Small Grains as Winter Pasture in the Southern Great Plains of the United States

*Tadele T. Kumssa, Joshua D. Anderson, Twain J. Butler and Xue-Feng Ma*

#### **Abstract**

Small-grain cereals are widely adapted and used as annual cool-season pastures in the Southern Great Plains (SGP) of the United States, where livestock and forage production are the largest contributors to agricultural income. The advantage of growing small grains in the region is evident due to the widespread adoption and flexibility of production for grain only, forage only, or both grain and forage (i.e., dual purpose). Farmers in the SGP often prefer the use of small grains for dual purpose mainly because of alternative income options from livestock and/or grain, ensuring stable income especially when product prices fluctuate with market demands. Small-grain forage is exceptionally important during autumn, winter, and early spring when forage availability from other sources is low. By providing nutritionally high-quality forage, small grains minimize the need for protein and energy supplements. Besides being used for winter pasture, small grains also serve as cool-season cover crops. While small grains offer different advantages in the integrated crop-livestock system in the region, farming management practices can play an important role to maximize the benefit. The objectives of this chapter are to summarize the significance of small grains as winter pasture and highlight the production status of each small-grain species in the SGP of the United States.

**Keywords:** forage, oat, rye, small grains, Southern Great Plains, triticale, United States, wheat

#### **1. Introduction**

Small grains, such as wheat (*Triticum aestivum* L.), rye (*Secale cereale* L.), triticale (*X Triticosecale* Wittmack), and oat (*Avena sativa* L.), are an integral part of the forage-livestock system in the Southern Great Plains (SGP) of the United States, as they can be grazed during cool-season months when other forage species are not productive. On average in the last 3 years (2016–2018), 7 million hectares of land was planted annually by wheat alone for forage and grain production in the SGP, including Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas [1], which is the largest area of low-rainfall winter wheat cropland worldwide. The SGP (32–40°N; 96–104°W) is generally classified as grassland, cropland, and forest land [2]. Although many crop species grow in the area, winter wheat covers the largest amount of cropland in the region. Small grains are well adapted to the SGP's environment, for both forage and grain (i.e., dual

purpose) production. The warm autumn and mild winter with little snow coverage enable the small grains to grow fast and serve as ideal cool-season grazing pasture.

As a dual-purpose crop, small-grain cereals have other unnoticed advantages, such as weed and disease suppression by grazing animals. However, grazing small grains at the vegetative stage can reduce grain yield later in the summer depending on management practices and growing conditions, especially moisture. Farmers in the SGP often prefer the use of small grains for dual purpose mainly because of alternative income options from livestock and/or grain, ensuring relatively stable income especially when product prices fluctuate with market demands. As one of the crop-livestock integration methods, dual-purpose cereal crops can advance sustainable development through increased environmental balance, livelihood diversification, and flexibility to economic stresses, thus reducing risks [3].

Another aspect of crop-livestock integration is the use of cereal as both a cover crop and forage where plants seasonally cover the soil while serving as forage. Cover crops protect the soil primarily from wind and water erosion, improve soil quality, and increase nutrient cycling [4–6]. While small grains offer different advantages in the integrated crop-livestock system in the SGP, farming management practices, such as planting date and grazing intensity and duration, which depend on the weather and growth stage of the crop, can maximize the benefits [7, 8]. However, understanding overall management practices and fitting crops to climatic conditions is necessary for reliable accomplishment [9]. In this chapter, we present the significance of small grains as winter pasture in the SGP.

#### **2. Agroecology and farming systems in the Southern Great Plains**

The SGP of the United States extends from east of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado and New Mexico to Oklahoma and Kansas. The region also includes the Texas Panhandle and adjoining areas of West Texas and eastern New Mexico [10, 11]. The majority of the region is represented by Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. Agriculture is the most important land use in the region, where farming is more common in the east, while ranching dominates in the western part. The region mainly consists of mixed-grass and shortgrass terrestrial ecosystems. The main agricultural activity in the shortgrass prairie is animal grazing, while wheat cultivation dominates in the mixed-grass prairie [12]. Overtime, much of the native ecosystems have been converted to either farmland or pasture grazed by domestic livestock [13]. In 2012, the value of agricultural activities in the region surpassed \$59 billion, of which livestock contributed more than half of the total [2]. Farming is generally water-limited in the region, as drought occasionally occurs and impacts the whole agricultural system [14, 15].

The climate of the SGP is typically characterized with low precipitation, high evaporation rate, windy hot summers, and a wide range of daily and seasonal temperatures [10, 11]. The weather is highly variable, spanning from extreme cold to extreme heat and from very limited or no rain to extreme rainfall or flooding conditions, which often affect the overall socioeconomic system in the region [16]. These extreme weather conditions sometimes enable proliferation of invasive weeds and pests, leading to ecosystem imbalance.

Although temperature and precipitation are highly variable, making it difficult to define a crop that performs well region-wide [17], the mild winter favors cool-season crops for grazing animals [18]. The region is known for its mixed farming practices, producing both livestock and grain. The most common crop-livestock integration methods in the United States are sod-based crop rotations, livestock grazing of crops within cash crop rotations, grazing of crop residues, sod intercropping,

**111**

d<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

*Small Grains as Winter Pasture in the Southern Great Plains of the United States*

or both forage and grain, enabling flexibility to ensure greater income.

**3. Significance of winter small grains as pasture in the Southern** 

Small-grain forage is important in agricultural systems worldwide. In some parts

Forage-based livestock production is an important element of the SGP agricultural economy [29]. This region plays an important role in the beef industry of the United States due to the strategic location between the humid southeast where a majority of the cow/calf enterprises reside and the High Plains region where the grain production and the finishing feedlots exclusively reside. Millions of stocker calves from more than 500,000 farms across the southern United States pass through the SGP on their way to the feedlots [30]. Managing small grains for both grazing and grain is an alternative and sustainable practice that supports the crop-livestock system in the region [30–32]. Cool-season small-grain forage provides more flexible and profitable crop-livestock systems, in which producers can adjust production outcomes they want based on market values of grains and livestock [28, 33]. In the past, it has been estimated that 30 to 80% of the total wheat area planted in the SGP is grazed at some time during the growing season and 10 to 20% of the area is grazed throughout the spring and not harvested for grain, which is referred to as "graze-out" [34]. When combined with summer annual forages, the winter annual small-grain forages can result in the best net return in unit area of land [35].

Small grains generally grow faster in winter than most other pastures and can also recover after grazing [36]. Small grains are also known to have high tillering capacity that enables them to tolerate stress from grazing. The average autumnwinter forage yield of small grains in the SGP is about 2500–3500 kg ha<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

large yield variation was observed depending on growing conditions [37, 38]. In addition, small-grain forage is high in protein content and digestibility and hence promotes more weight gain in grazing animals [39]. In Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas, small grains are a good source of high-quality pasture from late autumn to early spring [40]. Several studies indicated that small grains produce about 1.0 kg

To maximize the advantage of small grains as winter pasture, proper management practices should be followed. For example, early planting in a prepared seedbed is important to ensure early availability of the pasture for grazing. However, early planting may not be feasible if there are biotic and abiotic stresses in the farm.

of average daily gain (ADG) in grazing animals [41, 42].

; however,

of the world, intensive grazing of small-grain pasture occurs only once but continuously for days [22–24]. In the Central and Southern Great Plains of the United States, however, grazing is often at lower stocking rates for an extended period of time (months) [25, 26]. The grassland in the SGP is predominantly warm-season species, and hence the cool-season small-grain pasture plays critical roles in supplying nutritionally high-quality forage in winter when the quantity and quality of

dual-purpose cereal crops, and silvopasture [19]. Wherever it is practiced, croplivestock integration in the United States can be implemented either within the farm, in which crops and livestock produced at the same time and space, or among the farms, in which farmers work together in agreements to attain the intended synergies between production systems [20]. Dual-purpose cereal production has been the preferred system in the SGP because it gives relatively stable income [21]. In dualpurpose settings, small grains are grazed without removing terminal meristems so that plants regenerate and grow for grain production. Based on grain and cattle (*Bos* spp.) prices, producers decide whether to use small grains as forage only, grain only,

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90524*

warm-season forage become low [27, 28].

