 10.1590/S0103-505319

[26] Chahal KK, Urvashi B, Kauchal S, Sandhu AK. Chemical composition and biological properties of *Chrysopogon zizanioides* (L.) Roberty Syn. (L.) Nash. A review. Indian Journal of Natural Products and Resources. 2015;**6**(4):

[27] Choi N, Lee JS, Kwak J. Production of biodiesel from acid oil via a two-step enzymatic trans-esterification. Journal of Oleo Science. 2016;**65**:913-921

[28] Ramos DM, Diniz P, Ooi MKJ, Borghetti F, Valls JFM. Avoiding the dry

2231-4040.79796

v9.25431

98000200013

251-260

2008

Houinato M, Oumorou M, Mama A, Ogoubiyi V, et al. Climate change and in

*ledermannii* (Pilger) natural pastures in Sudanian Benin. In: Halford et al., editors. "Effects of Climate Change on Plants: Implications for Agriculture". Aspects of Applied Biology. Vol. 88.

Sharma N, Singh B, Mann AS. Scientific

Pharmaceutical Technology & Research.

[29] Desseaux A. Aromathérapie en cancérologie: rationnel, intérêt et limites. Sciences Pharmaceutiques. 2018. 391 p. dumas-01928000

[30] Peterson PM, Planchuelo AM. *Bromus catharticus* in South America (Poaceae: Bromeae). Novon. 1998;**8**(1): 53-60. DOI: 10.2307/3391893

[31] Abbott LA, Pistorale SM, Filippini OS. Path coefficient analysis for seed yield in *Bromus catharticus*. Ciencia e Investigación Agraria. 2007; **34**(2):107-114

[32] Cornu A, Carnat AP, Martin B, Coulon JB, Lamaison JL, Berdague JL. Solid phase microextraction of volatile components from natural *grassland* plants. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2001; **49**:203-209

[33] Tornambe G, Cornu A, Pradel P, Kondjoyan N, Carnat AP, Petit M, et al. Changes in terpene content in milk from pasture-fed cows. Journal of Dairy Science. 2006;**89**:2634-2648

[34] Tornambe G, Cornu A, Verdier-Metz I, Pradel P, Kondjoyan N, Figueredo G, et al. Addition of pasture plant essential oil in milk: Influence on chemical and sensory properties of milk and cheese. Journal of Dairy Science. 2008;**91**(1):58-69. DOI: 10.3168/ jds.2007-0154

[35] Nadkarni KM, Nadkarni AK. Indian Material Medica. 3rd ed. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan; 2005

[36] Bentley R, Trimen H. Medicinal Plants. Delhi, India: Asiatic Publishing House; 2002.Reprint Indian Edition

[37] Alothman EA, Awaad AS, Al-Qurayn NA, Al-Kanhal HF, El-Meligy RM, Zain YM, et al. Anticancer effect of *Cenchrus ciliaris* L. Saudi Pharmaceutical Journal. 2018;**26**:952-955. DOI: 10.1016/ j.jsps.2018.05.003

[38] Sharma RK, Singh B, Sahoo A. Exploring feeding value of oak (*Quercus incana*) leaves: Nutrient intake and utilization in calves. Livestock Science. 2008;**118**(1/2):157-165

[39] Sagnia B, Fedeli D, Casetti R, Montesano C, Falcioni G, Colizzi V. Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of extracts from *Cassia alata, Eleusine indica, Eremomastax speciosa, Carica papaya* and *Polyscias fulva* medicinal plants collected in Cameroon. PLoS One. 2014;**9**(8):e103999

[40] Yue X-R, Hou Z-X, Liu P, Wang S-S. Anti-inflammatory effect of imperata cylindrical. Chinese Journal of Clinical Rehabilitation. 2006;**10**(43): 85-87

[41] Kwok AH, Wang Y, Ho WS. Cytotoxic and pro-oxidative effects of *Imperata cylindrica* aerial part ethyl acetate extract in colorectal cancer in vitro. Phytomedicine. 2016;**23**(5): 558-565. DOI: 10.1016/j.phymed.2016. 02.015

