**5. Water quality management**

As much as water is an essential component of life, it is a hotbed for carriers of many diseases caused by consuming unclean water. Access to safe drinking-water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) services is an important element of food security and has a positive impact on nutrition [40]. A number of approaches are used to assess water pollution effects on the ecosystems which have a direct contribution to food security and nutrition.

A common approach is to use chemical indicators to measure the concentration of chemicals or toxicants within a water body using either water samples or direct in-stream measurement of the water source using water samples as (chemical indicators). If the chemicals within the water are in exceedance with acceptable limits, that water system is regarded as polluted and not fit for human consumption. Biomonitoring can also be used to assess water quality by examining the presence or absence of certain species or organisms in a water body [41].

Another approach that is used to assess water pollution is ecotoxicology. An investigation is conducted to examine responses of insects, fish, and other invertebrates to a chemical or stressor as biological indicators of water quality [42]. Thus, polluted aquatic systems may not adequately support the provision of fish and insects as food for humans. Similarly, necessary microbes that support plant growth in soils may not thrive in polluted environments, thereby affecting food security.

Without good quality water, the lives of millions of people especially young children are at risk of dying from preventable diseases caused by poor water, and a lack of sanitation and hygiene. There is a growing interest to better understand and measure

the effect of programs and approaches not only directed toward improving water management in agriculture and food production but also to include integrated approach to implementing safe water and adequate sanitation [40]. Approaches and practices for ongoing efforts to better link WASH and nutrition programs integrating WASH into food security and nutrition programs are discussed in the following section.

#### **5.1 Water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) programs and food security**

The World Health Organization [43] report defines drinking water as water with acceptable quality in terms of its chemical, bacteriological, and physical parameters for safe human consumption. Estimates indicate that about 80% of all sicknesses and diseases on a global scale are linked to consumption of unclean and unsafe water and poor sanitation.

However, the quality of any water is influenced by both natural and human factors [44]. Without human influences, water quality would be determined by natural factors and/or processes such as bedrock minerals, deposition of dust, natural leaching of soil minerals and organic matter, and biological processes, among others. Water quality is determined by using water quality guidelines or standards to make a comparison between the physical and chemical characteristics of water samples. The guidelines and standards are developed to ensure the safe consumption of water and protection of ecosystems.

Africa with its soaring human population continues to experience a decline in water quality [43, 44]. Adequate water, sanitation, and hygiene are essential components for reducing poverty, illness, and death and bring about an improved socio-economic development. Poor WASH programs expose people to water-borne diseases, resulting in death and disabilities in certain cases [44]. The United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF) report revealed that the absence of toilets results in the contamination of water resources, while a lack of clean water impedes on basic hygiene [45]. However, increasing WASH programs have led to increased access to adequate drinking water sources and improved sanitation globally since 1990 [43].

To explore how WASH programs could improve the water and sanitation conditions for poor and developing countries across Africa, it is important to define hygiene and sanitation. Peal et al. [46] defined "sanitation" as the treatment and management of human excreta from coming into contact with humans, while "hygiene" is a required action to avoid the transmission of diseases within and between different communities. WASH programs are vital for helping people avoid contaminating water sources, which in turn improves their access and the overall food safety and security.

WASH programs also help to improve water quality for adequate food production due to their design nature, whereby communities work together to disseminate WASH information for a more collaborative program and implementation [46]. Here, practitioners work together with communities and local authorities to deliver the components of the WASH program on-site. This is complemented by practitioners revisiting the communities or distributing surveys for monitoring and evaluation purpose. Therefore, WASH program approaches have the potential to improve food security within the poor and developing African countries.

#### **6. Effects of water pollution on food security**

Water pollution is the building up of one or more substances in water to an extent that they cause water-related problems for people and animals [47]. It is a complex problem that is underpinned by many causes, which makes it difficult to

**45**

ensure food security.

**6.2 Libya: a country in a political crisis**

*Unlocking Water Issues Towards Food Security in Africa DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86788*

countries is discussed in the following sections.