**Great Plains**

*Small Grains as Winter Pasture in the Southern Great Plains of the United States DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90524*

dual-purpose cereal crops, and silvopasture [19]. Wherever it is practiced, croplivestock integration in the United States can be implemented either within the farm, in which crops and livestock produced at the same time and space, or among the farms, in which farmers work together in agreements to attain the intended synergies between production systems [20]. Dual-purpose cereal production has been the preferred system in the SGP because it gives relatively stable income [21]. In dualpurpose settings, small grains are grazed without removing terminal meristems so that plants regenerate and grow for grain production. Based on grain and cattle (*Bos* spp.) prices, producers decide whether to use small grains as forage only, grain only, or both forage and grain, enabling flexibility to ensure greater income.

#### **3. Significance of winter small grains as pasture in the Southern Great Plains**

Small-grain forage is important in agricultural systems worldwide. In some parts of the world, intensive grazing of small-grain pasture occurs only once but continuously for days [22–24]. In the Central and Southern Great Plains of the United States, however, grazing is often at lower stocking rates for an extended period of time (months) [25, 26]. The grassland in the SGP is predominantly warm-season species, and hence the cool-season small-grain pasture plays critical roles in supplying nutritionally high-quality forage in winter when the quantity and quality of warm-season forage become low [27, 28].

Forage-based livestock production is an important element of the SGP agricultural economy [29]. This region plays an important role in the beef industry of the United States due to the strategic location between the humid southeast where a majority of the cow/calf enterprises reside and the High Plains region where the grain production and the finishing feedlots exclusively reside. Millions of stocker calves from more than 500,000 farms across the southern United States pass through the SGP on their way to the feedlots [30]. Managing small grains for both grazing and grain is an alternative and sustainable practice that supports the crop-livestock system in the region [30–32]. Cool-season small-grain forage provides more flexible and profitable crop-livestock systems, in which producers can adjust production outcomes they want based on market values of grains and livestock [28, 33]. In the past, it has been estimated that 30 to 80% of the total wheat area planted in the SGP is grazed at some time during the growing season and 10 to 20% of the area is grazed throughout the spring and not harvested for grain, which is referred to as "graze-out" [34]. When combined with summer annual forages, the winter annual small-grain forages can result in the best net return in unit area of land [35].

Small grains generally grow faster in winter than most other pastures and can also recover after grazing [36]. Small grains are also known to have high tillering capacity that enables them to tolerate stress from grazing. The average autumnwinter forage yield of small grains in the SGP is about 2500–3500 kg ha<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> ; however, large yield variation was observed depending on growing conditions [37, 38]. In addition, small-grain forage is high in protein content and digestibility and hence promotes more weight gain in grazing animals [39]. In Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas, small grains are a good source of high-quality pasture from late autumn to early spring [40]. Several studies indicated that small grains produce about 1.0 kg d<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> of average daily gain (ADG) in grazing animals [41, 42].

To maximize the advantage of small grains as winter pasture, proper management practices should be followed. For example, early planting in a prepared seedbed is important to ensure early availability of the pasture for grazing. However, early planting may not be feasible if there are biotic and abiotic stresses in the farm.

*Grasses and Grassland Aspects*

purpose) production. The warm autumn and mild winter with little snow coverage enable the small grains to grow fast and serve as ideal cool-season grazing pasture. As a dual-purpose crop, small-grain cereals have other unnoticed advantages, such as weed and disease suppression by grazing animals. However, grazing small grains at the vegetative stage can reduce grain yield later in the summer depending on management practices and growing conditions, especially moisture. Farmers in the SGP often prefer the use of small grains for dual purpose mainly because of alternative income options from livestock and/or grain, ensuring relatively stable income especially when product prices fluctuate with market demands. As one of the crop-livestock integration methods, dual-purpose cereal crops can advance sustainable development through increased environmental balance, livelihood diversification, and flexibility to economic stresses, thus reducing risks [3].

Another aspect of crop-livestock integration is the use of cereal as both a cover crop and forage where plants seasonally cover the soil while serving as forage. Cover crops protect the soil primarily from wind and water erosion, improve soil quality, and increase nutrient cycling [4–6]. While small grains offer different advantages in the integrated crop-livestock system in the SGP, farming management practices, such as planting date and grazing intensity and duration, which depend on the weather and growth stage of the crop, can maximize the benefits [7, 8]. However, understanding overall management practices and fitting crops to climatic conditions is necessary for reliable accomplishment [9]. In this chapter, we present the

significance of small grains as winter pasture in the SGP.

the whole agricultural system [14, 15].

and pests, leading to ecosystem imbalance.

**2. Agroecology and farming systems in the Southern Great Plains**

The SGP of the United States extends from east of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado and New Mexico to Oklahoma and Kansas. The region also includes the Texas Panhandle and adjoining areas of West Texas and eastern New Mexico [10, 11]. The majority of the region is represented by Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. Agriculture is the most important land use in the region, where farming is more common in the east, while ranching dominates in the western part. The region mainly consists of mixed-grass and shortgrass terrestrial ecosystems. The main agricultural activity in the shortgrass prairie is animal grazing, while wheat cultivation dominates in the mixed-grass prairie [12]. Overtime, much of the native ecosystems have been converted to either farmland or pasture grazed by domestic livestock [13]. In 2012, the value of agricultural activities in the region surpassed \$59 billion, of which livestock contributed more than half of the total [2]. Farming is generally water-limited in the region, as drought occasionally occurs and impacts

The climate of the SGP is typically characterized with low precipitation, high evaporation rate, windy hot summers, and a wide range of daily and seasonal temperatures [10, 11]. The weather is highly variable, spanning from extreme cold to extreme heat and from very limited or no rain to extreme rainfall or flooding conditions, which often affect the overall socioeconomic system in the region [16]. These extreme weather conditions sometimes enable proliferation of invasive weeds

Although temperature and precipitation are highly variable, making it difficult to define a crop that performs well region-wide [17], the mild winter favors cool-season crops for grazing animals [18]. The region is known for its mixed farming practices, producing both livestock and grain. The most common crop-livestock integration methods in the United States are sod-based crop rotations, livestock grazing of crops within cash crop rotations, grazing of crop residues, sod intercropping,

**110**

Grazing too early when plants are small (not well-rooted) leads to pulling up of plants and also severe damage from trampling. In the dual-purpose production system, termination of grazing at the first hollow stem (jointing) stage is critical to achieve the best economic return [43]. Delaying the termination of grazing will reduce subsequent grain yield by approximately as much as five percent per day for every day past the first hollow stem [8].

Although winter wheat is the main cool-season forage source in the region, other small grains in general are also important for their wide adaptability and versatility in forage use, such as pasture, green cut, silage, and hay. The most commonly grown small grains for winter pasture in the region are wheat, rye, triticale, and oat. Compared to wheat, other small grains (rye, triticale, and oat) can produce greater forage yield in a specific season (autumn, winter, or spring), and they have competitive advantage in graze-out systems. Farmers select the crop that fits the need of winter pasture based on the characteristics of the crops, available management practices, and production goals.

#### **4. Small grains commonly grown in the Southern Great Plains**

#### **4.1 Wheat**

Wheat is the largest and most important crop in the SGP, with 3.1, 1.8, and 1.8 million hectares being planted in Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas, respectively, in 2018 [1]. Wherever growing conditions are favorable, the economic advantage of managing wheat as a dual-purpose crop is better than managing it as a grain-only or forage-only crop [44, 45]. Wheat cultivars, such as "Endurance" and "Duster," with superior dual-purpose production have been released by the Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station [46, 47].

Obviously, the main reason why wheat is the most commonly planted small-grain species for grazing is its dual-purpose economic flexibility in the SGP. However, wheat is below average in amount of early growth and total forage yield compared to other small grains. Wheat is considered more tolerant to wet clay soils than the other small-grain species. Wheat forage is high in protein, energy, and minerals but low in fiber. To maximize forage yield in a dual-purpose winter wheat production system, the crop is often planted early in the autumn so that grazing can begin in late autumn. It is also very important to stop grazing at the first hollow stem stage when dormancy of the crop is released. Depending on the availability of moisture, wheat pasture can last 4–5 months.