[42] Anggraeni N, Syamsunarno MRAA, Widyastuti R, Puspitasari IM, Praptama S. Potential dual effect antiinflammatory and anti-platelet of cogon grass ethanol extract on diabetic mice a preliminary study. IOP Conference Series: Journal of Physics. Conference Series. 2019: 1246. DOI: 10.1088/1742-6596/1246/1/ 012006

[43] Kubatka P, Kello M, Kajo K, Kruzliak P, Výbohová D, Šmejkal K, et al. Young barley indicates antitumor effects in experimental breast cancer in vivo and in vitro. Nutrition and Cancer. 2016;**68**(4):611-621

[44] Zeng Y, Pu X, Yang J, Du J, Yang X, Li X, et al. Preventive and therapeutic role of functional ingredients of barley *grass* for chronic diseases in human beings. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. 2018:1-15. ID 3232080. DOI: 10.1155/2018/3232080

[45] Khan N, Ganeshpurkar A, Dubey N, Bansal D. Immunoprophylactic potential of wheat *grass* extract on benzene-induced leukemia: An in vivo study on murine model. Indian Journal of Pharmacology. 2015;**47**(4):394-397. DOI: 10.4103/0253-7613.161261

[46] Das P, Mandal S, Gangopadhyay S, Das K, Mitra AG, Dasgupta S, et al. Antioxidative and anticarcinogenic activities of methylpheophorbidea, isolated from wheat *grass* (*Triticum aestivum* Linn.). Natural Product Research. 2016;**30**(4):474-477. DOI: 10.1080/14786419.2015.1022775

[47] Liu N, Kan HM, Yang GW, Zhang YJ. Changes in plant, soil, and microbes in a typical steppe from simulated grazing: Explaining potential change in soil C. Ecological Monographs. 2015;**85**:269-286

[48] Derner J, Briske D, Boutton T. Does grazing mediate soil carbon and nitrogen accumulation beneath C4, perennial *grasses* along an environmental gradient? Plant and Soil. 1997;**191**: 147-156

[49] Gong JR, Wang YH, Liu M, Huang YM, Yan X, Zhang ZY, et al. Effects of land use on soil respiration in the temperate steppe of Inner Mongolia, China. Soil and Tillage Research*.* 2014; **144**:20-31

[50] Zhang T, Zhang YJ, Xu MJ, Zhu JT, Wimberly MC, Yu GR, et al. Lightintensity grazing improves alpine meadow productivity and adaption to climate change on the Tibetan plateau. Scientific Reports. 2015;**5**:15949

[51] Knops JMH, Bradley KL, Wedin DA. Mechanisms of plant species impacts on ecosystem nitrogen cycling. Ecology Letters. 2002;**5**:454-466

Diseases. 2001;**85**(7):803. DOI: 10.1094/

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90770*

*Introductory Chapter: Milestones in* Grasses and Grassland *Research*

cultivated in Brazil. Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências. 2016;**88**(3): 1201-1209. DOI: 10.1590/0001-

[67] Marshall J. Infant feeding: Anatomy and physiology. The Practising Midwife.

[68] Light ME, McGaw LJ, Sparg SG, Jäger AK, Staden J. Screening of *Cenchrus ciliaris* L. for biological activity. South African Journal of

[69] Osuji GO, Duffus E, Johnson P. Enhancement of the essential amino acid composition of food crop proteins through biotechnology. American Journal of Plant Sciences. 2015;**6**:

[70] Birla DS, Malik K, Sainger M. Progress and challenges in improving the nutritional quality of rice (*Oryza sativa* l.). Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 2017;**57**:

[71] Headey D, Hoddinott J, Ali D. The other Asian enigma, explaining the rapid reduction of under nutrition in Bangladesh. World Development. 2015;

[72] Naidu KA. Vitamin C in human health and disease is still a mystery? An overview. Nutrition Journal.

