A Visual Assessment Scale for Rapid Evaluation of Mangrove Degradation, Using Examples from Myanmar and Madagascar

*Christoph Zöckler, Dominic Wodehouse and Matthias Markolf*

#### **Abstract**

Mangroves are globally threatened, disappearing and degraded. They are lost due to land use changes, mostly agricultural expansion and aquaculture, but also degraded by cutting by villagers and logging and timber extraction for domestic and economic purposes. Extent and conversion of mangroves can usually be estimated by applying remote sensing and modern drone technology, but the scale of degradation of mangrove habitats is not easily detected by such methods. In this paper we propose an assessment tool for a rapid evaluation on the degradation, using examples from different regions in Myanmar and Madagascar. We propose a visual and practical guide listing a range of 1–6 to identify and quantify the level of degradation. We demonstrate the application by displaying various examples from Myanmar and Madagascar and how this tool can be used for wider applications, discussing advantages scope, and limitations.

**Keywords:** Mangroves, Myanmar, Madagascar, degradation, scale, restoration

#### **1. Introduction**

Globally mangroves are one of the most threatened ecosystems. In 1980 there were globally 198,000 km2 of mangroves [1], but by 2003 this had reduced to 154,000km<sup>2</sup> [2]. By 2010, 38% of the global mangrove cover had been lost and for Asia the figure is over 50% [3] and the trend is still continuing [4]. The main drivers are agricultural expansion and aquaculture, while a growing rural population increasingly encroach remaining areas [5]. Moreover, the remaining mangroves are widely subjected to degradation, threatened by legal and illegal logging for domestic and commercial use, consequently reducing the ecosystem services that they provide as summarised for Myanmar [6].

In 2000, Myanmar still had the seventh highest mangrove forest cover in the world, but between 2000 and 2012 had lost mangroves at a much faster rate than almost any other country [5–7]. Myanmar continues to have a relatively high rate of loss of 0.8% per annum (p.a.) in the 21st century [7]. Specifically, 1924–1999, 83% of the mangroves in the Ayeyarwady Delta in Myanmar were cleared [8, 9]. While this central delta area has suffered most of the losses, the southern region of Taninthary still holds vast swathes of pristine mangrove.

Madagascar still holds large areas of mangrove forests, but many of them are also subjected to pressures from a growing local population. In 2013, the total area of mangroves for the country, situated almost exclusively on the West coast, was estimated at 303,000 ha. From 1990 to 2010 Madagascar experienced a net loss of about 21% of its mangroves, a total of 2,868 ha per year [10, 11]. These losses are mainly due to the massive exploitation of mangroves for firewood, charcoal and timber (housing and fencing), the development of aquaculture, cyclones and other causes [11, 12].

However, the rate of loss declined in recent years and globally mangroves have become prime conservation targets [13]. While in the period from 1990 to 2000 there was a net loss of almost 12% (or 34,418 ha) of Madagascar's mangroves, the net loss in the period of 2000–2010 was estimated at 22,941 ha or 8.6%), the most significant of which is in the Tsiribihina Delta (4,177 ha/25.5%) [11]. The mangroves of the area, however, are still one of the largest remaining dense mangroves in Madagascar [10].

Restoration and rehabilitation efforts have largely focused on areas previously covered by mangroves (e.g. Lewis et al., [14]), but little attention has been paid to rehabilitating degraded mangrove areas. It is important to be able to describe degraded mangrove areas that would benefit from improvement activity such as the enhancement of hydrological connectivity and protection measures. Rehabilitation will increase their ability to provide the full range of ecosystem services as well as preserve the whole ecosystem integrity. Therefore, the proposed degradation scale can also provide a reliable and cost-effective methodology to accurately describe mangrove conditions, also in recently restored mangroves.