#### **4.2 Rye**

Although rye acreage in the United States is much lower than wheat and oat acreages, it is an important forage crop in the SGP. Only 20% of the rye acreage in the United States is harvested [1], indicating that the majority of the crop is used for grazing animals. Oklahoma is the largest rye-growing state in the United States [1], at least partially because of the historical contribution of the Noble Research Institute in releasing a few well-known rye cultivars, such as "Elbon" (1956), which is still widely grown today. The Noble Research Institute has also released "Maton" (1975), "Oklon" (1993), "Bates" (1995), "Maton II" (2007), and "Bates RS4" (2013) rye cultivars, which were primarily selected for increasing autumn-winter production.

Among all small-grain cereals, rye is the most winter-hardy crop. It is proved to be the best in performance, especially under stressed growing conditions, because of its excellent biotic stress tolerance to multiple diseases and abiotic stress tolerance to

**113**

**4.4 Oats**

*Small Grains as Winter Pasture in the Southern Great Plains of the United States*

frost, drought, low pH, and marginal soil fertility [48, 49]. Rye performs better than other small grains, especially in the light-textured sandy soils, due to its prolific root system. It grows faster and produces more forage than wheat from autumn to winter. Livestock producers consider rye the most dependable cereal for winter grazing because of its reliable and great forage production [50, 51] and lower potential for causing grass tetany (livestock disease caused by magnesium deficiency) [52].

The main drawback of rye is that it is considered a terrible weed in wheat grown for grain, so it should not be planted in areas expected to be used for wheat grain production in the future. In addition, since rye develops fast and matures early, rye flowers often encounter late-spring freezing damage, causing potential seed yield loss. The progress of increasing rye forage yield has been minimal because of limited

In addition, rye is the most widely grown cover crop for sustainable agriculture because of its competitive ability to suppress weeds and scavenge residual soil nitrogen after other crops. Cereal rye is used widely as a winter annual cover crop in the United States because of its winterhardiness, high biomass production, and residues against weed species [53]. Studies have indicated that rye cover crop improves soil organic matter, nitrogen mineralization, and particulate organic matter [54].

Triticale is a man-made crop from hybridizing wheat (*Triticum* spp. L.) and rye for combining the best traits from the two parental species. This artificial cereal inherited its cold tolerance, disease resistance or tolerance, and adaptation to unfavorable soil and climatic conditions from the male parent, rye, and its yield and nutritional quality from the female parent, wheat [55, 56]. Although breeding efforts on triticale have been limited compared to those on other small grains, improved triticale cultivars produce competitive biomass and grain yield, making it a viable alternative crop especially under unfavorable growing conditions with

Triticale is an important crop especially in livestock farming systems, in which the crop is mainly produced for animal feed grain and/or forage [57–60]. In the SGP, triticale is grown mainly for grazing because of its superior performance in forage biomass production [56]. The forage yield of triticale is similar to that of rye but greater than that of wheat and oat in the southern Oklahoma [61]. Triticale also has greater forage quality for grazing animals when compared to rye [56]. In addition, triticale is a preferred forage crop for producing silage to cover the forage quality gap during dry, hot summers because of its high yielding and nutritional forage [56, 62]. Therefore, triticale is becoming more popular as an alternative forage to wheat and rye in the SGP, and it has the greatest potential for improvement due to

Oat is another cereal commonly grown for grain and forage throughout the world. It is produced mainly in temperate, cool, and subtropical climates for grain and different forms of animal feed [63]. In the United States, spring oat is primarily produced for grain, while winter type is often grown for forage and in some cases as

breeding efforts, as only a few institutes, such as the University of Florida and the Noble Research Institute, have rye breeding programs. Cultivars commonly grown in the southern United States are those released many years ago. Rye is also an important grain crop worldwide, with 75% of grain production from Russia,

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90524*

Poland, Germany, and Ukraine [48].

diverse biotic and abiotic stress factors [56].

its short breeding history [56].

a dual-purpose crop [63].

**4.3 Triticale**

#### *Small Grains as Winter Pasture in the Southern Great Plains of the United States DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90524*

frost, drought, low pH, and marginal soil fertility [48, 49]. Rye performs better than other small grains, especially in the light-textured sandy soils, due to its prolific root system. It grows faster and produces more forage than wheat from autumn to winter. Livestock producers consider rye the most dependable cereal for winter grazing because of its reliable and great forage production [50, 51] and lower potential for causing grass tetany (livestock disease caused by magnesium deficiency) [52].

The main drawback of rye is that it is considered a terrible weed in wheat grown for grain, so it should not be planted in areas expected to be used for wheat grain production in the future. In addition, since rye develops fast and matures early, rye flowers often encounter late-spring freezing damage, causing potential seed yield loss.

The progress of increasing rye forage yield has been minimal because of limited breeding efforts, as only a few institutes, such as the University of Florida and the Noble Research Institute, have rye breeding programs. Cultivars commonly grown in the southern United States are those released many years ago. Rye is also an important grain crop worldwide, with 75% of grain production from Russia, Poland, Germany, and Ukraine [48].

In addition, rye is the most widely grown cover crop for sustainable agriculture because of its competitive ability to suppress weeds and scavenge residual soil nitrogen after other crops. Cereal rye is used widely as a winter annual cover crop in the United States because of its winterhardiness, high biomass production, and residues against weed species [53]. Studies have indicated that rye cover crop improves soil organic matter, nitrogen mineralization, and particulate organic matter [54].

#### **4.3 Triticale**

*Grasses and Grassland Aspects*

every day past the first hollow stem [8].

practices, and production goals.

Experiment Station [46, 47].

moisture, wheat pasture can last 4–5 months.

**4.1 Wheat**

Grazing too early when plants are small (not well-rooted) leads to pulling up of plants and also severe damage from trampling. In the dual-purpose production system, termination of grazing at the first hollow stem (jointing) stage is critical to achieve the best economic return [43]. Delaying the termination of grazing will reduce subsequent grain yield by approximately as much as five percent per day for

**4. Small grains commonly grown in the Southern Great Plains**

Wheat is the largest and most important crop in the SGP, with 3.1, 1.8, and 1.8 million hectares being planted in Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas, respectively, in 2018 [1]. Wherever growing conditions are favorable, the economic advantage of managing wheat as a dual-purpose crop is better than managing it as a grain-only or forage-only crop [44, 45]. Wheat cultivars, such as "Endurance" and "Duster," with superior dual-purpose production have been released by the Oklahoma Agricultural

Obviously, the main reason why wheat is the most commonly planted small-grain species for grazing is its dual-purpose economic flexibility in the SGP. However, wheat is below average in amount of early growth and total forage yield compared to other small grains. Wheat is considered more tolerant to wet clay soils than the other small-grain species. Wheat forage is high in protein, energy, and minerals but low in fiber. To maximize forage yield in a dual-purpose winter wheat production system, the crop is often planted early in the autumn so that grazing can begin in late autumn. It is also very important to stop grazing at the first hollow stem stage when dormancy of the crop is released. Depending on the availability of

Although rye acreage in the United States is much lower than wheat and oat acreages, it is an important forage crop in the SGP. Only 20% of the rye acreage in the United States is harvested [1], indicating that the majority of the crop is used for grazing animals. Oklahoma is the largest rye-growing state in the United States [1], at least partially because of the historical contribution of the Noble Research Institute in releasing a few well-known rye cultivars, such as "Elbon" (1956), which is still widely grown today. The Noble Research Institute has also released "Maton" (1975), "Oklon" (1993), "Bates" (1995), "Maton II" (2007), and "Bates RS4" (2013) rye cultivars, which were primarily selected for increasing autumn-winter production.

