**Abstract**

Currently the world is facing a viral contingency that has exposed the vulnerability in which the human being is in the face of the alarming statistics of obesity at all ages, increasing the numbers of diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer mainly. But not only health has suffered a deterioration worldwide but also the environment with impacts on the availability and quality of water, air pollution and soil deterioration. In México, the food culture has undergone changes derived from greater accessibility to industrialized foods, less physical activity, stress, replacement of consumption and the use of local foods. Currently in Mexico actions are being implemented to rescue agroecology, gastronomy, and food culture. Therefore, this chapter will have the purpose of integrating a historical, ecological and health impacts analysis with what food means and its source or origin for people.

**Keywords:** sustainable diet, food culture, obesity, industrialized food

#### **1. Introduction**

The economic, political, social, environmental and health impacts of the SARS-COV2 virus pandemic as well as the disease generated (COVID-19), worldwide are and will continue to increase, affecting the most vulnerable population. Before the contingency, there was already a deterioration in the health of the population with an increased prevalence for chronic degenerative diseases associated with obesity and unhealthy lifestyles (sedentary lifestyle and consumption of high-energy foods), as well as other problems of health (short stature, malnutrition, anemia, mainly). We are in a century with the greatest scientific advance, but with a population that suffers from hunger and at the same time with the highest figures in the loss and waste of food in the world [1].

In Mexico, according to the recent National Health and Nutrition Survey (ENSANUT-2018 for its acronym in Spanish) [2], there was an increase in the numbers of diabetes (10.3%), arterial hypertension (18.4%), dyslipidemias (19.5%) as well as one of the main risk factors: obesity and being overweight. Obesity and overweight have been exacerbated mainly in adolescents and young adults aged 20 years and over, where for the latter group, for every 10 adults 8 are overweight or obese. Another problem is food insecurity in households in Mexico, which was

70% for 2012 and for 2018 44.5%. Food insecurity had a decrease of 14.5%, but this increase in households with food security cannot be attributed to an improvement in access to nutritious food, since for this same year the consumption of industrialized foods with high energy intake, fat saturated and added sugars increased as well. This deterioration in the health of the population is one of the reasons why the worldwide morbidity and mortality figures for COVID-19 were high for the population living in extreme poverty and with the presence of the diseases [3, 4]. The health impacts have occurred as well as the deterioration of the environment, they have been increasing and there are several theories, including an obsolete economic model where vital resources such as water have been depleted. For Mexico, the lack of access to water in quantity and quality has been the result of mismanagement of the resource, mainly with overexploitation by the industrial sector and the lack of a reform to the National Water Law [5].

The models of production and of labor and economic organization have led to changes in the food culture and, therefore, to people's health and the deterioration of the environment. A production model that has generated greater contamination with impacts on the soil, generating more deteriorated crops, loss of health, which prevents ensuring the sustainability of future generations [6]. Several have been the industrial sectors whose production processes have generated great impacts on health and the environment. The figures for obesity and diabetes in Mexico and in the world have increased in the last three decades due to the construction of obesogenic environments [7]. The role of food has been part of this process, with access to more processed foods and more agrochemicals.

The soft drink industry has been one of the industries with the most evidence of its impacts not only on health but on the environment, mainly in water. For example, for every liter of soft drink produced, 1.7 liters of water are required [8]. In the 70's, Mexico was already the second place in the consumption of soft drinks and scientific evidence has shown that its consumption (sugary drinks) is a risk factor for developing obesity and diabetes by contributing 9.8% of the energy intake in the Mexican diet, while 16% are desserts, cookies, sweets [8–10]. Other data that have facilitated their access has been the price of the soft drink and the size of the portion that is sold in Mexico. The price is also different in rural and urban areas. For example, in 2017, for every 2.5 L of soft drink, the cost was 0.80 USD or 0.66 €, while in urban areas it was 1.30 USD or 1.06 € (**Figure 1**). The same happens with the 600 mL presentation, the cost was higher in urban populations,

#### **Figure 1.**

*Soft drink cost in rural vs. urban areas in México. Source: Courtesy Monroy-Torres R (2017). http://bombochis. blogspot.com/2017/.*

**183**

grazing [12].