Despite constantly improving technologies, remote sensing and more recently drone-based surveys, have struggled to depict accurately the condition of mangroves [7, 15]. Although mangrove conversion and deforestation can be reliably monitored using such techniques, mangrove loss is only one indicator of mangrove status. The importance of mangrove degradation has gained considerably less attention [16]. Modern technologies still fail to reveal the scale and the extent of forest degradation and hence poorly describe the state of the remaining forest [10, 17]. While it is acknowledged that there have been great strides in the development of remote sensing and drone/LIDAR capability, this technology will not be available to local NGOs, government mangrove agency field offices and village conservation groups until it becomes much cheaper and simpler.

Therefore, we propose here a rapid assessment tool that is ground- or boatbased, which uses visible features of the mangrove forest structure. This is a simple tool to describe and categorise mangrove forest degradation for Indo-West Pacific non-arid areas, using photographic examples from Myanmar and Madagascar. Comments and suggestions from the mangrove community are welcome to improve this degradation scale.

There is an increasing need to identify the real status of a mangrove, its ecosystem health and the scale of degradation. Degraded mangroves can give a false impression of being superficially healthy but might no longer fully provide the full range of expected ecosystem services, such as the buffering of storm surges, benthic biomass production and others [18].

#### **2. Methodology**

The authors visited several different sites between 2013 and 2019 in SE Asia and Africa to assess their conservation status and degree of degradation. The mangroves of Taninthary in southern Myanmar were visited eight times between Dec 2013 and Nov 2019. Mangroves further north on the west coast of Myanmar in the Ayeyarwady Division were surveyed in January and February 2016, [19, 20].

**27**

**Scale**

1

**Shape**: Very low / very few mangroves.

**Height**: <1 m due to possible presence of ferns, herb layer or

climbers (e.g. *Acrostichum*, *Acanthus*, *Finlaysonia, photos on right* 

*side, which can block natural regeneration.)*

**DBH of remaining mangroves**: NA

**Logging**: Everything cut. Visible stumps, clearly cut by blade.

**Notes**: Reliant on external seed / propagule sources. Ensure area

was originally mangrove. Substrate might be eroding, revealing

dead mangrove roots. In extreme cases the area might erode so

much as to be below an elevation suitable for mangrove growth.

**Shape:** Low. Bushes, establishing seeds and propagules, saplings,

regenerating stumps, dead stumps and roots possibly still visible.

**DBH of remaining mangroves**: Could be large if species like

*Xylocarpus* present, otherwise small (<5 cm DBH)

**Logging**: Mangrove has been clear cut of everything but low

bushes. Some stumps might be growing back, if species 'coppice',

e.g. *Sonneratia*, *Heritiera*, *Avicennia*, *Laguncularia* and *Xylocarpus*,

sometimes creating a 'bonsai' effect, lowest left photo. (N.B.

*Rhizophora* and *Ceriops* will not grow back as they have no reserve

meristem.)

**Light to Floor**: 95%

**Notes**: Ensure area used to be mangrove. Few or no seeding trees.

Reliant on external supply of seeds / propagules.

**Height**: <2 m

2

**Light to Floor**: 100%

*A Visual Assessment Scale for Rapid Evaluation of Mangrove Degradation, Using Examples…*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95340*

*A Visual Assessment Scale for Rapid Evaluation of Mangrove Degradation, Using Examples… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95340*

2

1

*Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration*

Madagascar still holds large areas of mangrove forests, but many of them are also subjected to pressures from a growing local population. In 2013, the total area of mangroves for the country, situated almost exclusively on the West coast, was estimated at 303,000 ha. From 1990 to 2010 Madagascar experienced a net loss of about 21% of its mangroves, a total of 2,868 ha per year [10, 11]. These losses are mainly due to the massive exploitation of mangroves for firewood, charcoal and timber (housing and fencing), the development of aquaculture, cyclones and other causes [11, 12]. However, the rate of loss declined in recent years and globally mangroves have become prime conservation targets [13]. While in the period from 1990 to 2000 there was a net loss of almost 12% (or 34,418 ha) of Madagascar's mangroves, the net loss in the period of 2000–2010 was estimated at 22,941 ha or 8.6%), the most significant of which is in the Tsiribihina Delta (4,177 ha/25.5%) [11]. The mangroves of the area, however, are still one of the largest remaining dense mangroves in Madagascar [10]. Restoration and rehabilitation efforts have largely focused on areas previously covered by mangroves (e.g. Lewis et al., [14]), but little attention has been paid to rehabilitating degraded mangrove areas. It is important to be able to describe degraded mangrove areas that would benefit from improvement activity such as the enhancement of hydrological connectivity and protection measures. Rehabilitation will increase their ability to provide the full range of ecosystem services as well as preserve the whole ecosystem integrity. Therefore, the proposed degradation scale can also provide a reliable and cost-effective methodology to accurately describe

