**4.1 Good agricultural practices**

Good farming practices underpin the marketing of safe, quality-assured milkbased products [16]. This means that on-farm practices should ensure that milk is produced by healthy animals under acceptable conditions for the animals [16]. The focus of on-farm practices should be on preventing a problem (including animal diseases) rather than solving it after it has occurred [16]. However, according to Desissa et al. [17], 92% of dairy farmers indicated that their cows had recently experienced inflammation of the udder. Kilango et al. [18] also reported that almost 90% of the farmers had encountered udder infections in their animals. Only 21% of the farmers were reported to have used post-milking teat disinfectant which is known to be effective in preventing udder inflammation [18].

Milk producers are required to manage the use of all chemicals, e.g. detergents, disinfectants, antiparasitics, antibiotics, herbicides, pesticides and fungicides, to prevent unacceptable chemical residues occurring in the milk and unsuitable chemicals adversely affecting animal health and productivity and are expected to be aware of all chemicals that may leave residues in milk [16]. Milk producers are also required to observe withholding periods, i.e. the minimum times when milk

**57**

contaminated or not.

*Food Safety and Food Security in the Informal Sector DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91012*

should not be sold for human consumption after application of chemicals [16]. Interestingly, most of the farmers knew about the proper use of antibiotics to treat dairy cows and the importance of adhering to the withdrawal period for milk from cows undergoing treatment [18]. Yet in a study done by Kouame-Sina et al. [19],

Milking is the most important single activity in a dairy farm [16]. FAO [16] recommends that before a cow is milked, the foremilk should be extracted and checked for abnormalities. It is also expected of farmers to follow appropriate procedures to separate milk from sick animals and animals under treatment. For example, sick animals could be milked last into a separate container and/or separate facilities may be provided if possible [16]. However, Kouame-Sina et al. [19] reported that milk

Yobouet et al. [20] and Kone et al. [21] also observed that while milking, milkers often dipped their fingers into the milk to use it as a lubricant to help them milk faster. The farmers considered it necessary to grease the teats with milk. However,

FAO [16] recommends that the disposal of diseased and dead animals should be done in a way that minimizes the risk of disease spread. According to Sow et al. [22], about 12% of farmers reported their cows had aborted once, and approximately 2% reported that their cows aborted twice, while 27% reported their female goats had aborted once, 4% twice and 1% thrice. Almost 75% of these respondents reported they handled the aborted material of their goats; for instance, they would handle the foetus with bare hands and later burn it [22]. While the latter practice reduces the risk of transmission of brucellosis, touching the aborted material with

Good milk is considered to be cow milk that is not mixed with that from other species or milk powder [21] or any additives or adulterants. However, it was found out that producers sometimes put additives in milk to increase fat content. They also add water in milk to increase volumes. This practice, which is commonly known as adulteration, is done in an attempt to get fair and remunerative prices for the milk. In the dairy industry in West and East Africa, it seemed to be common practice to add water to milk in order to sell large quantities. Yobouet et al. [20] also observed that adulteration of milk by adding water was relatively widespread among retailers, with 47.1% of them reportedly adding water to the milk before selling it.

Similarly, in a case study by Kouame-Sina et al. [19], 50% of the milk on sale was adulterated with water. Adulteration of milk is not only illegal but also presents a health risk to consumers if the added water is contaminated [20]. With adulteration, consumers get less of what they paid for [21]. This practice is also unethical. According to Desissa et al. [17], collection centres checked the milk for adulteration with water and contamination with hair, hay or faeces. Milk that does not pass the quality test is rejected and is mostly processed by the women into féné (partially fermented milk), which may present a health risk [21]. More than 25% of the vendors did not use any form of quality control checks before buying the milk [18] which meant that they could not establish whether the milk they bought was

Because of its high perishability, holding milk for long periods without cooling it can lead to rapid growth and multiplication of the milk bacteria [18]. To sustain

To cool the milk, some producers predominantly used package icing. The ice blocks are purchased from vendors who make them by filling polythene pouches

almost a quarter (24.7%) of the milk samples contained antibiotics.

from cows with udder inflammation (mastitis) was still sold.

this practice presented a risk of milk contamination [21].

bare hands makes transmission very likely [22].

quality, milk is generally cooled after harvesting.

**4.2 Good manufacturing practices**

#### *Food Safety and Food Security in the Informal Sector DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91012*

*Food Security in Africa*

**3.3 Data collection**

**3.4 Data analysis**

data.

by donkey and/or make use of a private milk transporter to deliver the milk to the

Alternatively, milk producers take their raw milk to the milk collection points. From the milk collection points, the milk is transported to a dairy plant or to the milk collection centres where it is bulked, cooled and transported to the dairy plant. Private milk collectors and dairy cooperatives operate milk collection points and milk collection centres [14]. The dairy cooperatives are mainly involved in bulk collecting of raw milk from the members in order to process the collected milk into different dairy products [14]. Informal milk marketing thus involves direct supply of fresh raw milk by small-holder dairy producers to the neighbouring final con-

This chapter makes reference to case studies conducted by the International Livestock Research Institute under the Safe Food Fair Food project in Sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary data sources of information are also consulted to complement the

This chapter applies guidelines on good agricultural practices, good manufacturing practices and good hygiene practices to offer justification as to why it is important to adopt a food chain approach in the implementation of food safety initiatives in the informal sector. The chapter does so by making reference to the case studies on milk production in Sub-Saharan Africa by the International Livestock