[73] Bach TJ, Rohmer M. Isoprenoid Synthesis in Plants and Microorganisms: New Concepts and Experimental Approaches. 2013. DOI 10.1007/978-1-

Weichert H, Kohl S, Erban A, Kopka J, et al. Increasing sucrose uptake capacity of wheat grains stimulates storage protein synthesis. Plant Physiology.

Botany. 2002;**68**:411-413

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[60] Smith D. Influence of cool and warm temperatures and temperature reversal at inflorescence emergence on yield and chemical composition of timothy and bromegrass at anthesis. In: Proceedings of the 11th International Grassland Congress. 1970. pp. 510-514

[61] Sinsin B, Saidou A. Impact des feux

pâturages naturels des savanes soudanoguinéennes du Ranch de l'Okpara au

Agronomiques du Bénin. 1998;**1**:11-30

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contrôlés sur la productivité des

Bénin. Annales des Sciences

10.4000/jso.1370

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[53] Hardison JR. Role of fire for disease control in *grass* seed production. Plant Disease. 1980;**64**:641-645

[54] Fushtey SG, Taylor DK, Fairey DAPHNE. The effect of wear stress on survival of turfgrass in pure stands and in mixtures. Canadian Journal of Plant Science. 1983;**63**(1): 317-322. DOI: 10.4141/cjps83-033

[55] Gray SM, Banerjee N, Thomas JS, Chapin JW, Smith DM. Barley yellow dwarf luteoviruses and their predominant aphid vectors in winter wheat grown in South Carolina. Plant Disease. 1998;**82**:1328-1333

[56] Turnbull GD, Gossen BD. Head smut of *grasses* on the Canadian prairies. II. Host range and variability. Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology. 1996;**18**(3): 255-260. DOI: 10.1080/ 07060669609500621

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[44] Zeng Y, Pu X, Yang J, Du J, Yang X, Li X, et al. Preventive and therapeutic role of functional ingredients of barley *grass* for chronic diseases in human beings. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. 2018:1-15. ID 3232080. DOI:

[51] Knops JMH, Bradley KL, Wedin DA. Mechanisms of plant species impacts on ecosystem nitrogen cycling. Ecology

Letters. 2002;**5**:454-466

[52] Teka O, Houessou L, Kindomihou V, Sinsin B. Use of vegetation fires as tool in pastoral land

management. In: Sinsin B,

Disease. 1980;**64**:641-645

[54] Fushtey SG, Taylor DK,

dwarf luteoviruses and their

Disease. 1998;**82**:1328-1333

255-260. DOI: 10.1080/ 07060669609500621

(paperback)

Kampmann D, editors. Biodiversity Atlas of West Africa. Vol. 1. Benin, Cotonou & Frankfurt/Main; 2011. pp. 196-203. ISBN 978-3-9813933-0-9 (hardcover); ISBN 978-3-9813933-3-0

[53] Hardison JR. Role of fire for disease control in *grass* seed production. Plant

Fairey DAPHNE. The effect of wear stress on survival of turfgrass in pure stands and in mixtures. Canadian Journal of Plant Science. 1983;**63**(1): 317-322. DOI: 10.4141/cjps83-033

[55] Gray SM, Banerjee N, Thomas JS, Chapin JW, Smith DM. Barley yellow

predominant aphid vectors in winter wheat grown in South Carolina. Plant

[56] Turnbull GD, Gossen BD. Head smut of *grasses* on the Canadian prairies. II. Host range and variability. Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology. 1996;**18**(3):

[57] Soroka JJ, Gossen BD. Phytophagus

[58] Smith JD, Gossen BD, Hsiang T. First report of dollar spot, caused by *Sclerotinia homoeocarpa*, on *Poa pratensis*

in Saskatchewan, Canada. Plant

arthropods and silvertop levels associated with post-harvest residue treatments in three turfgrass species grown for seed. Canadian Journal of Plant Science. 2005, 2001;**85**:213-224