Among all small-grain cereals, rye is the most winter-hardy crop. It is proved to be the best in performance, especially under stressed growing conditions, because of its excellent biotic stress tolerance to multiple diseases and abiotic stress tolerance to

Although winter wheat is the main cool-season forage source in the region, other small grains in general are also important for their wide adaptability and versatility in forage use, such as pasture, green cut, silage, and hay. The most commonly grown small grains for winter pasture in the region are wheat, rye, triticale, and oat. Compared to wheat, other small grains (rye, triticale, and oat) can produce greater forage yield in a specific season (autumn, winter, or spring), and they have competitive advantage in graze-out systems. Farmers select the crop that fits the need of winter pasture based on the characteristics of the crops, available management

**112**

**4.2 Rye**

Triticale is a man-made crop from hybridizing wheat (*Triticum* spp. L.) and rye for combining the best traits from the two parental species. This artificial cereal inherited its cold tolerance, disease resistance or tolerance, and adaptation to unfavorable soil and climatic conditions from the male parent, rye, and its yield and nutritional quality from the female parent, wheat [55, 56]. Although breeding efforts on triticale have been limited compared to those on other small grains, improved triticale cultivars produce competitive biomass and grain yield, making it a viable alternative crop especially under unfavorable growing conditions with diverse biotic and abiotic stress factors [56].

Triticale is an important crop especially in livestock farming systems, in which the crop is mainly produced for animal feed grain and/or forage [57–60]. In the SGP, triticale is grown mainly for grazing because of its superior performance in forage biomass production [56]. The forage yield of triticale is similar to that of rye but greater than that of wheat and oat in the southern Oklahoma [61]. Triticale also has greater forage quality for grazing animals when compared to rye [56]. In addition, triticale is a preferred forage crop for producing silage to cover the forage quality gap during dry, hot summers because of its high yielding and nutritional forage [56, 62]. Therefore, triticale is becoming more popular as an alternative forage to wheat and rye in the SGP, and it has the greatest potential for improvement due to its short breeding history [56].

#### **4.4 Oats**

Oat is another cereal commonly grown for grain and forage throughout the world. It is produced mainly in temperate, cool, and subtropical climates for grain and different forms of animal feed [63]. In the United States, spring oat is primarily produced for grain, while winter type is often grown for forage and in some cases as a dual-purpose crop [63].

The use of winter oat as pasture or forage is common in the SGP of the United States [64]. Oat is an important forage crop in the region and is a useful alternative to forage wheat for stocker cattle production [63]. Oat grows fast and generates very competitive forage biomass yield in autumn and spring when air temperature is optimal for the crop; however, it produces much less forage in winter than wheat, rye, and triticale because of its sensitivity to freezing temperatures. Therefore, improving winterhardiness is one of the main breeding objectives for winter forage oat. In addition, compared to other small grains, oat is in general more susceptible to various diseases, and it does not grow well in low-input systems; thus, it is not recommended for marginal land. Oat is generally the most preferred forage to grazing animals among all small grains due to its superior palatability.

In summary, pasture production varies greatly among small-grain cereals. Comparing forage, especially for stocker development, requires different

**Figure 1.**

*Relative pasture production distribution of cool season small grain crops on heavy soil at Ardmore, Oklahoma.*

#### **Figure 2.**

*Relative pasture production distribution of cool season small grain crops on sandy soil at Burneyville, Oklahoma.*

**115**

*Small Grains as Winter Pasture in the Southern Great Plains of the United States*

**5. Improving small grains for winter pasture in the Southern** 

considerations specific to the farm, growing season, and climatic conditions. For example, oat is the best for autumn forage yield on clay soil at Ardmore, Oklahoma, while rye is the best on sandy soil at Burneyville, Oklahoma (**Figures 1** and **2**). Therefore, a holistic understanding of production environment, available management options, and economic analysis is key to attain the intended use. The availability of alternative forage options of small grains enables producers to make decisions

Since small-grain cereals are produced mainly for grain, breeding efforts to improve small grains mostly focus on increasing grain yield and quality worldwide. Although small-grain cereals are also widely used as forage crops, cultivars being used for winter pastures were mostly developed for grain rather than forage. Therefore, there is a need to improve small grains for winter forage or dual-purpose production, especially in the SGP where livestock and forage production are the largest contributors to agricultural income. Ideally, small grains for grazing are those with tolerance to early planting, animal grazing, and various seedling biotic and abiotic stresses and those with vigorous early growth and regrowth and/or

In the southern United States, institutes that have breeding programs to improve cereals for forage or dual purpose include the Noble Research Institute (formerly the Samuel Roberts Noble Foundation), the Oklahoma State University, the Texas A&M AgriLife Research (Texas A&M University), the University of Georgia, and the University of Florida [46, 63, 65]. However, only the Noble Research Institute has a forage-focused small-grain breeding program, while other universities mainly deliver dual-purpose cultivars from their grain-focused breeding programs. The Noble Research Institute started its small-grain breeding program with rye in the early 1950s. Since then, the institute has expanded its breeding program to include wheat, triticale, and oat with the objective of increasing forage or dual-purpose production. The research has particularly focused on developing cultivars with improved early vigor and regrowth vigor, improved grazing tolerance, and increased autumn-winter forage yield or total forage yield. The program has developed multiple improved forage cultivars of

Biomass yield is the main target for forage crop improvement. The trait is usually

To augment breeding efficiency, high-throughput phenotyping platforms using remote sensing have been adopted recently in forage breeding and have facilitated biomass yield estimation for breeding selection [70–73]. Over the last few years, the Noble Research Institute has developed ground-based high-throughput phenotyping platforms and improved biomass prediction accuracies by incorporating normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) with proximal sensors, such as ultrasonic and laser height measurements [70]. Similar phenotyping platforms have

measured through multiple clipping over seasons, posing difficulty in biomass yield estimation, especially when a large number of samples need to be evaluated at field scales [63]. Other physical methods of estimating biomass involved rising plate meters, capacitance meters, and clipping samples with meter sticks [66–69]. However, not only are these methods time-consuming, but it is also difficult to

establish a reliable model for estimating biomass yield [70].

also been used in other breeding programs.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90524*

extended periods of vegetative growth.

wheat, rye, oat, and triticale.

**Great Plains**

that best fit their specific farm and climatic conditions.

*Small Grains as Winter Pasture in the Southern Great Plains of the United States DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90524*

considerations specific to the farm, growing season, and climatic conditions. For example, oat is the best for autumn forage yield on clay soil at Ardmore, Oklahoma, while rye is the best on sandy soil at Burneyville, Oklahoma (**Figures 1** and **2**). Therefore, a holistic understanding of production environment, available management options, and economic analysis is key to attain the intended use. The availability of alternative forage options of small grains enables producers to make decisions that best fit their specific farm and climatic conditions.

#### **5. Improving small grains for winter pasture in the Southern Great Plains**

Since small-grain cereals are produced mainly for grain, breeding efforts to improve small grains mostly focus on increasing grain yield and quality worldwide. Although small-grain cereals are also widely used as forage crops, cultivars being used for winter pastures were mostly developed for grain rather than forage. Therefore, there is a need to improve small grains for winter forage or dual-purpose production, especially in the SGP where livestock and forage production are the largest contributors to agricultural income. Ideally, small grains for grazing are those with tolerance to early planting, animal grazing, and various seedling biotic and abiotic stresses and those with vigorous early growth and regrowth and/or extended periods of vegetative growth.

In the southern United States, institutes that have breeding programs to improve cereals for forage or dual purpose include the Noble Research Institute (formerly the Samuel Roberts Noble Foundation), the Oklahoma State University, the Texas A&M AgriLife Research (Texas A&M University), the University of Georgia, and the University of Florida [46, 63, 65]. However, only the Noble Research Institute has a forage-focused small-grain breeding program, while other universities mainly deliver dual-purpose cultivars from their grain-focused breeding programs. The Noble Research Institute started its small-grain breeding program with rye in the early 1950s. Since then, the institute has expanded its breeding program to include wheat, triticale, and oat with the objective of increasing forage or dual-purpose production. The research has particularly focused on developing cultivars with improved early vigor and regrowth vigor, improved grazing tolerance, and increased autumn-winter forage yield or total forage yield. The program has developed multiple improved forage cultivars of wheat, rye, oat, and triticale.

