**4. Sexuality and abuse of power**

The structure and organization of human sexuality, specially in terms of sex differentiation and their position in relation to castration anxiety, is caused by the Oedipus complex, which also enables experimenting the ambivalence of desire.

Laplanche and Pontalis (1974) define the Oedipus complex as "an organized set of loving and hostile desires that the child feels toward the parents". In its so-called positive form, the complex is presented as in the history of Oedipus the king, who wishes for the death the rival, the character of the same sex, and has sexual desire for the character of the opposite sex. In the negative form, it is the opposite: love for the parent of the same sex, and jealous hatred for the parent of the opposite sex. In real situations, these two forms are found in different levels in complete form of Oedipus complex.

According to Freud(2001), the peak of Oedipus complex occurs between three and five years of age, during the phallic stage; its decline marks the latency stage. It is revived in puberty, and overcome, with greater or lesser success, in a special type of object-choice. Oedipus

attitude of those who practice sexual harassment. However, the existence of the law is no warranty that sexual harassment will not be part of crime statistics. Laws, without ethics, are

The pillar that supports ethics is the perception of conflicts of psychological life. It is expected that individuals have resources to deal with his/her emotions in relation to reason, and that he/she may solve these conflicts coherently and with autonomy (ibidem). Cohen and Segre (2008) show the huge difference between moral and ethics: while moral has to be

According to Guirado (2010 ), intra and interinstitutional power relationships involve both agent-agent and agent-client relations. The power struggle shows, on one side, the one who sets the conduct norms, and on the other, the one who has to abide by it. However, the one who sets the norm also has to abide by it, he or she is not superior to the norm. Relationships established among peers, in other social scenarios different from hierarchical relationships at the workplace, may also be sexual harassment because when there is a

Sexual conduct is not determined by a universal standard. Something that is acceptable for some is not for others. In some societies, exposing the body is acceptable and natural, while other societies demand the use of garments that cover the body as much as possible. Sexualrelated behaviors may change from time to time, as individuals live and feel things differently depending on their time and culture. Social practices are determined by society,

Humans live their sexuality very differently from the other living beings. First, because sex is not limited to reproduction, and second, because there are some peculiarities, such as desire, passion, fantasies, sensations and guilt. However, we should not banalize sexuality and reject the possibility of reproduction, one of the objectives of couples at reproductive age. Those couples that having difficulties in conceiving may use the services offered by a

The structure and organization of human sexuality, specially in terms of sex differentiation and their position in relation to castration anxiety, is caused by the Oedipus complex, which

Laplanche and Pontalis (1974) define the Oedipus complex as "an organized set of loving and hostile desires that the child feels toward the parents". In its so-called positive form, the complex is presented as in the history of Oedipus the king, who wishes for the death the rival, the character of the same sex, and has sexual desire for the character of the opposite sex. In the negative form, it is the opposite: love for the parent of the same sex, and jealous hatred for the parent of the opposite sex. In real situations, these two forms are found in

According to Freud(2001), the peak of Oedipus complex occurs between three and five years of age, during the phallic stage; its decline marks the latency stage. It is revived in puberty, and overcome, with greater or lesser success, in a special type of object-choice. Oedipus

and culture strongly influences the way people relate to each other.

countless number of assisted reproduction clinics.

also enables experimenting the ambivalence of desire.

different levels in complete form of Oedipus complex.

**4. Sexuality and abuse of power** 

imposed, ethics should be grasped by the individual, it has to come from the inside.

useless.

breach of trust and the abuse of power.

complex has a fundamental role in structuring the personality and in directing human desire Oedipal feelings come and go throughout life. As castration does not take place, there is nothing to prevent both the desire and the action. In this case, the problem is that the person will be held socially or criminally accountable for his/her.

Cohen et al. analyzed sexuality from a bioethical viewpoint, and observed that it is impossible to ignore the evolution of sexual context and ethics throughout history (Cohen et al., 2009).

When analyzing the historical aspects of human sexuality, Foucault brings an important contribution: the human being, in all its dimensions - social, politic, mental, ideological, cultural – is the central factor. For him, "the great game in history will be won by those who take hold of the rules, who take power from the ones who use power; it will be won by those who, in disguise, pervert the rules; who use the rules upside down and inside out; who put the rules against those who had imposed them" (Foucault, 1990).