Despite constantly improving technologies, remote sensing and more recently drone-based surveys, have struggled to depict accurately the condition of mangroves [7, 15]. Although mangrove conversion and deforestation can be reliably monitored using such techniques, mangrove loss is only one indicator of mangrove status. The importance of mangrove degradation has gained considerably less attention [16]. Modern technologies still fail to reveal the scale and the extent of forest degradation and hence poorly describe the state of the remaining forest [10, 17]. While it is acknowledged that there have been great strides in the development of remote sensing and drone/LIDAR capability, this technology will not be available to local NGOs, government mangrove agency field offices and village conservation

Therefore, we propose here a rapid assessment tool that is ground- or boatbased, which uses visible features of the mangrove forest structure. This is a simple tool to describe and categorise mangrove forest degradation for Indo-West Pacific non-arid areas, using photographic examples from Myanmar and Madagascar. Comments and suggestions from the mangrove community are welcome to improve

There is an increasing need to identify the real status of a mangrove, its ecosystem health and the scale of degradation. Degraded mangroves can give a false impression of being superficially healthy but might no longer fully provide the full range of expected ecosystem services, such as the buffering of storm surges, benthic

The authors visited several different sites between 2013 and 2019 in SE Asia and Africa to assess their conservation status and degree of degradation. The mangroves of Taninthary in southern Myanmar were visited eight times between Dec 2013 and Nov 2019. Mangroves further north on the west coast of Myanmar in the Ayeyarwady Division were surveyed in January and February 2016, [19, 20].

mangrove conditions, also in recently restored mangroves.

groups until it becomes much cheaper and simpler.

this degradation scale.

**2. Methodology**

biomass production and others [18].

**26**

**29**

**Scale**

4

**Shape**: Mangrove clearly defined in the shape of forest with gaps in

between few larger trees, but more even canopy than in Level 3.

**DBH of Remaining Mangroves**: 20 cm and larger unless a densely

**Logging**: All the very big trees have been logged as well as some of

**Height**: > 6-12 m

stocked plantation.

the mid-sized trees.

**Light to Floor**: 25–75%

**Notes**: In a plantation forest, the majority of trees are in place, but

some stems have been removed (<30%). If the planting density

was high, there will be little light to the forest floor.

5

**Shape**: High forest with large trees. Plantations will have an even

height canopy. Limited understory. Canopy undisrupted.

**Height**: > 12 m

**DBH of Remaining Mangroves**: Up to 1 m DBH

**Logging**: Only a few trees extracted and few cut stumps evident.

**Light to Floor**: <25%. Canopy largely closed.

**Notes**: Mature mangroves, particularly *Sonneratia* / *Avicennia*-

dominated can be naturally quite open forest.

*A Visual Assessment Scale for Rapid Evaluation of Mangrove Degradation, Using Examples…*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95340*

3 *A Visual Assessment Scale for Rapid Evaluation of Mangrove Degradation, Using Examples… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95340*

5

**Scale**

4

*Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration*

**28**

**Scale**

3

**Shape**: Low forest. Dense, bushy vegetation. Young trees, saplings.

Often a heterogeneous mix of gaps and a few young trees.

**Height:** 2-5 m. Very few trees taller than 5 m / 20 cm DBH.

**DBH of Remaining Mangroves**: <15 cm DBH.

**Logging:** Larger trees (>15 cm DBH) were removed, stumps of

which might be visible. Gaps might also have been produced by

logged trees damaging neighbouring trees / saplings when felled.