Biomass yield is the main target for forage crop improvement. The trait is usually measured through multiple clipping over seasons, posing difficulty in biomass yield estimation, especially when a large number of samples need to be evaluated at field scales [63]. Other physical methods of estimating biomass involved rising plate meters, capacitance meters, and clipping samples with meter sticks [66–69]. However, not only are these methods time-consuming, but it is also difficult to establish a reliable model for estimating biomass yield [70].

To augment breeding efficiency, high-throughput phenotyping platforms using remote sensing have been adopted recently in forage breeding and have facilitated biomass yield estimation for breeding selection [70–73]. Over the last few years, the Noble Research Institute has developed ground-based high-throughput phenotyping platforms and improved biomass prediction accuracies by incorporating normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) with proximal sensors, such as ultrasonic and laser height measurements [70]. Similar phenotyping platforms have also been used in other breeding programs.

*Grasses and Grassland Aspects*

superior palatability.

The use of winter oat as pasture or forage is common in the SGP of the United States [64]. Oat is an important forage crop in the region and is a useful alternative to forage wheat for stocker cattle production [63]. Oat grows fast and generates very competitive forage biomass yield in autumn and spring when air temperature is optimal for the crop; however, it produces much less forage in winter than wheat, rye, and triticale because of its sensitivity to freezing temperatures. Therefore, improving winterhardiness is one of the main breeding objectives for winter forage oat. In addition, compared to other small grains, oat is in general more susceptible to various diseases, and it does not grow well in low-input systems; thus, it is not recommended for marginal land. Oat is generally the most preferred forage to grazing animals among all small grains due to its

In summary, pasture production varies greatly among small-grain cereals. Comparing forage, especially for stocker development, requires different

*Relative pasture production distribution of cool season small grain crops on heavy soil at Ardmore, Oklahoma.*

*Relative pasture production distribution of cool season small grain crops on sandy soil at Burneyville,* 

**114**

**Figure 2.**

**Figure 1.**

*Oklahoma.*

#### **6. Summary**

Cool-season annual small grains remain the most important forage for stocker cattle producers in the SGP of the United States due to their high forage quality, adaptation to the environment, and economic contribution. They are also valuable for filling forage gaps and extending the grazing season as a complement to other grasses. Wheat, rye, triticale, and oat are the most common small-grain forages that provide production flexibility and economic stability with an alternative dual-purpose option. Wheat is the most commonly grown because of its alternative value as a cash crop; rye is currently the best forage option on sandy, drought-prone soils or in graze-out systems; oat can be the most valuable when providing autumn forage; and triticale has the greatest potential for improvement and increased adoption.

#### **Acknowledgements**

The authors sincerely thank Andrea Mongler for critical reading of the manuscript.

## **Conflict of interest**

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

#### **Author details**

Tadele T. Kumssa, Joshua D. Anderson, Twain J. Butler and Xue-Feng Ma\* Noble Research Institute, Ardmore, OK, USA

\*Address all correspondence to: xma@noble.org

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**117**

*Small Grains as Winter Pasture in the Southern Great Plains of the United States*

Soils. 2016;**49**(1):10-14. DOI: 10.2134/

southeastern USA. Agronomy Journal. 2007;**99**(2):361-372. DOI: 10.2134/

[10] Savage D, Costello D. The Southern Great Plains: The region and its need. In: Yearbook of Agriculture. Washington,

[11] Paysen TE, Ansley RJ, Brown JK, Gottfried GJ, Haase SM, Harrington MG,

woodland, and grassland ecosystems. In: Brown JK, Smith JK, editors. Wildland Fire in Ecosystems: Effects of Fire on Flora 2. U.S. Department of Agriculture,

[9] Franzluebbers A. Integrated crop–livestock systems in the

DC: USDA; 1948. pp. 503-506

et al. Fire in western shrubland,

Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station; Scotts Valley, CA, USA: CreateSpace publishing; 2000.

[12] Hart RH. Land-use history on the short grass steppe. In: Ecology of the Short Grass Steppe: A Long-Term Perspective. New York: Oxford

University Press; 2008

[13] Assal TJ, Melcher CP, Carr NB. Southern Great Plains Rapid Ecoregional Assessment: Pre-Assessment Report. US Geological

Survey, 2015. 2331-1258

10.1016/j.agee.2015.07.021

[15] Christian J, Christian K,

Basara JB. Drought and pluvial dipole events within the great plains of the United States. Journal of Applied

[14] Raz-Yaseef N, Billesbach DP, Fischer ML, Biraud SC, Gunter SA, Bradford JA, et al. Vulnerability of crops and native grasses to summer drying in the US Southern Great Plains. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. 2015;**213**:209-218. DOI:

pp. 121-159

cs2016-49-1-2

agronj2006.0076

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90524*

[1] USDA-NASS. United States Department of Agriculture Data and Statistics. 2019. Available from: https:// www.nass.usda.gov/Quick\_Stats/Lite/

[3] Abson DJ, Fraser EDG,

10.1186/2048-7010-2-2

[2] Steiner JL, Briske DD, Brown DP, Rottler CM. Vulnerability of Southern Plains agriculture to climate change. Climatic Change. 2017;**146**(1):201-218. DOI: 10.1007/s10584-017-1965-5

Benton TG. Landscape diversity and the resilience of agricultural returns: A portfolio analysis of land-use patterns and economic returns from lowland agriculture. Agriculture and Food Security. 2013;**2**(1):2. DOI:

[4] Stevens CJ, Quinton JN. Diffuse pollution swapping in arable

in Environmental Science and

10.1080/10643380801910017

S0167-1987(97)00065-2

sssaj2013.01.0006

agricultural systems. Critical Reviews

Technology. 2009;**39**(6):478-520. DOI:

[5] Edwards L. Comparison of two spring seeding methods to establish forage cover crops in relay with winter cereals. Soil and Tillage Research. 1998;**45**(3-4):227-235. DOI: 10.1016/

[6] Blanco-Canqui H, Holman JD, Schlegel AJ, Tatarko J, Shaver TM. Replacing fallow with cover crops in a semiarid soil: Effects on soil properties. Soil Science Society of America Journal. 2013;**77**(3):1026-1034. DOI: 10.2136/

[7] Edwards JT, Carver BF, Horn GW, Payton ME. Impact of dual-purpose management on wheat grain yield. Crop Science. 2011;**51**(5):2181-2185. DOI: 10.2135/cropsci2011.01.0043

[8] Edwards J, Horn G. First hollow stem: A critical wheat growth stage for dual-purpose producers. Crops and

**References**

*Small Grains as Winter Pasture in the Southern Great Plains of the United States DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90524*

#### **References**

*Grasses and Grassland Aspects*

**Acknowledgements**

**Conflict of interest**

manuscript.

**6. Summary**

**116**

**Author details**

Tadele T. Kumssa, Joshua D. Anderson, Twain J. Butler and Xue-Feng Ma\*

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

Cool-season annual small grains remain the most important forage for stocker cattle producers in the SGP of the United States due to their high forage quality, adaptation to the environment, and economic contribution. They are also valuable for filling forage gaps and extending the grazing season as a complement to other grasses. Wheat, rye, triticale, and oat are the most common small-grain forages that provide production flexibility and economic stability with an alternative dual-purpose option. Wheat is the most commonly grown because of its alternative value as a cash crop; rye is currently the best forage option on sandy, drought-prone soils or in graze-out systems; oat can be the most valuable when providing autumn forage; and triticale has the greatest potential for improvement and increased adoption.

The authors sincerely thank Andrea Mongler for critical reading of the

Noble Research Institute, Ardmore, OK, USA

provided the original work is properly cited.