This fragment shows us who is behind the power relationships, that is, who has control and creates the rules that domesticate the bodies and mainly, who use these rules for personal interests. This way, we go back to the idea of institutions as the keepers of power, the ones who determine rules and punishments for breaking these rules.

Power relationships have, on one side, someone who is dominant, and on the other side, someone who is dominated. This kind of essence was used by the Church to impose its values. According to Foucault ( 1990) , in the 18th century, society lived under powerful sexual repression; sex was reduced to mere reproduction, and the couple became the social model. Everything that is different from this standard became amoral and was banned, denied and silenced (Ibidem).

In the same piece, Foucault (1990) says: "until the end of the 18th century, three great explicit codes - besides the regulations related to costumes and opinions - ruled sexual practices: canonical rights, Christian pastoral power and civil law." These codes were centered in matrimonial relationships and determined what was licit and illicit in conjugal duties. Sex of a married couple was oppressive, full of rules and recommendations. In confession, married couples had to tell the priests all details of their sexual intercourses. In the 18th century, a system of surveillance mechanisms was in place. These mechanisms were coercive and corrective, and had the power to repress and silence the bodies, and suppress latent desires. The Church aimed at domesticating sex and bodies, and invested in restrictions to words and everything that was connected to sexual issues, in a way that anything that dealt with the theme was denied and considered degenerated.

Foucault ( 1990) proposed the study of what was in the margins of society: child sexuality, madness, criminals, those who love the other sex, maniacs, that is, a set of illicit issues that were on the edges of the social system. Power relationships discussed by him aimed at showing the elements that were on the borders of central issues, that is, to show how the discourse of power is gagged by culture, how stereotypes are build and how they are outside the social order. At this moment, it is possible to see the real interest of those who have a reductionist discourse on conducts considered wrong.

Freud, on his turn, developed a theory to explain the development of sexuality from the generation of the psychological subject. The organization of sexuality allows the subject to

Considering the Sexual Harassment as an Equivalent Incestuous 217

society. However, they are worth nothing if the individual is not able to interpret them and act accordingly, as we can see if we analyze the situation of priests that harass

Choosing celibacy is an autonomous decision. It is understood that the choice was not forced upon the individual. Once on this path, the dogmas are presented to this individual together with the code of principles he/she has to follow, at the risk of punishment. Autonomy may only be created based on a respectful relationship. It comes from the perception of conflict between coherent decision-making and the ethical principles inherent

There are reports from different parts of the world about churchgoers that were sexually harassed by priests. One example involves Cardinal Bernard Law, the archbishop of Boston, who turned a blind eye to the knowledge of sexual abuse committed by priests from parishes under his supervision. Not all individuals in a society are able to be ethical. In the case mentioned above, we have a Cardinal that knew the problem and turned a blind eye to it; and we have the priest who was carried away by his pulsions and moved away from the ethical principals of his function, using the trust bond established by the institution to which

When a priest abuses churchgoers, he breaks up with the moral code and becomes socially incompetent for his function. When using autonomy to choose the religious path, the Church, as an Institution, recognized the aptitude of the person and authorized him/her to follow his wills, according to a legitimate code. This priest was fully instructed and made oaths. When he chose the break up with these commitments, he has to be held accountable for his actions by canonical, civil and penal laws. He will be punished, if the reports are accepted and the process continues. However, the difficulty in judging peers was observed

Situations related to covering illicit acts are found in other social relationships; for example, when soldiers rape war prisoners with the consent of their superiors. This is also common in tribal wars in Africa, as in the case of Angolans raping immigrants who work in the mines of Luanda (source: doctors without borders). These are typical examples that involve individual ethics in relation to human rights. An army has a mission of recovering an invaded territory, as it was the case in Angola or American soldiers in Iraq. These soldiers committed crimes that harm human dignity, something that involves ethics and

More than once, we heard of powerful people involved in sexual scandals, such as Bill Clinton, Arnold Schwarzenegger, Berlusconi, and more recently, Dominique Strauss-Kahn. What these people have in common, besides their public positions, is the power that their position gives them. They all seem to be above the law, and consider that they can do anything, without being punished. It is a narcissistic experience, common to any child, and is characterized by the total lack of respect and acceptance of the other. A regression to pre-Oedipian stages, specially because the ego and the id were not differentiated. The way out of narcissism is the possibility of socialization. Narcissistic subjects live in a reality that is not able to support the demands of the others, that is, they are subjects who talk about themselves to themselves, and are fragile in building relationships and projects. They are destructive and do not add values. To Joel Birman (

churchgoers.