**Notes**: Forest will have a lot of gaps, but is likely to have enough

seeding trees to regenerate. (Difficult to depict as similar to level 4,

but overall tree height lower and less homogeneous in structure.)

**Light to floor**: 25–75%


## **Table 1.**

**31**

**Figure 1.**

*A Visual Assessment Scale for Rapid Evaluation of Mangrove Degradation, Using Examples…*

ground surveys were essential to access the interior of mangrove areas [21].

Most of the surveys were conducted using small boats, but many mostly non-estuarine mangroves were surveyed on foot and some even accessed by motorbike. These

Georeferenced point assessments were conducted using a specifically designed KOBO smart phone app that uses our proposed mangrove degradation scale from 1 (very poor) - 6 (excellent), see **Table 1**. Inevitably the GPS point taken with the smart phone app is likely to be several meters up to 200 m distant from the actual observed mangrove stand providing inaccuracies that can be ignored as they give a rough first assessment of the mangrove nearby. However the GPS points do not allow accurate analysis using remote sensing tools. Where possible, visible additional information on the causes of mangrove loss were noted. The app is designed

Myanmar has suffered large losses of mangroves and the remaining forest has been subjected to many pressures. While huge areas have been lost or been

*Mangrove status of non-estuarine mangrove stands on the Mawdin coast in the Ayeyarwady Region on the west* 

*coast of Myanmar [22]. Each symbol represents an assessment point (21).*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95340*

to be simple and user friendly.

**3. Selected examples of application**

*Mangrove degradation scale 1–6, based on mangrove forest structural features such as shape, height, visible logging, light reaching the mangrove floor and stem diameter of the remaining trees. This scale is not applicable in northern latitudes where cryptic mangrove stands are reaching their limits of range, such as in southern China, North Vietnam, the Red Sea and North Africa. This scale is also not relevant within arid mangrove zones.*

**Scale**

6 *A Visual Assessment Scale for Rapid Evaluation of Mangrove Degradation, Using Examples… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95340*

Most of the surveys were conducted using small boats, but many mostly non-estuarine mangroves were surveyed on foot and some even accessed by motorbike. These ground surveys were essential to access the interior of mangrove areas [21].

Georeferenced point assessments were conducted using a specifically designed KOBO smart phone app that uses our proposed mangrove degradation scale from 1 (very poor) - 6 (excellent), see **Table 1**. Inevitably the GPS point taken with the smart phone app is likely to be several meters up to 200 m distant from the actual observed mangrove stand providing inaccuracies that can be ignored as they give a rough first assessment of the mangrove nearby. However the GPS points do not allow accurate analysis using remote sensing tools. Where possible, visible additional information on the causes of mangrove loss were noted. The app is designed to be simple and user friendly.

#### **3. Selected examples of application**

*Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration*

**30**

**Scale**

6

**Shape**: Tall forest. Limited to no understory. Continuous cover

except for natural disturbance or gaps.

**Height**: >12 m.

**DBH of Remaining Mangroves**: Up to and over a 1 m.

**Logging**: N/A. Trees intact. Very limited extraction.

**Light to Floor**: <25%. Canopy largely closed.

**Notes**: Likely to have limited understory where canopy is closed.

As in 5, areas at the front low zone and back can be naturally quite

open, with significant spaces between trees, and tree form very

open, e.g. *Avicennia*, *Sonneratia*.

**Table 1.**

*is also not relevant within arid mangrove zones.*

*Mangrove degradation scale 1–6, based on mangrove forest structural features such as shape, height, visible logging, light reaching the mangrove floor and stem diameter of the remaining trees. This* 

*scale is not applicable in northern latitudes where cryptic mangrove stands are reaching their limits of range, such as in southern China, North Vietnam, the Red Sea and North Africa. This scale* 

Myanmar has suffered large losses of mangroves and the remaining forest has been subjected to many pressures. While huge areas have been lost or been

**Figure 1.**

*Mangrove status of non-estuarine mangrove stands on the Mawdin coast in the Ayeyarwady Region on the west coast of Myanmar [22]. Each symbol represents an assessment point (21).*