**6.1 South Africa: a country with poor water quality**

plenteous rainfall.

solve. Increasing human population continues to exert immense pressure on the world's water resources [29]. Both urbanization and industrial revolutions have exacerbated water pollution through effluent and untreated wastewater discharges. Irrigated agriculture has resulted in increased salinity of freshwater bodies as salts are flushed out from soils [48]. When farmers fertilize their fields or control insects using herbicides, the chemicals used get washed away as salts through surface run-off into nearby water systems. Toxic chemicals released into the atmo-

An increase in water salinity negatively impacts on the survival of aquatic macroinvertebrates, while some crops become intolerant to high soil salinities if thresholds are exceeded [50]. As a consequence, soil productivity is affected and can lead to low crop production and food insecurity. It is therefore clear that low crop production is not only an issue in semi-arid regions but also areas that receive

Thompson and Darwish [49] argued that the poor quality of water has a direct impact on food security, with metals detected in some edible food in China, posing a high health-related risk to consumers. If pollution effects are properly monitored using the approaches outlined above, Africa can produce quality food for its citizens. However, the UNICEF [45] report outlines the importance of educating people on water quality issues as another approach to solving water pollution. Further, strict environmental laws are necessary to minimize water pollution. For example, environmental reports indicate that the "polluter pays" principle is effective in tackling pollution [49]. The polluter principle makes it less expensive for humans to behave in an environmental cautious and/or responsible manner. It is sad, to note, however, that some countries considered to have the best water laws in Africa and beyond, such as South Africa [51], are still struggling to deal with historical water quality issues that subsequently impact on their food security. Further, unstable countries due to political reasons such as Libya would greatly be affected by food insecurities considering their dry nature. The water quality of both

South Africa has sufficient water to meet all the needs of the country until the year 2025 and beyond [37]. However, the country is faced with challenges related to water quality, which impedes on food production to meet people's demand for food. Poor water quality renders water unusable. Changes in agricultural practices and the expansion of urban settlements have a serious effect on the quality of water [37]. Furthermore, acid mine drainage (AMD), pesticides from agricultural practices, unmonitored sewerage systems, domestic water usage like washing clothes on the river and dumping waste in water sources in some areas of the country, and salinization from the weathering of minerals all pollute water [42, 52, 53]. Once water is polluted, it may be difficult and extremely expensive to redress, particularly in the case of underground water, which may affect agricultural production in terms of excessive salts on the soil and usable water for food production. It is thus important to note that good water quality would be suitable for food production to

Libya has a rapid growing demand for freshwater availability while the water supply is limited [54]. The issue of severe water deficits as a result of nonending water demands in Libya has become more problematic for the increasing population

sphere by industries can also enter into water systems as acid rain [49].

#### *Unlocking Water Issues Towards Food Security in Africa DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86788*

*Food Security in Africa*

water and poor sanitation.

tion of water and protection of ecosystems.

sanitation globally since 1990 [43].

the effect of programs and approaches not only directed toward improving water management in agriculture and food production but also to include integrated approach to implementing safe water and adequate sanitation [40]. Approaches and practices for ongoing efforts to better link WASH and nutrition programs integrating WASH into

The World Health Organization [43] report defines drinking water as water with acceptable quality in terms of its chemical, bacteriological, and physical parameters for safe human consumption. Estimates indicate that about 80% of all sicknesses and diseases on a global scale are linked to consumption of unclean and unsafe

However, the quality of any water is influenced by both natural and human factors [44]. Without human influences, water quality would be determined by natural factors and/or processes such as bedrock minerals, deposition of dust, natural leaching of soil minerals and organic matter, and biological processes, among others. Water quality is determined by using water quality guidelines or standards to make a comparison between the physical and chemical characteristics of water samples. The guidelines and standards are developed to ensure the safe consump-

Africa with its soaring human population continues to experience a decline in water quality [43, 44]. Adequate water, sanitation, and hygiene are essential components for reducing poverty, illness, and death and bring about an improved socio-economic development. Poor WASH programs expose people to water-borne diseases, resulting in death and disabilities in certain cases [44]. The United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF) report revealed that the absence of toilets results in the contamination of water resources, while a lack of clean water impedes on basic hygiene [45]. However, increasing WASH programs have led to increased access to adequate drinking water sources and improved

To explore how WASH programs could improve the water and sanitation conditions for poor and developing countries across Africa, it is important to define hygiene and sanitation. Peal et al. [46] defined "sanitation" as the treatment and management of human excreta from coming into contact with humans, while "hygiene" is a required action to avoid the transmission of diseases within and between different communities. WASH programs are vital for helping people avoid contaminating water sources, which in turn improves their access and the overall food safety and security. WASH programs also help to improve water quality for adequate food production due to their design nature, whereby communities work together to disseminate WASH information for a more collaborative program and implementation [46]. Here, practitioners work together with communities and local authorities to deliver the components of the WASH program on-site. This is complemented by practitioners revisiting the communities or distributing surveys for monitoring and evaluation purpose. Therefore, WASH program approaches have the potential to improve

food security within the poor and developing African countries.