**4. Food safety along the milk value chain in the informal sector**

Like any other food business, milk producers must aim to ensure that the safety and quality of the raw milk produced will satisfy the highest expectations of the

Good farming practices underpin the marketing of safe, quality-assured milkbased products [16]. This means that on-farm practices should ensure that milk is produced by healthy animals under acceptable conditions for the animals [16]. The focus of on-farm practices should be on preventing a problem (including animal diseases) rather than solving it after it has occurred [16]. However, according to Desissa et al. [17], 92% of dairy farmers indicated that their cows had recently experienced inflammation of the udder. Kilango et al. [18] also reported that almost 90% of the farmers had encountered udder infections in their animals. Only 21% of the farmers were reported to have used post-milking teat disinfectant which is

Milk producers are required to manage the use of all chemicals, e.g. detergents, disinfectants, antiparasitics, antibiotics, herbicides, pesticides and fungicides, to prevent unacceptable chemical residues occurring in the milk and unsuitable chemicals adversely affecting animal health and productivity and are expected to be aware of all chemicals that may leave residues in milk [16]. Milk producers are also required to observe withholding periods, i.e. the minimum times when milk

milk collection centres and to the processing plant [14].

sumers and to the traders or individuals in the nearby cities.

Research Institute under the Safe Food Fair Food project.

known to be effective in preventing udder inflammation [18].

food industry and consumers [16].

**4.1 Good agricultural practices**

**56**

should not be sold for human consumption after application of chemicals [16]. Interestingly, most of the farmers knew about the proper use of antibiotics to treat dairy cows and the importance of adhering to the withdrawal period for milk from cows undergoing treatment [18]. Yet in a study done by Kouame-Sina et al. [19], almost a quarter (24.7%) of the milk samples contained antibiotics.

Milking is the most important single activity in a dairy farm [16]. FAO [16] recommends that before a cow is milked, the foremilk should be extracted and checked for abnormalities. It is also expected of farmers to follow appropriate procedures to separate milk from sick animals and animals under treatment. For example, sick animals could be milked last into a separate container and/or separate facilities may be provided if possible [16]. However, Kouame-Sina et al. [19] reported that milk from cows with udder inflammation (mastitis) was still sold.

Yobouet et al. [20] and Kone et al. [21] also observed that while milking, milkers often dipped their fingers into the milk to use it as a lubricant to help them milk faster. The farmers considered it necessary to grease the teats with milk. However, this practice presented a risk of milk contamination [21].

FAO [16] recommends that the disposal of diseased and dead animals should be done in a way that minimizes the risk of disease spread. According to Sow et al. [22], about 12% of farmers reported their cows had aborted once, and approximately 2% reported that their cows aborted twice, while 27% reported their female goats had aborted once, 4% twice and 1% thrice. Almost 75% of these respondents reported they handled the aborted material of their goats; for instance, they would handle the foetus with bare hands and later burn it [22]. While the latter practice reduces the risk of transmission of brucellosis, touching the aborted material with bare hands makes transmission very likely [22].

#### **4.2 Good manufacturing practices**

Good milk is considered to be cow milk that is not mixed with that from other species or milk powder [21] or any additives or adulterants. However, it was found out that producers sometimes put additives in milk to increase fat content. They also add water in milk to increase volumes. This practice, which is commonly known as adulteration, is done in an attempt to get fair and remunerative prices for the milk. In the dairy industry in West and East Africa, it seemed to be common practice to add water to milk in order to sell large quantities. Yobouet et al. [20] also observed that adulteration of milk by adding water was relatively widespread among retailers, with 47.1% of them reportedly adding water to the milk before selling it.

Similarly, in a case study by Kouame-Sina et al. [19], 50% of the milk on sale was adulterated with water. Adulteration of milk is not only illegal but also presents a health risk to consumers if the added water is contaminated [20]. With adulteration, consumers get less of what they paid for [21]. This practice is also unethical. According to Desissa et al. [17], collection centres checked the milk for adulteration with water and contamination with hair, hay or faeces. Milk that does not pass the quality test is rejected and is mostly processed by the women into féné (partially fermented milk), which may present a health risk [21]. More than 25% of the vendors did not use any form of quality control checks before buying the milk [18] which meant that they could not establish whether the milk they bought was contaminated or not.

Because of its high perishability, holding milk for long periods without cooling it can lead to rapid growth and multiplication of the milk bacteria [18]. To sustain quality, milk is generally cooled after harvesting.

To cool the milk, some producers predominantly used package icing. The ice blocks are purchased from vendors who make them by filling polythene pouches with tap water and packing the pouches in a freezer [23]. While water and ice cooling methods provide fast initial cooling, they also feature the highest risk of contamination.

In the cases studied by Spengler et al. [24], none of the farmers in the study sites cooled the raw milk. The traders and retailers also reported that the milk they received from the farms was not cooled [20].

Pooling of milk was also reported to increase the risk of contamination. Yobouet et al. [20] reported that upon receipt of milk from farmers, traders and retailers bulked the milk in a single storage tank. This is risky because, if the milk from one supplier is contaminated, then there is a higher chance that the entire batch in the tank will be spoiled. According to Desissa et al. [17], only milk from cooperative members was purchased and pooled into a 50 litre container.

With regard to packaging, all of the vendors used plastic buckets for handling the milk, a practice that is not recommended as plastic containers are known to be vulnerable to bacterial contamination due to difficulty to sterilise [18]. This was also observed by [23].
