**1. Introduction**

Informal economies have long been the linchpin of food security for both the rural and urban poor in developing countries [1]. The most visible activities in the informal sector are food production (urban, peri-urban and rural), processing, catering and transport and retail sale of fresh or prepared products (e.g. street food) with women being responsible for small catering operations and street food sales [2]. Women are traditionally skilled in these activities and already have the necessary cooking utensils at home, while the food they prepare also enables them to feed their families [3].

Most of the eggs, fish, meat and milk sold to the poor in urban Africa are sourced from informal markets [4]. For example, in countries like Kenya, Mali and Uganda, 80–90% of raw milk is purchased from vendors or small-scale retailers in informal markets [4]. Informal markets in this regard contribute to food security and do so in various ways. First, informal markets tend to be located closer to low-income housing settlements and thus serve as the main source of food for many of the urban poor [1]. Second, informal vendors can sell in smaller quantities, at lower prices and on credit, thus making food affordable to marginalised consumers [2, 5]. Third, the many points of sale near schools and offices, bus stops and stations facilitate access to food, thus saving consumers' time and transport costs [2]. Fourth, the ability of poorer households to produce their own food products especially in situations of economic uncertainty can be crucial for food security [2].

Despite this contribution to food security, the safety of food sold in the informal sector has been raised as a matter of concern. Traders in informal markets operate in settings without electricity, clean potable water, waste disposal and sanitation facilities [4, 5]. These settings are sometimes dusty and muddy and/or may sometimes be flooded due to poor roads [6]. Such an environment exposes food to contamination, thus increasing the risk of foodborne illnesses [6].

The implementation of food safety in the informal sector has traditionally focused on enforcement mechanisms to remove "unsafe" food from the market [3, 7]. This reactive approach which is also a response to other non-compliances of the sector such as tax evasion, trespassing on private land and traffic congestion mainly targets street vendors and typically involves issuing of fines, making of arrests, confiscation of merchandise and demolishing of market stalls [7].

The sole focus of these campaigns on street vendors in the drive towards implementation of food safety in the informal sector somehow fails to hold producers (including urban and peri-urban agriculturalists), transporters, processors (including home-based caterers), managers, small restaurant owners, members of cooperatives etc. accountable as these stakeholders also have a role to play in ensuring the production, processing, packaging and distribution of safe food along the food chain. As a result, such campaigns have been rendered ineffective (see, e.g. [1, 4]).

This chapter makes reference to case studies conducted by the International Livestock Research Institute's Safe Food Fair Food project to facilitate the implementation of food safety in Sub-Saharan Africa. The purpose is to illustrate the relevance and the applicability of a food chain approach in the implementation of food safety in the informal sector. The chapter is organised as follows. Section 2 presents a theoretical framework with the first sub-section outlining the food chain approach in the implementation of food safety followed by foodborne illnesses and their impact on public health. The methodology section follows after which we present the results. The chapter then draws conclusions and outlines implications for stakeholders concerned and some recommendations for further research.

## **2. Theoretical framework**

#### **2.1 The food chain approach in the implementation of food safety**

For food to be regarded as safe, there should be assurance that it will not cause harm to the consumer when prepared and/or eaten according to its intended use [8].

The food chain approach acknowledges that the responsibility to provide safe, healthy and nutritious food lies with all the actors taking part in the production, processing, trade and consumption of food along the entire food chain from primary production to final consumption [3]. Chain actors include food producers, fishermen, abattoir operators, food processors and distributors including wholesalers and retailers. This responsibility extends to the end-consumer who must be educated to ensure that food is properly stored and hygienically prepared and food shelf lives are respected [3]. Government departments with a mandate to render public health services are also implicated in this regard [3].

The food chain approach uses a scientific, rational and systematic approach known as the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) to identify, assess and control hazards during production, processing, manufacturing and preparation of food. For HACCP to be effective, a strong foundation of safetyrelated prerequisites is essential.

Prerequisite programmes include, among others, the implementation of good manufacturing practices, good agricultural practices, good hygiene practices,

**55**

*Food Safety and Food Security in the Informal Sector DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91012*

**2.2 Food contamination and foodborne illnesses**

nature. They are at best unpleasant and at worst fatal.

the resulting foodborne illnesses [8].

contaminated food and water [2, 3].

food and the resulting foodborne illnesses.

**3. Methodology**

**3.1 Choice of the study area**

**3.2 Context of the study**

sanitation, standard operating procedures, employee hygiene and training, product labelling and coding, facilities design, equipment calibration and maintenance. Food safety along the value chain thus promotes the adoption of conditions and practices that preserve the quality of food in order to prevent contamination and

Foodborne illnesses are diseases caused by microbiological, chemical and physical agents that enter the body through the ingestion of contaminated food and/ or water used for its production, processing and preparation [2, 3, 9]. In humans, foodborne illnesses are linked to more than 250 different types of viruses, bacteria, parasites, toxins, metals and prions [10] and are usually either infectious or toxic in

The infections range from mild gastro-enteritis to life-threatening neurological, hepatic and renal syndromes caused by either toxin from the disease-causing microbes or by the human body's reaction to the microbe itself [11]. Although viruses are more responsible for more than 50% of all foodborne illnesses, generally hospitalizations and deaths associated with foodborne infections are due to bacterial agents [11]. Of the many thousands different bacterial species, more than 90% of food poisoning illnesses are caused by species of *Staphylococcus*, *Salmonella*, *Clostridium*, *Campylobacter*, *Listeria*, *Vibrio*, *Bacillus* and *Enteropathogenic coli* [12]. Around 2 million people die every year from diarrhoeal diseases largely due to