\*Address all correspondence to: xma@noble.org

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

[1] USDA-NASS. United States Department of Agriculture Data and Statistics. 2019. Available from: https:// www.nass.usda.gov/Quick\_Stats/Lite/

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[3] Abson DJ, Fraser EDG, Benton TG. Landscape diversity and the resilience of agricultural returns: A portfolio analysis of land-use patterns and economic returns from lowland agriculture. Agriculture and Food Security. 2013;**2**(1):2. DOI: 10.1186/2048-7010-2-2

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[5] Edwards L. Comparison of two spring seeding methods to establish forage cover crops in relay with winter cereals. Soil and Tillage Research. 1998;**45**(3-4):227-235. DOI: 10.1016/ S0167-1987(97)00065-2

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Science. 2003;**43**(6):2212-2217. DOI:

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Fereres E. Winter cereals grown for grain and for the dual purpose of forage plus grain II. Water use and water-use efficiency. Field Crops Research. 1995;**44**(1):13-24. DOI: 10.1016/0378-4290(95)00046-3

[33] Garrett R, Niles M, Gil J, Gaudin A, Chaplin-Kramer R, Assmann A, et al. Social and ecological analysis of commercial integrated crop livestock systems: Current knowledge and remaining uncertainty. Agricultural Systems. 2017;**155**:136-146. DOI: 10.1016/j.agsy.2017.05.003

10.2135/cropsci2003.2212

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wheat pasture. Journal of Range Management. 1996;**49**(2): 126-130. DOI: 10.2307/4002681

[35] Braunwart K, Putnam D,

[37] Marburger D, Calhoun R, Pugh B, Watson B, Gillespie C. Fall

Symposium. 2001

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Science. 2003;**43**(6):2212-2217. DOI: 10.2135/cropsci2003.2212

*Grasses and Grassland Aspects*

10.7930/NCA4.2018.CH23

agronj2017.12.0726

pas.2017-01714

[17] Baath GS, Northup BK, Rocateli AC, Gowda PH, Neel JP. Forage potential of summer annual grain legumes in the Southern Great Plains. Agronomy Journal. 2018;**110**(6):1-13. DOI: 10.2134/

[18] Mullenix M, Rouquette F. Coolseason annual grasses or grass– clover management options for extending the fall–winter–early spring grazing season for beef cattle. The Professional Animal Scientist. 2018;**34**(3):231-239. DOI: 10.15232/

[19] Sulc RM, Franzluebbers AJ. Exploring integrated crop–livestock systems in different ecoregions of the United States. European Journal of Agronomy. 2014;**57**:21-30. DOI:

10.1016/j.eja.2013.10.007

agronj2006.0139

[20] Russelle MP, Entz MH, Franzluebbers AJ. Reconsidering integrated crop–livestock systems in North America. Agronomy Journal. 2007;**99**(2):325-334. DOI: 10.2134/

[21] Redmon LA, Horn GW, Krenzer EG, Bernardo DJ. A review of livestock grazing and wheat grain yield: Boom or bust? Agronomy Journal. 1995;**87**(2):137-147. DOI: 10.2134/agronj

1995.00021962008700020001x

JAMC-D-15-0002.1

Meteorology and Climatology. 2015;**54**(9):1886-1898. DOI: 10.1175/ [22] Kelman W, Dove H. Growth and phenology of winter wheat and oats in a dual-purpose management system. Crop & Pasture Science. 2009;**60**(10):921-

932. DOI: 10.1071/CP09029

[23] Francia E, Pecchioni N, Nicosia OLD, Paoletta G, Taibi L, Franco V, et al. Dual-purpose barley and oat in a Mediterranean environment. Field Crops Research. 2006;**99**(2-3):158- 166. DOI: 10.1016/j.fcr.2006.04.006

[24] Anderson W. Production of green feed and grain from grazed barley in Northern Syria. Field Crops Research. 1985;**10**:57-75. DOI: 10.1016/0378-4290(85)90006-1

[25] Khalil IH, Carver BF, Krenzer EG, MacKown CT, Horn GW. Genetic trends in winter wheat yield and test weight under dual-purpose and grain-only management systems. Crop Science. 2002;**42**(3):710-715. DOI: 10.2135/

[26] Holman JD, Thompson CR,

gaps in mixed-farming systems: Insights from the grain & graze program. Animal Production Science. 2009;**49**(10):736-748. DOI: 10.1071/

[28] Ates S, Cicek H, Gultekin I, Yigezu Y, Keser M, Filley S. Bioeconomic analysis of dual-purpose management of winter cereals in high and low input production systems. Field Crops Research. 2018;**227**:56-66. DOI:

[29] Rao S, Phillips W, Mayeux H, Phatak S. Potential grain and forage production of early maturing pigeonpea in the Southern Great Plains. Crop

10.1016/j.fcr.2018.08.003

Hale RL, Schlegel AJ. Grazing effects on yield and quality of hard red and hard white winter wheat. Agronomy Journal. 2009;**101**(4):775-788. DOI: 10.2134/

[27] Moore AD, Bell LW, Revell DK. Feed

cropsci2002.0710

agronj2008.0163x

AN09010

[16] Kloesel K, Bartush B, Banner J, Brown D, Lemory J, Lin X, et al. In: Reidmiller DR, Avery CW, Easterling DR, Kunkel KE, Lewis KLM, Maycock TK, et al., editors. Southern Great Plains. Impacts, Risks, and Adaptation in the United States: Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume II. Washington, DC, USA: U.S. Global Change Research Program; 2018. pp. 987-1035. DOI:

**118**

[30] MacKown CT, Carver BF. Fall forage biomass and nitrogen composition of winter wheat populations selected from grain-only and dual-purpose environments. Crop Science. 2005;**45**(1):322-328. DOI: 10.2135/ cropsci2005.0322

[31] Giunta F, Cabigliera A, Virdis A, Motzo R. Dual-purpose use affects phenology of triticale. Field Crops Research. 2015;**183**:111-116. DOI: 10.1016/j.fcr.2015.07.026

[32] Bonachela S, Orgaz F, Fereres E. Winter cereals grown for grain and for the dual purpose of forage plus grain II. Water use and water-use efficiency. Field Crops Research. 1995;**44**(1):13-24. DOI: 10.1016/0378-4290(95)00046-3

[33] Garrett R, Niles M, Gil J, Gaudin A, Chaplin-Kramer R, Assmann A, et al. Social and ecological analysis of commercial integrated crop livestock systems: Current knowledge and remaining uncertainty. Agricultural Systems. 2017;**155**:136-146. DOI: 10.1016/j.agsy.2017.05.003

[34] Pinchak W, Worrall W, Caldwell S, Hunt L, Worrall N, Conoly M. Interrelationships of forage and steer growth dynamics on wheat pasture. Journal of Range Management. 1996;**49**(2): 126-130. DOI: 10.2307/4002681

[35] Braunwart K, Putnam D, Fohner G, editors. Alternative annual forages–now and in the future. In: Proc 31st California Alfalfa and Forage Symposium. 2001

[36] Hennessy G, Clements B. Cereals for grazing. NSW DPI: Prime Facts, 720; 2009

[37] Marburger D, Calhoun R, Pugh B, Watson B, Gillespie C. Fall Forage Production and First Hollow Stem Date in Small Grain Varieties during the 2017-2018 Crop Year. Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, USA: Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service; 2018. CR-2141

[38] Neely C, Hathcoat D, Gerrish B, Kimura E, Ramirez J, Berry M, et al. Forage variety results: Texas cool-season annual variety trials. Texas A&M University, TX, USA: Texas A&M AgriLife; 2018. SCS-2018-07

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[45] Arzadun MJ, Arroquy JI, Laborde HE, Brevedan RE. Grazing pressure on beef and grain production of dual-purpose wheat in Argentina. Agronomy Journal. 2003;**95**(5):1157- 1162. DOI: 10.2134/agronj2003.1157

[46] Edwards JT, Hunger RM, Smith EL, Horn GW, Chen M-S, Yan L, et al. 'Duster' wheat: A durable, dual-purpose cultivar adapted to the Southern Great Plains of the USA. Journal of Plant Registrations. 2012;**6**(1):37-48. DOI: 10.3198/jpr2011.04.0195crc

[47] Carver BF, Smith EL, Hunger RM, Klatt AR, Edwards JT, Porter DR, et al. Registration of 'Endurance' wheat. Crop Science. 2006;**46**(4):1816-1818. DOI: 10.2135/cropsci2005.12-0452CRC