he belongs.

moral.

to each human being.

not only in the Church, but in other Institutions.

choose the object, with fixation in stages of development that bring him/ her greater pleasure. This can occur naturally or become a perverted fixation on an object. To Freud, humans are born as a polymorphous, perverse beings, and culture represses some perverse aspects. Transformation of perverse desires is part of the development of sexuality, and psychosocial development will repress pulsions. Thus, different from other animals, human sexuality will become independent of the reproductive function.

The theory of sexual selection was proposed by the British naturalist Charles Darwin, in 1871, in his book "**The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex".** In his theory, he called "sexual selection" the process of choosing morphological and behavioral characteristics that may lead to successful mating, a process responsible for the evolution of characteristics that determine reproductive advantages. Instinct is related to biological sex. The sexual function of humans is innate and responsible for the preservation of the species. It is biological sex, proposed by Darwin, the reproductive function of all animals.

On the other hand, the development of sexuality is a long and complex process that begins at birth, and matures at puberty, the phase when reproduction and pleasure are associated. Freud demonstrated, in his studies on sexuality, that during psychosexual development, there is a change in object that provides sexual gratification. This finding made Freud develop his theory on the stages of sexual development. However, Freud emphasized that even a newborn have a germ of sexual motions. But sex life of a child is expressed in an observable way only after three or four years of age (Freud, 2001).

Freud called "pregenital" the stages of sexual development that come before puberty. The oral stage is the first one; sexual activity is not separated from nutrition. The second pregenital phase is the anal-sadistic organization. In this stage, activity is produced by pulsion for domination using body muscles. At this moment, the individual already shows sexual polarity, and a partial object. However, organization and subordination to reproductive function are still lacking. After that, sexual organization will only be defined in puberty, and the outcome is normal adult sex life, with a solid organization towards an external sex object (Freud, 1905). The third phase, which Freud called genital stage, is characterized by a greater or lesser organization of libido under the preponderance of the erogenous zone and object relationship (Laplanche and Pontalis, ).

According to psychoanalysis theory and practice, in the development of human sexuality, the individual is born as a polymorphous perverse being dominated by sexual pulsions and death. He/she has to go through several stages, as demonstrated above, for his/her development, which will organize the Oedipus complex, his/her first experience aiming at humanizing the individual (Cohen, 1999).

Based on this theoretical referential of psychoanalysis, we understand that human psychological structure is supported by a tripod: genetic (complementary series), social (Oedipus complex) and individual factors (mental structure: id, ego and superego). The World Health Organization shows that health is biopsychosocial wellbeing, an integration of biological, psychological and social aspects (Cohen, 1999).

Therefore, human sexuality is nothing more than the product of symbolic constructions of one subject with the other, permeated by moral and social laws (religious law, Civil and Penal Codes, Conduct Codes). Conduct codes are important for the organization of

choose the object, with fixation in stages of development that bring him/ her greater pleasure. This can occur naturally or become a perverted fixation on an object. To Freud, humans are born as a polymorphous, perverse beings, and culture represses some perverse aspects. Transformation of perverse desires is part of the development of sexuality, and psychosocial development will repress pulsions. Thus, different from other animals, human

The theory of sexual selection was proposed by the British naturalist Charles Darwin, in 1871, in his book "**The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex".** In his theory, he called "sexual selection" the process of choosing morphological and behavioral characteristics that may lead to successful mating, a process responsible for the evolution of characteristics that determine reproductive advantages. Instinct is related to biological sex. The sexual function of humans is innate and responsible for the preservation of the species.