The contamination of food may occur at any stage in the process from produc-

tion to consumption (farm to fork or stable to table) and can also result from environmental contamination including pollution of water, soil or feeds [2, 3]. Improving the safety and quality of food at all stages of the food chain is therefore important in reducing the risks associated with the consumption of contaminated

For over a decade, the International Livestock Research Centre (ILRI) and partners have been conducting research on food safety in informal markets in Sub-Saharan Africa. The objective is to support intensification of livestock production by building capacity for better management of safety of animal source food products. The ultimate goal is to maximise market access for the poor dependent on livestock and livestock products while minimising foodborne illnesses for poor consumers [13]. While the focus of ILRI's Safe Food Fair Food project was livestock and livestock products, the majority of the cases studied milk in informal markets. This chapter therefore focuses on informal milk marketing in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Milk produced in the informal sector often leaves the farm gate through three channels, namely, collectors who sell the milk to the informal market, sale to the dairy cooperative and/or sale within the community [14]. Collection of milk is carried out at milk collection centres by dairy cooperatives or private milk collectors [14, 15]. Milk producers and other traders transport their milk on foot, by horse and

#### *Food Safety and Food Security in the Informal Sector DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91012*

*Food Security in Africa*

**2. Theoretical framework**

related prerequisites is essential.

thus increasing the risk of foodborne illnesses [6].

Despite this contribution to food security, the safety of food sold in the informal sector has been raised as a matter of concern. Traders in informal markets operate in settings without electricity, clean potable water, waste disposal and sanitation facilities [4, 5]. These settings are sometimes dusty and muddy and/or may sometimes be flooded due to poor roads [6]. Such an environment exposes food to contamination,

The implementation of food safety in the informal sector has traditionally focused on enforcement mechanisms to remove "unsafe" food from the market [3, 7]. This reactive approach which is also a response to other non-compliances of the sector such as tax evasion, trespassing on private land and traffic congestion mainly targets street vendors and typically involves issuing of fines, making of arrests,

The sole focus of these campaigns on street vendors in the drive towards implementation of food safety in the informal sector somehow fails to hold producers (including urban and peri-urban agriculturalists), transporters, processors (including home-based caterers), managers, small restaurant owners, members of cooperatives etc. accountable as these stakeholders also have a role to play in ensuring the production, processing, packaging and distribution of safe food along the food chain. As a result, such campaigns have been rendered ineffective (see, e.g. [1, 4]). This chapter makes reference to case studies conducted by the International Livestock Research Institute's Safe Food Fair Food project to facilitate the implementation of food safety in Sub-Saharan Africa. The purpose is to illustrate the relevance and the applicability of a food chain approach in the implementation of food safety in the informal sector. The chapter is organised as follows. Section 2 presents a theoretical framework with the first sub-section outlining the food chain approach in the implementation of food safety followed by foodborne illnesses and their impact on public health. The methodology section follows after which we present the results. The chapter then draws conclusions and outlines implications for stakeholders concerned and some recommendations for further research.

confiscation of merchandise and demolishing of market stalls [7].

**2.1 The food chain approach in the implementation of food safety**

public health services are also implicated in this regard [3].

For food to be regarded as safe, there should be assurance that it will not cause harm to the consumer when prepared and/or eaten according to its intended use [8]. The food chain approach acknowledges that the responsibility to provide safe, healthy and nutritious food lies with all the actors taking part in the production, processing, trade and consumption of food along the entire food chain from primary production to final consumption [3]. Chain actors include food producers, fishermen, abattoir operators, food processors and distributors including wholesalers and retailers. This responsibility extends to the end-consumer who must be educated to ensure that food is properly stored and hygienically prepared and food shelf lives are respected [3]. Government departments with a mandate to render

The food chain approach uses a scientific, rational and systematic approach known as the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) to identify, assess and control hazards during production, processing, manufacturing and preparation of food. For HACCP to be effective, a strong foundation of safety-

Prerequisite programmes include, among others, the implementation of good manufacturing practices, good agricultural practices, good hygiene practices,

**54**

sanitation, standard operating procedures, employee hygiene and training, product labelling and coding, facilities design, equipment calibration and maintenance. Food safety along the value chain thus promotes the adoption of conditions and practices that preserve the quality of food in order to prevent contamination and the resulting foodborne illnesses [8].

#### **2.2 Food contamination and foodborne illnesses**

Foodborne illnesses are diseases caused by microbiological, chemical and physical agents that enter the body through the ingestion of contaminated food and/ or water used for its production, processing and preparation [2, 3, 9]. In humans, foodborne illnesses are linked to more than 250 different types of viruses, bacteria, parasites, toxins, metals and prions [10] and are usually either infectious or toxic in nature. They are at best unpleasant and at worst fatal.

The infections range from mild gastro-enteritis to life-threatening neurological, hepatic and renal syndromes caused by either toxin from the disease-causing microbes or by the human body's reaction to the microbe itself [11]. Although viruses are more responsible for more than 50% of all foodborne illnesses, generally hospitalizations and deaths associated with foodborne infections are due to bacterial agents [11]. Of the many thousands different bacterial species, more than 90% of food poisoning illnesses are caused by species of *Staphylococcus*, *Salmonella*, *Clostridium*, *Campylobacter*, *Listeria*, *Vibrio*, *Bacillus* and *Enteropathogenic coli* [12]. Around 2 million people die every year from diarrhoeal diseases largely due to contaminated food and water [2, 3].

The contamination of food may occur at any stage in the process from production to consumption (farm to fork or stable to table) and can also result from environmental contamination including pollution of water, soil or feeds [2, 3]. Improving the safety and quality of food at all stages of the food chain is therefore important in reducing the risks associated with the consumption of contaminated food and the resulting foodborne illnesses.