[45] Khan N, Ganeshpurkar A, Dubey N,

[46] Das P, Mandal S, Gangopadhyay S, Das K, Mitra AG, Dasgupta S, et al. Antioxidative and anticarcinogenic activities of methylpheophorbidea, isolated from wheat *grass* (*Triticum aestivum* Linn.). Natural Product Research. 2016;**30**(4):474-477. DOI: 10.1080/14786419.2015.1022775

[47] Liu N, Kan HM, Yang GW, Zhang YJ. Changes in plant, soil, and microbes in a typical steppe from simulated grazing: Explaining potential

change in soil C. Ecological Monographs. 2015;**85**:269-286

147-156

**144**:20-31

**28**

grazing mediate soil carbon and nitrogen accumulation beneath C4, perennial *grasses* along an environmental gradient? Plant and Soil. 1997;**191**:

[49] Gong JR, Wang YH, Liu M, Huang YM, Yan X, Zhang ZY, et al. Effects of land use on soil respiration in the temperate steppe of Inner Mongolia, China. Soil and Tillage Research*.* 2014;

[50] Zhang T, Zhang YJ, Xu MJ, Zhu JT, Wimberly MC, Yu GR, et al. Lightintensity grazing improves alpine meadow productivity and adaption to climate change on the Tibetan plateau. Scientific Reports. 2015;**5**:15949

[48] Derner J, Briske D, Boutton T. Does

Bansal D. Immunoprophylactic potential of wheat *grass* extract on benzene-induced leukemia: An in vivo study on murine model. Indian Journal of Pharmacology. 2015;**47**(4):394-397. DOI: 10.4103/0253-7613.161261

10.1155/2018/3232080

*Grasses and Grassland Aspects*

[59] Hsiang T, Mahuku GS. Genetic variation within and between southern Ontario populations of *Sclerotinia homoeocarpa*. Plant Pathology. 1999;**48**: 83-94. DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-3059. 1999.00306.x

[60] Smith D. Influence of cool and warm temperatures and temperature reversal at inflorescence emergence on yield and chemical composition of timothy and bromegrass at anthesis. In: Proceedings of the 11th International Grassland Congress. 1970. pp. 510-514

[61] Sinsin B, Saidou A. Impact des feux contrôlés sur la productivité des pâturages naturels des savanes soudanoguinéennes du Ranch de l'Okpara au Bénin. Annales des Sciences Agronomiques du Bénin. 1998;**1**:11-30

[62] Sinsin B, Essou JP, Saidou A, Houinato M, Kindomihou V, Bako I, et al. Gestion des pâturages naturels de la ferme d'élevage de Bétécoucou par le feu. In: Rapport principal. Cotonou: MDR/DE/PDPA/LEA; 1996. 52 p

[63] La Fontinelle J. Mauvaises herbes et graminées à Houailou (Nouvelle-Calédonie). Journal de la Société des Océanistes. 2002;**114–115**:39-43. DOI: 10.4000/jso.1370

[64] Carr-Gomm P, Carr-Gomm S. L'Oracle druidique des plantes. Edition Vega.; 2006. p. 144

[65] Romey G. Dictionnaire de la Symbolique, le vocabulaire fondamental des rêves, Tome 1: couleurs, minéraux, métaux, végétaux, animaux. Canada: Edition Albin Michel; 1995. p. 576

[66] Alves VG, Souza AG, Chiavelli LU, Ruiz AL, Carvalho JE, Pomini AM, et al. Phenolic compounds and anticancer activity of commercial sugarcane

cultivated in Brazil. Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências. 2016;**88**(3): 1201-1209. DOI: 10.1590/0001- 3765201620150349

[67] Marshall J. Infant feeding: Anatomy and physiology. The Practising Midwife. 2012;**15**:38-41