On the other hand, the development of sexuality is a long and complex process that begins at birth, and matures at puberty, the phase when reproduction and pleasure are associated. Freud demonstrated, in his studies on sexuality, that during psychosexual development, there is a change in object that provides sexual gratification. This finding made Freud develop his theory on the stages of sexual development. However, Freud emphasized that even a newborn have a germ of sexual motions. But sex life of a child is expressed in an

Freud called "pregenital" the stages of sexual development that come before puberty. The oral stage is the first one; sexual activity is not separated from nutrition. The second pregenital phase is the anal-sadistic organization. In this stage, activity is produced by pulsion for domination using body muscles. At this moment, the individual already shows sexual polarity, and a partial object. However, organization and subordination to reproductive function are still lacking. After that, sexual organization will only be defined in puberty, and the outcome is normal adult sex life, with a solid organization towards an external sex object (Freud, 1905). The third phase, which Freud called genital stage, is characterized by a greater or lesser organization of libido under the preponderance of the

According to psychoanalysis theory and practice, in the development of human sexuality, the individual is born as a polymorphous perverse being dominated by sexual pulsions and death. He/she has to go through several stages, as demonstrated above, for his/her development, which will organize the Oedipus complex, his/her first experience aiming at

Based on this theoretical referential of psychoanalysis, we understand that human psychological structure is supported by a tripod: genetic (complementary series), social (Oedipus complex) and individual factors (mental structure: id, ego and superego). The World Health Organization shows that health is biopsychosocial wellbeing, an integration

Therefore, human sexuality is nothing more than the product of symbolic constructions of one subject with the other, permeated by moral and social laws (religious law, Civil and Penal Codes, Conduct Codes). Conduct codes are important for the organization of

It is biological sex, proposed by Darwin, the reproductive function of all animals.

sexuality will become independent of the reproductive function.

observable way only after three or four years of age (Freud, 2001).

erogenous zone and object relationship (Laplanche and Pontalis, ).

of biological, psychological and social aspects (Cohen, 1999).

humanizing the individual (Cohen, 1999).

society. However, they are worth nothing if the individual is not able to interpret them and act accordingly, as we can see if we analyze the situation of priests that harass churchgoers.

Choosing celibacy is an autonomous decision. It is understood that the choice was not forced upon the individual. Once on this path, the dogmas are presented to this individual together with the code of principles he/she has to follow, at the risk of punishment. Autonomy may only be created based on a respectful relationship. It comes from the perception of conflict between coherent decision-making and the ethical principles inherent to each human being.

There are reports from different parts of the world about churchgoers that were sexually harassed by priests. One example involves Cardinal Bernard Law, the archbishop of Boston, who turned a blind eye to the knowledge of sexual abuse committed by priests from parishes under his supervision. Not all individuals in a society are able to be ethical. In the case mentioned above, we have a Cardinal that knew the problem and turned a blind eye to it; and we have the priest who was carried away by his pulsions and moved away from the ethical principals of his function, using the trust bond established by the institution to which he belongs.

When a priest abuses churchgoers, he breaks up with the moral code and becomes socially incompetent for his function. When using autonomy to choose the religious path, the Church, as an Institution, recognized the aptitude of the person and authorized him/her to follow his wills, according to a legitimate code. This priest was fully instructed and made oaths. When he chose the break up with these commitments, he has to be held accountable for his actions by canonical, civil and penal laws. He will be punished, if the reports are accepted and the process continues. However, the difficulty in judging peers was observed not only in the Church, but in other Institutions.

Situations related to covering illicit acts are found in other social relationships; for example, when soldiers rape war prisoners with the consent of their superiors. This is also common in tribal wars in Africa, as in the case of Angolans raping immigrants who work in the mines of Luanda (source: doctors without borders). These are typical examples that involve individual ethics in relation to human rights. An army has a mission of recovering an invaded territory, as it was the case in Angola or American soldiers in Iraq. These soldiers committed crimes that harm human dignity, something that involves ethics and moral.

More than once, we heard of powerful people involved in sexual scandals, such as Bill Clinton, Arnold Schwarzenegger, Berlusconi, and more recently, Dominique Strauss-Kahn. What these people have in common, besides their public positions, is the power that their position gives them. They all seem to be above the law, and consider that they can do anything, without being punished. It is a narcissistic experience, common to any child, and is characterized by the total lack of respect and acceptance of the other. A regression to pre-Oedipian stages, specially because the ego and the id were not differentiated. The way out of narcissism is the possibility of socialization. Narcissistic subjects live in a reality that is not able to support the demands of the others, that is, they are subjects who talk about themselves to themselves, and are fragile in building relationships and projects. They are destructive and do not add values. To Joel Birman (

