**2. Less is more**

*Advances in Grape and Wine Biotechnology*

in 1620.

twentieth century.

**1.2 Wine and health**

as a nourishment, for diuresis and hyperthermia and as an aperient, as well as an antibacterial agent for wounds. These therapies eventually became widely adopted throughout Medieval Europe until the puritanical religious movement accredited to Oliver Cromwell spread to the east coast of North America via the Pilgrim Fathers

These puritan movements in England and the USA eventually led to the temperance movement of the nineteenth century, which condemned alcohol in all its forms. Wine only found favour again as a medicine in the last decades of the

Wine, with its grape-derived phenolic compounds, has been found to potentially have additional health benefits to other alcoholic beverages [14, 15]. Wine, when consumed in moderate amounts and when consumed together with a meal, mitigates oxidative stress and vascular endothelial damage induced by a high-fat meal [16]. Consequently, consuming red wine with meals, has been suggested to be cardioprotective and even protective against diabetes type 2 where consumers can experience better health whilst ageing as well as experience an increased lifespan [17]. This concept is now well known as the "French Paradox" and has been the subject of a considerable amount of research over the last 30 years [18]. Wine, in particular red wine, contains various phenolic compounds and their polymeric forms, which are antioxidant chemicals that interact with, and neutralize free radicals and thus prevent cell damage [19]. Phenolic compounds such as catechin, quercetin and resveratrol which are found in skins, seeds, and/or stems of the grapes are consequently in measurable concentrations in red wine have been shown individually and collectively to have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-proliferative and anti-angiogenic effects in in vitro, animal, ex vivo and limited human clinical studies, and have the potential to act as therapeutic agents in the prevention and treatment of certain chronic diseases [18]. The relative contribution of these phenolic compounds, and particularly resveratrol as a cardioprotective agent has been questioned [20], as it is yet unknown whether it is possible to absorb the necessary therapeutic amounts of resveratrol by drinking moderate amounts of wine [21]. While grape-derived resveratrol, for example, is marketed as functional ingredient and dietary supplement, it should be noted that definitive conclu-

sions on its efficacy as a therapeutic agent are missing.

Some of the studies on the benefits of moderate wine consumption may have been limited by the possible presence of socio-economic, and other individual confounders [22]. Research on blue zones has suggested moderate wine consumption as one of the nine lifestyle behaviours found in populations worldwide that are known for their long lifespan and healthy ageing [23]. These findings suggest that moderate wine consumption may be associated with an increased longevity and a decreased risk for certain chronic diseases with for example an antioxidant, antiinflammatory, anti-proliferative and/or anti-angiogenic basis. However, it would be incorrect to conclude that moderate wine consumption without the presence of the accompanying lifestyle behaviour determinants (such as not smoking, undertaking regular physical activity, eating a Mediterranean-style diet, not being overweight or obese, having a sense of purpose, and adequate stress management) could show the same associations. Despite these limitations and ongoing uncertainty, it may be cautiously concluded that moderate wine consumption, in addition to the positive

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The reduction of alcoholic strength in beverages has been proposed as one strategy to reduce the harmful use of alcohol. A report by the World Cancer Research Fund in 2007 stated that a decrease in alcohol content from 14.2 to 10% would reduce the risk of breast and bowel cancer by 7% [24]. This was followed by responses from other organisations, such as the Australian National Preventative Health Taskforce. In 2008, the latter recommended the production of low-alcohol products and suggested changes to the taxation regime to encourage a shift towards the supply of lower-risk products [25, 26]. Lately, low-alcohol beverages have increased in popularity and take up a growing portion of the market. Light beers, beer that is reduced in alcohol (ethanol) content or in carbohydrate content and hence calories, have known a great success on the market worldwide, with an increased global consumption by 47.2% in volume between 2006 and 2011 [27, 28]. A first explanation for this interest in low-alcohol products could be that consumers aim to reduce their alcohol consumption because, consumption, drunkenness and intoxication in particular, may be socially unacceptable, or because they still want to be able to drive [29]. In that way, low-alcohol beverages may be perceived as a response to the alcohol-related control policies that have been adopted in many countries worldwide [27, 30, 31].

An increased health consciousness among consumers may be a second explanation for the growing interest in low-alcohol beverages [24, 32]. As health promotion efforts continue to raise awareness about the increased prevalence of dietary-related diseases, consumers may perceive low-alcohol beverages as a healthier alternative to accompany their healthy diet and lifestyle [29, 33]. In line with this, Meillon et al. [34] and Thompson and Thompson [35] found that people were motivated to drink low-alcohol beverages for calorie and weight management and perceived lowalcohol beverages as an alternative to standard alcoholic beverages.

While not at the same pace as beer, wines with a reduced alcohol content have been growing on the marketplace as well. In the UK and Germany, major supermarket chains, such as Tesco and Aldi, sell several reduced and de-alcoholised wines [36]. Recently, also the Marks and Spencer Group UK launched a new South African 5.5% wine [37], and de-alcoholised wines produced by a winery in the Hunter Valley, Australia [38].
