**5. Conclusion**

Urological applications of neuromodulation are both established and evolving and are among the most dynamic fields for this modality of electrical stimulation. The safety and efficacy of sacral neuromodulation and posterior tibial nerve stimulation in refractory overactive bladder syndrome are high. Other indications of sacral neuromodulation include non-obstructive urinary retention including Fowler's syndrome and urgency incontinence as well as frequency-urgency syndromes. Minimally invasive and broader neuromodulation targets provide an opportunity for improving neuromodulation outcomes, as well as potential advances in the device itself.