Considering the Sexual Harassment as an Equivalent Incestuous 219

turns and is postponed, as a consequence of the conditions imposed by the exterior world. This principle characterizes the preconscious-conscious system; psychoanalysis sets an intervention with this principle, as a type of pulsional energy working for the ego

Freud (2001) considered that pulsions may be understood, initially, only as psychological representations of an endosomatic, continuous source of stimulation, differentiating them from isolated, exciting stimulations that come from the outside (Freud, 1905). Therefore, Pulsion is one of the concepts that helps us to delimit animic and physical reality. Pulsion distinguishes these two realities, and gives them specific properties, which is the relationship between somatic sources and their targets. Tension is relieved by the pulsion, in a way that the impulse to act to satisfy this pulsion is intrinsically connected to the psychic

Sexual harassment is characterized by the use of the pleasure principle by means of the endosomatic power given by the professional function, without respecting the reality principle that the other imposes to the harasser. Sexual harassment committed by doctors is considered an abusive, unethical, and incestuous act, due to the asymmetric nature of the doctor-patient relationship. (Cohen et al. 2009). All situations presented in this discussion, such as teacher-student and priest-churchgoer relationships, and those with hierarchic

In order to understand polymorphous incest or the equivalent of incest, it is important to observe some particular aspects related to human relationships. Depending on the place that one occupies in a given context, peer relationship is different. To Cohen, these relationships

Asymmetric relationships among relatives and members of a family determine the following functions: the father as the one who sets the laws; the mother as the holder of emotions; the children as the ones who will learn to deal with reality. The objective of the family, in a given cultural context, is preservation. Professional relationships also fit in this asymmetric classification. Vertically, they are equivalent to the parent-child relationship, because they build this hierarchic scenario, with power and specific laws

Social and erotic relationships are symmetric. Social relationships are those between friends and have as objectives protection of the individuals and preservation of the social group; the values of the individuals in the group are similar. Erotic relationships make people close when seeking sexual pleasure, and may also have the objective of preservation of the species

We demonstrated that the search for sex relationships with peers with whom there is trust bond or preexistence of a professional relationship end up on Oedipal fantasies. Not even the superego or social moral will function as repressors, in a way that desire goes beyond

superiors, fit in what is called polymorphous incest or equivalent of incest.

(Laplanche and Pontalis, 1984)).

history of the individual.

may be symmetric or asymmetric.

(Cohen, 1999).

(Cohen, 1999).

limits.

**5. Sexual harassment as an equivalent of incest** 

2005), postmodern society may be considered a culture of narcissism. Narcissism was approached by Freud several times. His referential starts in listening to the suffering of the patient, walks the path of pathology and reaches the definition of narcissism as a stage of libido development, a stage when looking at oneself is considered the object of love.

Many years have passed between Bill Clinton and Dominique Strauss-Kahn. It seems that, nowadays, society does not tolerate sexual abuse. In the case of Mr. Clinton, in 1998, he had the right to defend himself and kept his public position until the end of the case. Dominique Strauss-Kahn, on the other hand, was sent to prison and resigned from his public position.

A study carried out by Cohen et al. analyzed patients who reported doctor sexual abuses to the Sao Paulo Board of Medicine (CREMESP - Conselho Regional de Medicina do Estado de São Paulo). There were 150 reports of doctor sexual abuse in five years. From these, 63.96% were dismissed for lack of proofs, which is concerning, and only 22.67% of the cases were submitted to ethics and disciplinary processes. The age of the doctors involved ranged, in 87% of the cases, from 36 to 75 years old, the same age range of the harassers mentioned above (CREMESP, 2009).

We have to emphasize that sexual harassment is not an exclusive masculine offense, in which only men abuse women. Besides the cases cited above, there are reports of female teachers who sexually abused their students, such as Christine Scarlett, who was condemned to 5 years in prison for having sexual intercourse with a 17-year-old student. She became pregnant and was accused of sexual aggression and dissemination of obscenity to youth. Allena Willians, a medium school teacher, was indicted for having sexual intercourse with five boys between 13 to 15 years old. Other cases such as these appear in the news from time to time.

