**4.3 Good hygiene practices**

Workers can unintentionally contaminate milk, water supplies and equipment, thus transmitting diseases to other workers or consumers. Proper hand-washing, correct washing procedures including applying soap on wet hands, scrubbing of whole hand during a minimum of 20 s, rinsing with water, drying with paper towel (disposable) and turning off the knob with towel are recommended as part of enhancing food safety [8].

It was interesting to observe that at least some of the recommended hygiene practices were followed. However, some of the procedures applied were not completely correct which could further contaminate the milk. For example, milkers cleaned the udders of the cows either with dry hands or with water that was not of potable quality [24]. Yobouet et al. [20] and Kouame-Sina et al. [19] both observed that prior to milking, most milkers washed neither their hands nor the udders of the cows, while in other cases, the majority of the farmers washed their hands before milking [25]. Kabui et al. [25] also observed that the majority of those who washed their hands used water and soap [25], while in a case study by Kilango et al. [18], only 17% of milkers washed their hands with water and soap. Farmers only cleaned their hands with cold water from a contaminated water source [24].

Almost all milkers washed the cow udders before milking. However, most of the milkers did not dry their hands or the udders of the cows, thus increasing the risk of contamination from dirty water running into the milk [18].

Using one cloth for each cow to dry the udder is recommended as it prevents the transfer of bacteria and dirt from one animal to another. Kilango et al. [18] observed fewer milkers used one cloth per cow to dry the udder, and according to these authors, using a shared cloth for several cows may be worse than using no cloth at all [18].

Proper personal hygiene is also important to enhance food safety in informal milk markets. Regular bathing or showering, washing of hands and keeping nails clean and short and wearing of clean clothes and hair nets are thus recommended. According to Kilango et al. [18], only 59% of the staff working at milk kiosks wore clothes that were visibly clean.

Proper cleaning of milk utensils is also instrumental in the implementation of food safety in informal milk markets. About 82% of the staff used soap for washing utensils [18]. Those without basins but with running hot water cleaned the milk

**59**

*Food Safety and Food Security in the Informal Sector DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91012*

**5. Conclusions and recommendations**

principles should therefore be encouraged.

**7. Recommendations for further research**

security in rural livelihoods.

**6. Implications for stakeholders along the milk value chain**

These finding have implications for dairy farmers/milk producers, milkers, retailers/milk kiosks operators, milk cooperative members, processors, traders/vendors, households and consumers of milk. These stakeholders all need to be aware of food contamination and the risks and consequences of foodborne illnesses. The findings also imply that stakeholders need to be proactive in their drive to ensure food safety along the food chain which means that they need to adhere to good agricultural practices, good hygiene practices as well as good manufacturing practices. Training of households on basic hygiene is also crucial. This could also help minimise the incidents of foodborne illness that threaten the lives of consumers.

To take the food safety agenda forward, future research should focus on developing a focused strategy for the implementation of food safety in the informal sector. This should take into consideration the context and the importance of food

not good as it may increase the risk of contamination.

handling equipment in the same bowl used for washing hands [18]. This practice is

While vendors are at the forefront of milk sales in informal markets, the informal market environment seemed not to be the only source where food can get contaminated as is always perceived. Results show that some milk got contaminated during milking, cooling, pooling, processing, packaging, handling and cleaning of milking utensils which means that other stakeholders who handled the product were also responsible for milk contamination but were not held accountable for supplying a product that is "unsafe" as perceived by the authorities. Ensuring food safety along the chain therefore becomes the responsibility of everyone who has a role to play. The fact that a high number of incidents of foodborne illnesses is recorded in informal economies is also enough evidence to warrant the implementation of food safety practices in informal economies but a correct approach and strategies need to be adopted. Compliance of relevant actors with food safety

*Food Security in Africa*

contamination.

observed by [23].

**4.3 Good hygiene practices**

enhancing food safety [8].

source [24].

cloth at all [18].

clothes that were visibly clean.

received from the farms was not cooled [20].

members was purchased and pooled into a 50 litre container.

with tap water and packing the pouches in a freezer [23]. While water and ice cooling methods provide fast initial cooling, they also feature the highest risk of

In the cases studied by Spengler et al. [24], none of the farmers in the study sites cooled the raw milk. The traders and retailers also reported that the milk they

Pooling of milk was also reported to increase the risk of contamination. Yobouet et al. [20] reported that upon receipt of milk from farmers, traders and retailers bulked the milk in a single storage tank. This is risky because, if the milk from one supplier is contaminated, then there is a higher chance that the entire batch in the tank will be spoiled. According to Desissa et al. [17], only milk from cooperative

With regard to packaging, all of the vendors used plastic buckets for handling the milk, a practice that is not recommended as plastic containers are known to be vulnerable to bacterial contamination due to difficulty to sterilise [18]. This was also

Workers can unintentionally contaminate milk, water supplies and equipment, thus transmitting diseases to other workers or consumers. Proper hand-washing, correct washing procedures including applying soap on wet hands, scrubbing of whole hand during a minimum of 20 s, rinsing with water, drying with paper towel (disposable) and turning off the knob with towel are recommended as part of

It was interesting to observe that at least some of the recommended hygiene practices were followed. However, some of the procedures applied were not completely correct which could further contaminate the milk. For example, milkers cleaned the udders of the cows either with dry hands or with water that was not of potable quality [24]. Yobouet et al. [20] and Kouame-Sina et al. [19] both observed that prior to milking, most milkers washed neither their hands nor the udders of the cows, while in other cases, the majority of the farmers washed their hands before milking [25]. Kabui et al. [25] also observed that the majority of those who washed their hands used water and soap [25], while in a case study by Kilango et al. [18], only 17% of milkers washed their hands with water and soap. Farmers only cleaned their hands with cold water from a contaminated water

Almost all milkers washed the cow udders before milking. However, most of the milkers did not dry their hands or the udders of the cows, thus increasing the risk of

Using one cloth for each cow to dry the udder is recommended as it prevents the transfer of bacteria and dirt from one animal to another. Kilango et al. [18] observed fewer milkers used one cloth per cow to dry the udder, and according to these authors, using a shared cloth for several cows may be worse than using no

Proper personal hygiene is also important to enhance food safety in informal milk markets. Regular bathing or showering, washing of hands and keeping nails clean and short and wearing of clean clothes and hair nets are thus recommended. According to Kilango et al. [18], only 59% of the staff working at milk kiosks wore

Proper cleaning of milk utensils is also instrumental in the implementation of food safety in informal milk markets. About 82% of the staff used soap for washing utensils [18]. Those without basins but with running hot water cleaned the milk

contamination from dirty water running into the milk [18].

**58**

handling equipment in the same bowl used for washing hands [18]. This practice is not good as it may increase the risk of contamination.