*Meaning and Health Impact of Food: Historical and Ecological Analysis*

Maximum amount of soft drink sold. 3 L

Cost per 600 mL [a,b,c] 0.75 USD

Obesity and overweight in adults 20 years and older [2] 75.2%

*Euromonitor International 2013. Dollar and Euro Exchange, on december 28, 2020.*

*Soft drink consumption and health statistics in Mexico and Germany.*

*Source: Websites: a) https://super.walmart.com.mx/refrescos/refresco-coca-cola-botella-de-*

Water required to produce one liter of soft drink [11] 1.71 L

which may explain its accessibility in all regions of the country. In **Table 1** a comparative summary of some data on soft drinks in Mexico (Latin American Country)

Liters per capita consumed (Ref. [11], d). 142 to 233 97 to 135.5

Global position in bottled water consumption [11] 2 6 Diabetes in the adult population (%) 10.3% 7.4%

*600-ml/00000007500761 b) https://marginalrevolution.com/marginalrevolution/2009/09/why-is-cocacolaso-expensive-in-europe.html; c) https://www.expatistan.com/price/coke/berlin; d) Liters per capita according* 

**Mexico Germany**

2 L (2.14 USD or 1.74€)

2.43 to 3.65 USD (2–3 €)

> 82.4% 2016

(0.80 USD or 0.66 €)

(0.62 €).

2018

Today the diet is different from what was used in other times. Not only have the inputs with which food is prepared have changed, but also the eating patterns, the way they are prepared and the value of these. All this has had an impact on the nutrition of the population. This change has been caused by different factors that have to do with cultural miscegenation and with the cultural influences that have been established in Mexico over time, even with the scourge of natural phenomena

Environmental devastations have been constant throughout history; one of them occurred precisely in the 16th century, when the Spanish arrived. This does not mean that the environment had not changed previously, but rather that, according to specialists in environmental history, they were of lesser magnitude than those that occurred after the arrival and settlement of the Spanish. They brought new ways of producing food by introducing both sowing and cattle

Regarding the diet consumed by the natives, Guillermo Santamaría, an Augustinian friar from the 16th century, affirmed that the Chichimeca Indians consumed wild fruits and roots, in addition to hunting products and sometimes fishing. What they most consumed was corn, beans, squash, chili, tunas, nopales, pitahayas, xoconoxtle, sweet potatoes and mesquite pods, from which they even made bread that they could keep for a long time. The diet was based on plants that were collected by women, but also on those that were planted in cornfields or family gardens. In addition to the above, they also fed on game animals such as snakes, lizards, rabbits, hares, and deer that men hunted in the field. Pulque or tuna or mesquite ferments were used as drinks. Livestock was an important source of food, but also of devastation of the environment, since they ate both the plants of the cornfields and those that grew wild, destroying tunnels, nopaleras, mesquitales and

is presented. and contrasting it with a European country like Germany.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96371*

**1.1 A historical perspective**

**Table 1.**

such as droughts, floods, and diseases.

magueyales causing a shortage of food [13].


*Source: Websites: a) https://super.walmart.com.mx/refrescos/refresco-coca-cola-botella-de-600-ml/00000007500761 b) https://marginalrevolution.com/marginalrevolution/2009/09/why-is-cocacolaso-expensive-in-europe.html; c) https://www.expatistan.com/price/coke/berlin; d) Liters per capita according Euromonitor International 2013. Dollar and Euro Exchange, on december 28, 2020.*

#### **Table 1.**

*Natural History and Ecology of Mexico and Central America*

reform to the National Water Law [5].

to more processed foods and more agrochemicals.