[48] Geiger H, Miedaner T. Rye breeding. In: Carena MJ, editor. Cereals. 3. New York: Springer; 2009. pp. 157-181

[49] Bushuk W. Rye production and uses worldwide. Cereal Foods World. 2001;**46**(2):70-73

[50] Poysa V. Effect of forage harvest on grain yield and agronomic performance of winter triticale, wheat and rye. Canadian Journal of Plant Science. 1985;**65**(4):879-888. DOI: 10.4141/ cjps85-113

[51] Blount A, Barnett R, Pfahler P, Johnson J, Buntin G, Cunfer B. Rye and Triticale Breeding in the South. Gainesville, FL: University of Florida; 2017

[52] Mayland H, Grunes D, Lazar V. Grass tetany hazard of cereal forages based upon chemical composition. Agronomy Journal. 1976;**68**(4):665-667. DOI: 10.2134/agronj1976.000219620068 00040033x

[53] Mirsky SB, Curran WS, Mortensen DA, Ryan MR, Shumway DL. Control of cereal rye with a roller/ crimper as influenced by cover crop phenology. Agronomy Journal. 2009;**101**(6):1589-1596. DOI: 10.2134/ agronj2009.0130

[54] Moore E, Wiedenhoeft M, Kaspar T, Cambardella C. Rye cover crop effects on soil quality in no-till corn silage–soybean cropping systems. Soil Science Society of America Journal. 2014;**78**(3):968-976. DOI: 10.2136/ sssaj2013.09.0401

[55] Walker AS, Bouguennec A, Confais J, Morgant G, Leroux P. Evidence of host-range expansion from new powdery mildew (*Blumeria gramini*s) infections of triticale (*× Triticosecale*) in France. Plant Pathology. 2011;**60**(2):207-220. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3059.2010.02379.x

[56] Ayalew H, Kumssa TT, Butler TJ, Ma X-F. Triticale improvement for forage and cover crop uses in the Southern Great Plains of the United States. Frontiers in Plant Science. 2018;**9**:1130. DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2018.01130

[57] Salmon D, Mergoum M, Gomez-Macpherson H. Triticale production and management. In: Mergoum M, Gomez-Maxpherson H, editors. Triticale Improvement and Production. Rome: FAO Plant Production and Protection Paper, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; 2004. pp. 27-36

[58] Saha MC, Baker JL, Bouton JH. Registration of 'NF201' forage triticale. Journal of Plant Registrations. 2015;**9**(2):185-189. DOI: 10.3198/ jpr2014.10.0078crc

[59] Lekgari LA, Baenziger PS, Vogel KP, Baltensperger DD. Identifying

**121**

*Small Grains as Winter Pasture in the Southern Great Plains of the United States*

Science. 2013;**59**(2):305-315. DOI: 10.1080/03650340.2011.615026

[67] Fehmi J, Stevens J. A plate meter inadequately estimated herbage mass in a semi-arid grassland. Grass and Forage Science. 2009;**64**(3):322-327. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2494.2009.00694.x

[68] Sanderson MA, Rotz CA, Fultz SW, Rayburn EB. Estimating forage mass with a commercial capacitance meter, rising plate meter, and pasture ruler. Agronomy Journal. 2001;**93**(6):1281- 1286. DOI: 10.2134/agronj2001.1281

[69] Tucker CJ. A critical review of remote sensing and other methods for non-destructive estimation of standing crop biomass. Grass and Forage Science. 1980;**35**(3):177-182. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-

Interrante SM, Moffet CA, Butler TJ. Estimation of biomass and canopy height in bermudagrass, alfalfa, and wheat using ultrasonic, laser, and spectral sensors. Sensors. 2015;**15**(2):2920-2943. DOI: 10.3390/

[71] Fricke T, Richter F, Wachendorf M. Assessment of forage mass from grassland swards by height measurement using an ultrasonic sensor. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture. 2011;**79**(2):142-152. DOI:

Combining ultrasonic sward height and spectral signatures to assess the biomass of legume–grass swards. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture. 2013;**99**:236- 247. DOI: 10.1016/j.compag.2013.10.004

[73] Scotford I, Miller P. Combination of spectral reflectance and ultrasonic sensing to monitor the growth of winter wheat. Biosystems Engineering. 2004;**87**(1):27-38. DOI: 10.1016/j. biosystemseng.2003.09.009

10.1016/j.compag.2011.09.005

[72] Fricke T, Wachendorf M.

2494.1980.tb01509.x

s150202920

[70] Pittman JJ, Arnall DB,

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90524*

winter forage triticale (× *Triticosecale* Wittmack) strains for the central Great Plains. Crop Science. 2008;**48**(5):2040-2048

[60] Barnett R, Blount A, Pfahler P, Johnson J, Buntin G, Cunfer B. Rye and triticale breeding in the south. University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA: UF-IFAS Extension Service; 2002.

[61] Kim K-S, Webb S, Newell M, Anderson J, Butler T. Variation of winter forage production in four small grain species: Oat, rye, triticale and wheat. Pakistan Journal of Botany.

[62] Delogu G, Faccini N, Faccioli P, Reggiani F, Lendini M, Berardo N, et al. Dry matter yield and quality evaluation at two phenological stages of forage triticale grown in the Po Valley and Sardinia, Italy. Field Crops Research. 2002;**74**(2):207-215. DOI: 10.1016/

[63] Kim K-S, Tinker NA, Newell MA. Improvement of oat as a winter forage crop in the Southern United States. Crop Science. 2014;**54**(4):1336-1346. DOI:

[64] Frasser J, McCartney D. Fodder oats in North America. In: Suttie JM, Reynolds SG, editors. Fodder Oats, a World Overview. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United

[65] Newell MA, Butler TJ. Forage rye improvement in the southern United States: A review. Crop Science. 2013;**53**(1):38-47. DOI: 10.2135/

[66] Dougherty M, Burger JA, Feldhake CM, AbdelGadir A. Calibration and use of plate meter regressions for pasture mass estimation

in an Appalachian silvopasture. Archives of Agronomy and Soil

S0378-4290(02)00002-3

10.2135/cropsci2013.07.0505

Nations; 2002. pp. 19-36

cropsci2012.05.0319

SS-AGR-42

2017;**49**:553-559

*Small Grains as Winter Pasture in the Southern Great Plains of the United States DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90524*

winter forage triticale (× *Triticosecale* Wittmack) strains for the central Great Plains. Crop Science. 2008;**48**(5):2040-2048

*Grasses and Grassland Aspects*

agronj2008.0159

[45] Arzadun MJ, Arroquy JI, Laborde HE, Brevedan RE. Grazing pressure on beef and grain production of dual-purpose wheat in Argentina. Agronomy Journal. 2003;**95**(5):1157- 1162. DOI: 10.2134/agronj2003.1157

10.3198/jpr2011.04.0195crc

[44] Decker JE, Epplin FM, Morley DL, Peeper TF. Economics of five wheat production systems with no-till and conventional tillage. Agronomy Journal. 2009;**101**(2):364-372. DOI: 10.2134/

DOI: 10.2134/agronj1976.000219620068

Mortensen DA, Ryan MR, Shumway DL. Control of cereal rye with a roller/ crimper as influenced by cover crop phenology. Agronomy Journal. 2009;**101**(6):1589-1596. DOI: 10.2134/

[53] Mirsky SB, Curran WS,

[54] Moore E, Wiedenhoeft M, Kaspar T, Cambardella C. Rye cover crop effects on soil quality in no-till corn silage–soybean cropping systems. Soil Science Society of America Journal. 2014;**78**(3):968-976. DOI: 10.2136/

[55] Walker AS, Bouguennec A,

of host-range expansion from new powdery mildew (*Blumeria gramini*s) infections of triticale (*× Triticosecale*) in France. Plant Pathology. 2011;**60**(2):207-220. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3059.2010.02379.x

DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2018.01130

[57] Salmon D, Mergoum M,

Improvement and Production. Rome: FAO Plant Production and Protection Paper, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations;

[58] Saha MC, Baker JL, Bouton JH. Registration of 'NF201' forage triticale.