Water pollution is the building up of one or more substances in water to an extent that they cause water-related problems for people and animals [47]. It is a complex problem that is underpinned by many causes, which makes it difficult to

**6. Effects of water pollution on food security**

food security and nutrition programs are discussed in the following section.

**5.1 Water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) programs and food security**

**44**

solve. Increasing human population continues to exert immense pressure on the world's water resources [29]. Both urbanization and industrial revolutions have exacerbated water pollution through effluent and untreated wastewater discharges.

Irrigated agriculture has resulted in increased salinity of freshwater bodies as salts are flushed out from soils [48]. When farmers fertilize their fields or control insects using herbicides, the chemicals used get washed away as salts through surface run-off into nearby water systems. Toxic chemicals released into the atmosphere by industries can also enter into water systems as acid rain [49].

An increase in water salinity negatively impacts on the survival of aquatic macroinvertebrates, while some crops become intolerant to high soil salinities if thresholds are exceeded [50]. As a consequence, soil productivity is affected and can lead to low crop production and food insecurity. It is therefore clear that low crop production is not only an issue in semi-arid regions but also areas that receive plenteous rainfall.

Thompson and Darwish [49] argued that the poor quality of water has a direct impact on food security, with metals detected in some edible food in China, posing a high health-related risk to consumers. If pollution effects are properly monitored using the approaches outlined above, Africa can produce quality food for its citizens. However, the UNICEF [45] report outlines the importance of educating people on water quality issues as another approach to solving water pollution.

Further, strict environmental laws are necessary to minimize water pollution. For example, environmental reports indicate that the "polluter pays" principle is effective in tackling pollution [49]. The polluter principle makes it less expensive for humans to behave in an environmental cautious and/or responsible manner. It is sad, to note, however, that some countries considered to have the best water laws in Africa and beyond, such as South Africa [51], are still struggling to deal with historical water quality issues that subsequently impact on their food security. Further, unstable countries due to political reasons such as Libya would greatly be affected by food insecurities considering their dry nature. The water quality of both countries is discussed in the following sections.

### **6.1 South Africa: a country with poor water quality**

South Africa has sufficient water to meet all the needs of the country until the year 2025 and beyond [37]. However, the country is faced with challenges related to water quality, which impedes on food production to meet people's demand for food. Poor water quality renders water unusable. Changes in agricultural practices and the expansion of urban settlements have a serious effect on the quality of water [37]. Furthermore, acid mine drainage (AMD), pesticides from agricultural practices, unmonitored sewerage systems, domestic water usage like washing clothes on the river and dumping waste in water sources in some areas of the country, and salinization from the weathering of minerals all pollute water [42, 52, 53]. Once water is polluted, it may be difficult and extremely expensive to redress, particularly in the case of underground water, which may affect agricultural production in terms of excessive salts on the soil and usable water for food production. It is thus important to note that good water quality would be suitable for food production to ensure food security.

#### **6.2 Libya: a country in a political crisis**

Libya has a rapid growing demand for freshwater availability while the water supply is limited [54]. The issue of severe water deficits as a result of nonending water demands in Libya has become more problematic for the increasing population under low rainfall, which is a result of climate change. Furthermore, the country has been experiencing high rates of pollution and depletion due to water resource unavailability. This has had major impacts on Libya's economy and social and environmental resistance capacity.

Considering that Libya is one of the driest countries on a global scale with high temperatures, meeting and maintaining acceptable living standards for the future is extremely difficult, especially in relation to food security. Food sufficiency remains uncertain in Libya due to its political instability coupled with poor water quality and soaring human population [54]. The country is likely to experience severe and most devastating situations and high risks of food insecurity and malnutrition with current political instabilities.