70% for 2012 and for 2018 44.5%. Food insecurity had a decrease of 14.5%, but this increase in households with food security cannot be attributed to an improvement in access to nutritious food, since for this same year the consumption of industrialized foods with high energy intake, fat saturated and added sugars increased as well. This deterioration in the health of the population is one of the reasons why the worldwide morbidity and mortality figures for COVID-19 were high for the population living in extreme poverty and with the presence of the diseases [3, 4]. The health impacts have occurred as well as the deterioration of the environment, they have been increasing and there are several theories, including an obsolete economic model where vital resources such as water have been depleted. For Mexico, the lack of access to water in quantity and quality has been the result of mismanagement of the resource, mainly with overexploitation by the industrial sector and the lack of a

The models of production and of labor and economic organization have led to changes in the food culture and, therefore, to people's health and the deterioration of the environment. A production model that has generated greater contamination with impacts on the soil, generating more deteriorated crops, loss of health, which prevents ensuring the sustainability of future generations [6]. Several have been the industrial sectors whose production processes have generated great impacts on health and the environment. The figures for obesity and diabetes in Mexico and in the world have increased in the last three decades due to the construction of obesogenic environments [7]. The role of food has been part of this process, with access

The soft drink industry has been one of the industries with the most evidence of its impacts not only on health but on the environment, mainly in water. For example, for every liter of soft drink produced, 1.7 liters of water are required [8]. In the 70's, Mexico was already the second place in the consumption of soft drinks and scientific evidence has shown that its consumption (sugary drinks) is a risk factor for developing obesity and diabetes by contributing 9.8% of the energy intake in the Mexican diet, while 16% are desserts, cookies, sweets [8–10]. Other data that have facilitated their access has been the price of the soft drink and the size of the portion that is sold in Mexico. The price is also different in rural and urban areas. For example, in 2017, for every 2.5 L of soft drink, the cost was 0.80 USD or 0.66 €, while in urban areas it was 1.30 USD or 1.06 € (**Figure 1**). The same happens with the 600 mL presentation, the cost was higher in urban populations,

*Soft drink cost in rural vs. urban areas in México. Source: Courtesy Monroy-Torres R (2017). http://bombochis.*

**182**

**Figure 1.**

*blogspot.com/2017/.*

*Soft drink consumption and health statistics in Mexico and Germany.*

which may explain its accessibility in all regions of the country. In **Table 1** a comparative summary of some data on soft drinks in Mexico (Latin American Country) is presented. and contrasting it with a European country like Germany.

## **1.1 A historical perspective**

Today the diet is different from what was used in other times. Not only have the inputs with which food is prepared have changed, but also the eating patterns, the way they are prepared and the value of these. All this has had an impact on the nutrition of the population. This change has been caused by different factors that have to do with cultural miscegenation and with the cultural influences that have been established in Mexico over time, even with the scourge of natural phenomena such as droughts, floods, and diseases.

Environmental devastations have been constant throughout history; one of them occurred precisely in the 16th century, when the Spanish arrived. This does not mean that the environment had not changed previously, but rather that, according to specialists in environmental history, they were of lesser magnitude than those that occurred after the arrival and settlement of the Spanish. They brought new ways of producing food by introducing both sowing and cattle grazing [12].

Regarding the diet consumed by the natives, Guillermo Santamaría, an Augustinian friar from the 16th century, affirmed that the Chichimeca Indians consumed wild fruits and roots, in addition to hunting products and sometimes fishing. What they most consumed was corn, beans, squash, chili, tunas, nopales, pitahayas, xoconoxtle, sweet potatoes and mesquite pods, from which they even made bread that they could keep for a long time. The diet was based on plants that were collected by women, but also on those that were planted in cornfields or family gardens. In addition to the above, they also fed on game animals such as snakes, lizards, rabbits, hares, and deer that men hunted in the field. Pulque or tuna or mesquite ferments were used as drinks. Livestock was an important source of food, but also of devastation of the environment, since they ate both the plants of the cornfields and those that grew wild, destroying tunnels, nopaleras, mesquitales and magueyales causing a shortage of food [13].