[68] Light ME, McGaw LJ, Sparg SG, Jäger AK, Staden J. Screening of *Cenchrus ciliaris* L. for biological activity. South African Journal of Botany. 2002;**68**:411-413

[69] Osuji GO, Duffus E, Johnson P. Enhancement of the essential amino acid composition of food crop proteins through biotechnology. American Journal of Plant Sciences. 2015;**6**: 3091-3108

[70] Birla DS, Malik K, Sainger M. Progress and challenges in improving the nutritional quality of rice (*Oryza sativa* l.). Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 2017;**57**: 2455-2481

[71] Headey D, Hoddinott J, Ali D. The other Asian enigma, explaining the rapid reduction of under nutrition in Bangladesh. World Development. 2015; **66**:749-761

[72] Naidu KA. Vitamin C in human health and disease is still a mystery? An overview. Nutrition Journal. 2003;**2**:7

[73] Bach TJ, Rohmer M. Isoprenoid Synthesis in Plants and Microorganisms: New Concepts and Experimental Approaches. 2013. DOI 10.1007/978-1- 4614-4063-5\_28

[74] Weichert N, Saalbach I, Weichert H, Kohl S, Erban A, Kopka J, et al. Increasing sucrose uptake capacity of wheat grains stimulates storage protein synthesis. Plant Physiology.

2010;**152**:698-710. DOI: 10.1104/ pp.109.150854

[75] Boyd WJR, Lee JW. The control of wheat gluten synthesis at the genome and chromosome levels. Experientia. 1967;**23**:332-333. DOI: 10.1007/ BF02144496

[76] Calzuola I, Marsili V, Gianfranceschi GL. Synthesis of antioxidants in wheat sprouts. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry*.* 2004; **52**(16):5201-5206. DOI: 10.1021/ jf0307752

[77] Radchuk V, Riewe D, Peukert M, Matros A, Strickert M, Radchuk R, et al. Down-regulation of the sucrose transporters HvSUT1 and HvSUT2 affects sucrose homeostasis along its delivery path in barley grains. Journal of Experimental Botany. 2017;**68**(16): 4595-4612. DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erx266

[78] Nielsen LJ, Stuart P, Pičmanová M, Rasmussen S, Olsen CE, Harholt J, et al. Dhurrin metabolism in the developing grain of *Sorghum bicolor* (L.) Moench investigated by metabolite profiling and novel clustering analyses of timeresolved transcriptomic data. BMC Genomics. 2016;**17**:1021. DOI: 10.1186/ s12864-016-3360-4

[79] Eudes A, Dutta T, Deng K, Jacquet N, Sinha A, Benites V, et al. SbCOMT (Bmr12) is involved in the biosynthesis of tricin-lignin in *Sorghum*. PLoS One. 2017;**12**(6):e0178160. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0178160

[80] Obele CM, Ogbobe O, Okonkwo IF. Synthesis of 1,Z-propanediol from *Sorghum*. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition. 2010;**9**(11):1058

[81] Holou R, Kindomihou VM. The biofuel crops in global warming challenge: Carbon capture by corn, sweet sorghum and switchgrass biomass grown for biofuel production in the USA. In: Jacob-Lopes E, editor. Frontiers in Bioenergy and Biofuels. IntechOpen; 2017. pp. 139-151. DOI: 10.5772/65690

[82] Chabas S. Matériaux biosourcés: le Miscanthus au chevet du bloc porteur en béton. BatiActu, developpement durable. 2017

**31**

**Chapter 2**

*and Edward E. Gbur*

SMR in order to be most successful.