Journal of Plant Registrations. 2015;**9**(2):185-189. DOI: 10.3198/

[59] Lekgari LA, Baenziger PS,

Vogel KP, Baltensperger DD. Identifying

2004. pp. 27-36

jpr2014.10.0078crc

Confais J, Morgant G, Leroux P. Evidence

[56] Ayalew H, Kumssa TT, Butler TJ, Ma X-F. Triticale improvement for forage and cover crop uses in the Southern Great Plains of the United States. Frontiers in Plant Science. 2018;**9**:1130.

Gomez-Macpherson H. Triticale production and management. In: Mergoum M, Gomez-Maxpherson H, editors. Triticale

00040033x

agronj2009.0130

sssaj2013.09.0401

[46] Edwards JT, Hunger RM, Smith EL, Horn GW, Chen M-S, Yan L, et al. 'Duster' wheat: A durable, dual-purpose cultivar adapted to the Southern Great Plains of the USA. Journal of Plant Registrations. 2012;**6**(1):37-48. DOI:

[47] Carver BF, Smith EL, Hunger RM, Klatt AR, Edwards JT, Porter DR, et al. Registration of 'Endurance' wheat. Crop Science. 2006;**46**(4):1816-1818. DOI: 10.2135/cropsci2005.12-0452CRC

[48] Geiger H, Miedaner T. Rye breeding.

In: Carena MJ, editor. Cereals. 3. New York: Springer; 2009. pp. 157-181

[49] Bushuk W. Rye production and uses worldwide. Cereal Foods World.

[50] Poysa V. Effect of forage harvest on grain yield and agronomic performance of winter triticale, wheat and rye. Canadian Journal of Plant Science. 1985;**65**(4):879-888. DOI: 10.4141/

[51] Blount A, Barnett R, Pfahler P, Johnson J, Buntin G, Cunfer B. Rye and Triticale Breeding in the South. Gainesville, FL: University of Florida;

[52] Mayland H, Grunes D, Lazar V. Grass tetany hazard of cereal forages based upon chemical composition. Agronomy Journal. 1976;**68**(4):665-667.

2001;**46**(2):70-73

cjps85-113

**120**

2017

[60] Barnett R, Blount A, Pfahler P, Johnson J, Buntin G, Cunfer B. Rye and triticale breeding in the south. University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA: UF-IFAS Extension Service; 2002. SS-AGR-42

[61] Kim K-S, Webb S, Newell M, Anderson J, Butler T. Variation of winter forage production in four small grain species: Oat, rye, triticale and wheat. Pakistan Journal of Botany. 2017;**49**:553-559

[62] Delogu G, Faccini N, Faccioli P, Reggiani F, Lendini M, Berardo N, et al. Dry matter yield and quality evaluation at two phenological stages of forage triticale grown in the Po Valley and Sardinia, Italy. Field Crops Research. 2002;**74**(2):207-215. DOI: 10.1016/ S0378-4290(02)00002-3

[63] Kim K-S, Tinker NA, Newell MA. Improvement of oat as a winter forage crop in the Southern United States. Crop Science. 2014;**54**(4):1336-1346. DOI: 10.2135/cropsci2013.07.0505

[64] Frasser J, McCartney D. Fodder oats in North America. In: Suttie JM, Reynolds SG, editors. Fodder Oats, a World Overview. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; 2002. pp. 19-36

[65] Newell MA, Butler TJ. Forage rye improvement in the southern United States: A review. Crop Science. 2013;**53**(1):38-47. DOI: 10.2135/ cropsci2012.05.0319

[66] Dougherty M, Burger JA, Feldhake CM, AbdelGadir A. Calibration and use of plate meter regressions for pasture mass estimation in an Appalachian silvopasture. Archives of Agronomy and Soil

Science. 2013;**59**(2):305-315. DOI: 10.1080/03650340.2011.615026

[67] Fehmi J, Stevens J. A plate meter inadequately estimated herbage mass in a semi-arid grassland. Grass and Forage Science. 2009;**64**(3):322-327. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2494.2009.00694.x

[68] Sanderson MA, Rotz CA, Fultz SW, Rayburn EB. Estimating forage mass with a commercial capacitance meter, rising plate meter, and pasture ruler. Agronomy Journal. 2001;**93**(6):1281- 1286. DOI: 10.2134/agronj2001.1281

[69] Tucker CJ. A critical review of remote sensing and other methods for non-destructive estimation of standing crop biomass. Grass and Forage Science. 1980;**35**(3):177-182. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365- 2494.1980.tb01509.x

[70] Pittman JJ, Arnall DB, Interrante SM, Moffet CA, Butler TJ. Estimation of biomass and canopy height in bermudagrass, alfalfa, and wheat using ultrasonic, laser, and spectral sensors. Sensors. 2015;**15**(2):2920-2943. DOI: 10.3390/ s150202920

[71] Fricke T, Richter F, Wachendorf M. Assessment of forage mass from grassland swards by height measurement using an ultrasonic sensor. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture. 2011;**79**(2):142-152. DOI: 10.1016/j.compag.2011.09.005

[72] Fricke T, Wachendorf M. Combining ultrasonic sward height and spectral signatures to assess the biomass of legume–grass swards. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture. 2013;**99**:236- 247. DOI: 10.1016/j.compag.2013.10.004

[73] Scotford I, Miller P. Combination of spectral reflectance and ultrasonic sensing to monitor the growth of winter wheat. Biosystems Engineering. 2004;**87**(1):27-38. DOI: 10.1016/j. biosystemseng.2003.09.009

**123**

**Chapter 7**

**Abstract**

**1. Introduction**

Performance of Forage Crops and

*Sali Aliu, Imer Rusinovci, Shukri Fetahu and Dukagjin Zeka*

Grasslands represent a land-use which is effective and has great economical importance in the European agriculture. Grasslands these are important and effective sources of energy and proteins for ruminants, and combine high yields stability by draught resistance with low tillage operations and pesticide after use leading to good environmental conditions. Furthermore, good management practice in grasslands provides high potential of carbon sequestration in soils, resulting in climate change mitigation. Based on actual data, the meadows and pastures cover 224410.83 ha of total surface of the Kosovo; moreover there, just a particular of these surfaces are distinguished clearly as meadows or pastures. The most important forage crops which are dominant in our country include plants from *Poacea*e; this botanical family is divided into long, medium, and low herbs. Medium and long herbs are the best suited for mowing and silage or drying for sanitary preparations, while short herbs are very suitable for grassland. The most important of fodder or plants in Kosovo are: (*Medicago sativa* L.) alfalfa, red clover (*Trifolium pratense* L.), white clover (*Trifolium repens* L.), etc. Legumes are of great importance for the creation and development artificial grasslands and very valuable mulching surfaces that produce very high yields that are not only useful for silage, but also for drying.

**Keywords:** grasslands, legumes, Kosovo, distributions, nutritive values, diversity

Forage crops and pastures provide the bedrock to sustainable agriculture. Grasslands cover about 70% of the world's agricultural area. They have a crucial role in terms of food production and in the delivery of ecosystem service such as water supplies, biodiversity and carbon sequestration. The grasslands of the world face a range of challenges from climate change including the effects of elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide, increasing temperatures, changes in precipitation regime and higher concentrations of ground level ozone [1]. Forage are defined as the edible parts of plants, other than separated grain, that provide feed for grazing animals or that can be harvested for feeding [2]. Forage plants provide humans with valuable ecosystem services, for example, they feed an estimated 1.5 billion cattle, 1.2 billion sheep, 1 billion goats and 0.2 billion buffalo around the world—supplying meat, milk and 33 other commodities [3]. Forages play a critical role of herbivores in nutrition, and are the foundation of most livestock rations. Nutritional requirements vary among types and classes of grazing animals; thus, what constitutes "high quality" forage for one animal may be "low quality" forage for another. For example, a dry cow will not require the same quality forage as a lactating cow [4].

Grass Mixtures in Kosovo

#### **Chapter 7**