As can be seen, little by little the diet was modified over time, since, from being made up of legumes, fruits, vegetables, and cacti, it was transformed, and various products of animal origin were added. Among the incorporations of great importance were the sugars with which jams, crystallized sweets, eggnog, and desserts are prepared. Flours, with which a great variety of breads, cakes and cakes were prepared to which seasonal fruits were added. Another incorporated ingredient was lard, which accompanied food not only as an element for cooking, but as an ingredient that added flavor. This was included abundantly in almost most of the cooked foods. He even added to foods that already contained fat, increasing their fat content, mainly those of the saturated type. This had a reason, since fat was an ingredient valued as something that provided energy to individuals, so it is recommended that as much of it be eaten and even the sick was recommended to eat pots or lamb broths to soon to be reestablished [14]. Currently we know that these eating behaviors have a risk to people's health and have probably been the cause of several diseases, but at that time they were not considered that way.

Wondering European travelers constantly related the quantity and variety of fruits and vegetables that were observed throughout New Spain. This shows the fertility of the soil and there was an intensive agriculture based on the rain cycle in each region. But all this was modified by climate change, since the rainy seasons have been significantly altered and that has led to the implementation of irrigation systems that have ended the water reserves in the subsoil. The climates affected food production, both the torrential rains that flooded the fields and the droughts that regularly hit some parts of New Spain. All these natural disasters caused food shortages and the few that did exist were priced at high prices. Because of the scarcity, the population modified their diet, and perhaps these circumstances probably caused the population to adopt a diet based on plants, vegetables and cacti [14].

During New Spain there was a great biodiversity of food and with them its greater accessibility but that depended on the regions and climates, the most common was that people ate prepared food per day. But if there were perishable or more decomposing foods, then a preservation process was applied to them to be able to consume them later.

Food depended for the most part on what was grown and harvested locally, as there were several factors that made it difficult to transport food for mass consumption, either because the food was not kept for so long or because the roads were not conducive to transport them agilely. Most of what was produced was concentrated in the cities, and not only the inhabitants of the city but also those of the rancherias and nearby towns came to it to trade food. In the Bajio area and in others of New Spain (today Mexico) such as Puebla, Michoacan, and Jalisco, they were mainly dedicated to the cultivation of cereals such as wheat and corn, and this determined the diet of the population, since they ate what they harvested, and what was left they sold to buy the rest that they needed. All these limitations made the diets very unbalanced, since most of the population did not have access to all kinds of food, and those who had a comfortable economic position ate the diet that they valued as adequate: fats, sugars and flours in excess causing some diseases [14].

Because the population had an inadequate diet, it was more vulnerable to being attacked by epidemics. For example, cholera was a feared disease for its symptoms (diarrhea and vomiting) that generated high mortality in the population, which is why some foods were prohibited. In epidemics it became common for diets to be changed to control the disease; for example, for the cholera epidemic that affected the state of Guanajuato in 1850, it was recommended that foods laden with spices and fats should not be eaten, that the meats were not salted, salted, or highly seasoned, and that pork meat should not be eaten, the lard bread, the vegetables, the fruits, the seeds that have skin or skins and the milk. Among the foods that were

**185**

**Figure 2.**

*Strategy for overweight and obesity 2010 [20].*

*Meaning and Health Impact of Food: Historical and Ecological Analysis*

allowed were tender meats, such as chicken, hen, mutton, tender veal, roasted, cooked, and simply seasoned: well-boiled bread, rice, or noodle soups, atole, sago, champurrado and chocolate [15]. All the above tells us about the valuation about

Later, with the French influence that the Porfirian regime promoted in Mexico, other culinary practices were introduced. French rolls or brioches, desserts and wines were incorporated. However, this French-style food practically had its impact on the upper social classes. In this national historical period, the commercialization of food and its derivatives was promoted; this increase was due to the construction of the railway in which large quantities of products can be trans-