**1. Introduction**

6.0 × 107

**Abstract**

Soil Moisture Regime and Mound

Position Effects on Soil Water and

Prairie mounds are unique soil surface features that will become increasingly scarce as native tallgrass prairies are continually lost. This study aimed to evaluate (i) whether the soil moisture regime (SMR), mound position, and soil depth affect soil volumetric water content (VWC) and (ii) whether the SMR and mound position affect vegetation over time. Soil VWC was measured continuously from April 2017 to June 2018, and vegetation was sampled in June and August 2017 and in May and August 2018. Maximum VWC for selected rainfall events was ~ 2.5 times greater at 10 cm in the aquic inter-mound than the udic mound position at 30 cm. Soil dry-down rates were four times greater in the udic soil at 10 cm than the aquic soil at 30 cm. Aboveground plant biomass was numerically largest (8489 kg ha<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

mound in May 2018. Results clearly demonstrate the effects that prairie mound topography and differing SMRs have on soil water dynamics and prairie vegetation and suggest that management efforts need to account for mound topography and

vast area of land from Canada to Mexico and from the Rocky Mountains to western Indiana, known as the Great Plains [1, 2]. Tallgrass prairies once encompassed

settlement vegetation type in the eastern third of the Great Plains [2, 3]. Since 1830, tallgrass prairie loss in the United States is estimated between 82 and 99%, exceeding the loss of any other major ecosystem in North America [2]. Due to the substantial prairie loss, tallgrass prairies are now considered to be North America's most endangered ecosystem [3]. Factors including conversion to farmland, introduction of

ha from Canada and Minnesota south to Texas and were the dominant pre-

)

) at the aquic inter-

ha of prairie covered the

Vegetation in a Native Tallgrass

Prairie in the Mid-Southern

United States of America

*Tyler J. Durre, Kristofor R. Brye, Lisa S. Wood* 

at the aquic summit in August 2018 and smallest (1280 kg ha<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

**Keywords:** Ozark Highlands, Arkansas, udic, aquic, prairie mounds

Before the onset of European agriculture, 1.62 × 108

#### **Chapter 2**

2010;**152**:698-710. DOI: 10.1104/

*Grasses and Grassland Aspects*

[75] Boyd WJR, Lee JW. The control of wheat gluten synthesis at the genome and chromosome levels. Experientia. 1967;**23**:332-333. DOI: 10.1007/

in Bioenergy and Biofuels. IntechOpen; 2017. pp. 139-151. DOI: 10.5772/65690

[82] Chabas S. Matériaux biosourcés: le Miscanthus au chevet du bloc porteur en

béton. BatiActu, developpement

durable. 2017

antioxidants in wheat sprouts. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry*.* 2004;

**52**(16):5201-5206. DOI: 10.1021/

Down-regulation of the sucrose transporters HvSUT1 and HvSUT2 affects sucrose homeostasis along its delivery path in barley grains. Journal of Experimental Botany. 2017;**68**(16): 4595-4612. DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erx266

[77] Radchuk V, Riewe D, Peukert M, Matros A, Strickert M, Radchuk R, et al.

[78] Nielsen LJ, Stuart P, Pičmanová M, Rasmussen S, Olsen CE, Harholt J, et al. Dhurrin metabolism in the developing grain of *Sorghum bicolor* (L.) Moench investigated by metabolite profiling and novel clustering analyses of timeresolved transcriptomic data. BMC Genomics. 2016;**17**:1021. DOI: 10.1186/

s12864-016-3360-4

2010;**9**(11):1058

**30**

[79] Eudes A, Dutta T, Deng K, Jacquet N, Sinha A, Benites V, et al. SbCOMT (Bmr12) is involved in the biosynthesis of tricin-lignin in *Sorghum*. PLoS One. 2017;**12**(6):e0178160. DOI:

10.1371/journal.pone.0178160

[80] Obele CM, Ogbobe O, Okonkwo IF. Synthesis of 1,Z-propanediol from *Sorghum*. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition.

[81] Holou R, Kindomihou VM. The biofuel crops in global warming challenge: Carbon capture by corn, sweet sorghum and switchgrass biomass grown for biofuel production in the USA. In: Jacob-Lopes E, editor. Frontiers

pp.109.150854

BF02144496

jf0307752

[76] Calzuola I, Marsili V, Gianfranceschi GL. Synthesis of