In spite of all these considerations drawn on harassers, the real focus of our interest is the game of power and the fantasy of imagining being in the control of the situation. What is this control that goes through the false perception of "considering" the other so submissive, he/she would never make things public? The other is treated as an object, not as a subject who has wills and wishes and may accept the proposal or turn it down, and may set a limit to the relationship. That is when the problem arises: the all-powerful person sees himself/herself facing a scandal, and will have to be responsible for his/her acts and respond legally to them. In these cases, the harasser pulsions are transferred to the other, making the victim responsible for the offense, and be free of guilt. Psychological functioning is compromised: this person was commanded by pleasure, and his/her fantasy had to be lived, no matter the consequences.

According to Laplanche and Pontalis (1984), and based on Freud, two basic principles regulate mental functioning: the pleasure principle and the reality principle. The pleasure principle is related to psychological activity that has the objective of avoiding suffering and seeking pleasure.

The reality principle is paired with the pleasure principle, changing it. As reality is imposed as a regulating principle, the search for pleasure does not take the shortest path, but takes

2005), postmodern society may be considered a culture of narcissism. Narcissism was approached by Freud several times. His referential starts in listening to the suffering of the patient, walks the path of pathology and reaches the definition of narcissism as a stage of libido development, a stage when looking at oneself is considered the object of

Many years have passed between Bill Clinton and Dominique Strauss-Kahn. It seems that, nowadays, society does not tolerate sexual abuse. In the case of Mr. Clinton, in 1998, he had the right to defend himself and kept his public position until the end of the case. Dominique Strauss-Kahn, on the other hand, was sent to prison and resigned from his

A study carried out by Cohen et al. analyzed patients who reported doctor sexual abuses to the Sao Paulo Board of Medicine (CREMESP - Conselho Regional de Medicina do Estado de São Paulo). There were 150 reports of doctor sexual abuse in five years. From these, 63.96% were dismissed for lack of proofs, which is concerning, and only 22.67% of the cases were submitted to ethics and disciplinary processes. The age of the doctors involved ranged, in 87% of the cases, from 36 to 75 years old, the same age range of the harassers mentioned

We have to emphasize that sexual harassment is not an exclusive masculine offense, in which only men abuse women. Besides the cases cited above, there are reports of female teachers who sexually abused their students, such as Christine Scarlett, who was condemned to 5 years in prison for having sexual intercourse with a 17-year-old student. She became pregnant and was accused of sexual aggression and dissemination of obscenity to youth. Allena Willians, a medium school teacher, was indicted for having sexual intercourse with five boys between 13 to 15 years old. Other cases such as these appear in

In spite of all these considerations drawn on harassers, the real focus of our interest is the game of power and the fantasy of imagining being in the control of the situation. What is this control that goes through the false perception of "considering" the other so submissive, he/she would never make things public? The other is treated as an object, not as a subject who has wills and wishes and may accept the proposal or turn it down, and may set a limit to the relationship. That is when the problem arises: the all-powerful person sees himself/herself facing a scandal, and will have to be responsible for his/her acts and respond legally to them. In these cases, the harasser pulsions are transferred to the other, making the victim responsible for the offense, and be free of guilt. Psychological functioning is compromised: this person was commanded by pleasure, and his/her fantasy had to be

According to Laplanche and Pontalis (1984), and based on Freud, two basic principles regulate mental functioning: the pleasure principle and the reality principle. The pleasure principle is related to psychological activity that has the objective of avoiding suffering and

The reality principle is paired with the pleasure principle, changing it. As reality is imposed as a regulating principle, the search for pleasure does not take the shortest path, but takes

love.

public position.

above (CREMESP, 2009).

the news from time to time.

lived, no matter the consequences.

seeking pleasure.

turns and is postponed, as a consequence of the conditions imposed by the exterior world. This principle characterizes the preconscious-conscious system; psychoanalysis sets an intervention with this principle, as a type of pulsional energy working for the ego (Laplanche and Pontalis, 1984)).

Freud (2001) considered that pulsions may be understood, initially, only as psychological representations of an endosomatic, continuous source of stimulation, differentiating them from isolated, exciting stimulations that come from the outside (Freud, 1905). Therefore, Pulsion is one of the concepts that helps us to delimit animic and physical reality. Pulsion distinguishes these two realities, and gives them specific properties, which is the relationship between somatic sources and their targets. Tension is relieved by the pulsion, in a way that the impulse to act to satisfy this pulsion is intrinsically connected to the psychic history of the individual.