Already in the twentieth century in Mexico, a boom began with the advent of industrialized products. At the beginning of the century, the influence of American food was more in the northern states, but little by little its commercialization spread throughout the country. These products included soft drink, which was gradually incorporated as part of the diet, as well as foods that contained high energy density

With technological development, refrigerators were manufactured in the second half of the 20th century, which generated a change in the way of preserving food, replacing the drying, salting, smoking and fermentation of food [18]. And although these techniques were not stopped, the truth is that the kitchen was revolutionized because food can be preserved in greater quantity and for longer. However, this brought both positive and negative changes in the way of cooking and eating, because with this they stopped consuming fresh foods such as fruits and vegetables and meats that were acquired daily. Large quantities of industrialized bread canned, and frozen products also began to be consumed. The milk is industrialized, and the consumption of natural milk almost completely disappears. Animal fats were changed to vegetable fats. But one of the most significant changes will be the use of corn flour for the rapid and industrialized preparation of tortillas, leaving nixtamal almost in disuse. The industrialization of income a homogenization of food throughout the country, reducing over the years the consumption and use of

Subsequently, with the intense commercial exchange between Canada, the United States and Mexico through NAFTA or NAFTA (for its acronym in English) there have been accelerated changes in what is consumed, eaten and cooked. All this

*Increase of overweight and obesity in Mexico from 1980 to 2006. Source: National Agreement for food health.* 

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96371*

healthy or adequate to eating.

ported in a shorter time [16].

foods [11, 17].

regional and local foods.

#### *Meaning and Health Impact of Food: Historical and Ecological Analysis DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96371*

*Natural History and Ecology of Mexico and Central America*

diseases, but at that time they were not considered that way.

able to consume them later.

As can be seen, little by little the diet was modified over time, since, from being made up of legumes, fruits, vegetables, and cacti, it was transformed, and various products of animal origin were added. Among the incorporations of great importance were the sugars with which jams, crystallized sweets, eggnog, and desserts are prepared. Flours, with which a great variety of breads, cakes and cakes were prepared to which seasonal fruits were added. Another incorporated ingredient was lard, which accompanied food not only as an element for cooking, but as an ingredient that added flavor. This was included abundantly in almost most of the cooked foods. He even added to foods that already contained fat, increasing their fat content, mainly those of the saturated type. This had a reason, since fat was an ingredient valued as something that provided energy to individuals, so it is recommended that as much of it be eaten and even the sick was recommended to eat pots or lamb broths to soon to be reestablished [14]. Currently we know that these eating behaviors have a risk to people's health and have probably been the cause of several

Wondering European travelers constantly related the quantity and variety of fruits and vegetables that were observed throughout New Spain. This shows the fertility of the soil and there was an intensive agriculture based on the rain cycle in each region. But all this was modified by climate change, since the rainy seasons have been significantly altered and that has led to the implementation of irrigation systems that have ended the water reserves in the subsoil. The climates affected food production, both the torrential rains that flooded the fields and the droughts that regularly hit some parts of New Spain. All these natural disasters caused food shortages and the few that did exist were priced at high prices. Because of the scarcity, the population modified their diet, and perhaps these circumstances probably caused the population to adopt a diet based on plants, vegetables and cacti [14]. During New Spain there was a great biodiversity of food and with them its greater accessibility but that depended on the regions and climates, the most common was that people ate prepared food per day. But if there were perishable or more decomposing foods, then a preservation process was applied to them to be

Food depended for the most part on what was grown and harvested locally, as there were several factors that made it difficult to transport food for mass consumption, either because the food was not kept for so long or because the roads were not conducive to transport them agilely. Most of what was produced was concentrated in the cities, and not only the inhabitants of the city but also those of the rancherias and nearby towns came to it to trade food. In the Bajio area and in others of New Spain (today Mexico) such as Puebla, Michoacan, and Jalisco, they were mainly dedicated to the cultivation of cereals such as wheat and corn, and this determined the diet of the population, since they ate what they harvested, and what was left they sold to buy the rest that they needed. All these limitations made the diets very unbalanced, since most of the population did not have access to all kinds of food, and those who had a comfortable economic position ate the diet that they valued as

Because the population had an inadequate diet, it was more vulnerable to being attacked by epidemics. For example, cholera was a feared disease for its symptoms (diarrhea and vomiting) that generated high mortality in the population, which is why some foods were prohibited. In epidemics it became common for diets to be changed to control the disease; for example, for the cholera epidemic that affected the state of Guanajuato in 1850, it was recommended that foods laden with spices and fats should not be eaten, that the meats were not salted, salted, or highly seasoned, and that pork meat should not be eaten, the lard bread, the vegetables, the fruits, the seeds that have skin or skins and the milk. Among the foods that were

adequate: fats, sugars and flours in excess causing some diseases [14].

**184**

allowed were tender meats, such as chicken, hen, mutton, tender veal, roasted, cooked, and simply seasoned: well-boiled bread, rice, or noodle soups, atole, sago, champurrado and chocolate [15]. All the above tells us about the valuation about healthy or adequate to eating.

Later, with the French influence that the Porfirian regime promoted in Mexico, other culinary practices were introduced. French rolls or brioches, desserts and wines were incorporated. However, this French-style food practically had its impact on the upper social classes. In this national historical period, the commercialization of food and its derivatives was promoted; this increase was due to the construction of the railway in which large quantities of products can be transported in a shorter time [16].

Already in the twentieth century in Mexico, a boom began with the advent of industrialized products. At the beginning of the century, the influence of American food was more in the northern states, but little by little its commercialization spread throughout the country. These products included soft drink, which was gradually incorporated as part of the diet, as well as foods that contained high energy density foods [11, 17].

With technological development, refrigerators were manufactured in the second half of the 20th century, which generated a change in the way of preserving food, replacing the drying, salting, smoking and fermentation of food [18]. And although these techniques were not stopped, the truth is that the kitchen was revolutionized because food can be preserved in greater quantity and for longer. However, this brought both positive and negative changes in the way of cooking and eating, because with this they stopped consuming fresh foods such as fruits and vegetables and meats that were acquired daily. Large quantities of industrialized bread canned, and frozen products also began to be consumed. The milk is industrialized, and the consumption of natural milk almost completely disappears. Animal fats were changed to vegetable fats. But one of the most significant changes will be the use of corn flour for the rapid and industrialized preparation of tortillas, leaving nixtamal almost in disuse. The industrialization of income a homogenization of food throughout the country, reducing over the years the consumption and use of regional and local foods.

Subsequently, with the intense commercial exchange between Canada, the United States and Mexico through NAFTA or NAFTA (for its acronym in English) there have been accelerated changes in what is consumed, eaten and cooked. All this

#### **Figure 2.**

*Increase of overweight and obesity in Mexico from 1980 to 2006. Source: National Agreement for food health. Strategy for overweight and obesity 2010 [20].*

has resulted in culinary practices being transformed. Industrialized products are more at hand to be consumed. **Figure 1** presents a chronology of health statistics 10 years before and after the entry into force of NAFTA (1994) [19].

It should be noted that the change in diet that has originated is not exclusive to Mexico but to a global scope, in which products, foods and culinary tastes have been standardized. As we previously pointed out, this type of industrialized diet based on sugars, flours and fats has resulted in high levels of obesity, diabetes, and hypertension, as we will see in a moment. In 1988, overweight and obesity was 34.5% and 5 years after signing the FTA (1999), overweight and obesity increased to 61% and whose trend has been to increase to 75.2% of overweight and obesity combined. The population in Mexico as represented in **Figure 2** [19, 21].

As of the Free Trade Agreement, there was an increase in the price of the basic food basket (fruit, vegetables, beans, corn, beef, chicken, and eggs) while there was a decrease in the price of industrialized food [17].