#### **Figure 2.**

*Mangrove distribution (pink) and status of the mangroves within the Myeik archipelago, Taninthary, Myanmar in 2016, based on our scale with symbols from 2.5 (pale pink) to 5.5 (dark green) and based on 282 assessment points (100 in the northern part and 182 in the southern part, [19]). See also Table 2.*

converted to agricultural land or aquaculture, many of the remaining areas have been heavily degraded by local logging and timber harvesting for building materials. Recently and with increasing severity, mangroves have been extensively harvested for charcoal production [6]. Our degradation scale has been applied to several mangrove sites in Myanmar in 2016 and 2017. **Figures 1** and **2** show the results mapped at two distinct coastal areas. **Figure 1** shows the Mawdin shoreline on the west coast in the Ayeyarwady Division which has only marginal and often small coastal mangrove areas. This region also includes minor areas that have been recently selected for small-scale mangrove restoration. **Figure 2** depicts the mangrove rich region of southern Taninthary, south of Myeik town. These large estuarine mangroves contain mature mangrove stands of well over 150,000 ha. Although most of the mangroves are still in good condition, recent increased usage and harvesting by local communities have left signs of degradation which this rapid assessment tool has depicted.

**33**

**Table 2.**

**Figure 3.**

*A Visual Assessment Scale for Rapid Evaluation of Mangrove Degradation, Using Examples…*

*Left: Landsat 8 image with remaining vegetation and the mangrove degradation status in three sub-regions in the Menabe Antimena protected area, Western Madagascar. A total of 114 assessment points were taken across* 

2 North of Myeik, Taninthary 3.4 (3.0–5.5) 100 3 South of Myeik, Taninthary 4.5 (3.5–5.5) 182

1 Tsangajoly/ Baie de Borongeny 4.0 (3.5–5.0) 58 2 Andrahangy 3.8 (3.0–4.5) 29 3 Kivalo 3.3 (3.0–4.5) 27

*Average mangrove degradation (range from 1 = much degraded to 6 = intact, high-quality) at selected sites in* 

**range of assessments**

3.2 (2.0–4.0) 21

**No of mangrove assessment points**

*all three areas. Right: Location (red square) of surveyed area in Madagascar.*

**Myanmar (see Figures 1, 2)**

Division

**Madagascar (Menabe) (see Figure 3)**

*Myanmar and Madagascar between 2016 and 2019 [6, 19, 20].*

1 Mawdin Coast, Ayeyarwady

**No Site Average mangrove quality and** 

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95340*

*A Visual Assessment Scale for Rapid Evaluation of Mangrove Degradation, Using Examples… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95340*

#### **Figure 3.**

*Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration*

**32**

**Figure 2.**

assessment tool has depicted.

converted to agricultural land or aquaculture, many of the remaining areas have been heavily degraded by local logging and timber harvesting for building materials. Recently and with increasing severity, mangroves have been extensively harvested for charcoal production [6]. Our degradation scale has been applied to several mangrove sites in Myanmar in 2016 and 2017. **Figures 1** and **2** show the results mapped at two distinct coastal areas. **Figure 1** shows the Mawdin shoreline on the west coast in the Ayeyarwady Division which has only marginal and often small coastal mangrove areas. This region also includes minor areas that have been recently selected for small-scale mangrove restoration. **Figure 2** depicts the mangrove rich region of southern Taninthary, south of Myeik town. These large estuarine mangroves contain mature mangrove stands of well over 150,000 ha. Although most of the mangroves are still in good condition, recent increased usage and harvesting by local communities have left signs of degradation which this rapid

*Mangrove distribution (pink) and status of the mangroves within the Myeik archipelago, Taninthary, Myanmar in 2016, based on our scale with symbols from 2.5 (pale pink) to 5.5 (dark green) and based on 282* 

*assessment points (100 in the northern part and 182 in the southern part, [19]). See also Table 2.*

*Left: Landsat 8 image with remaining vegetation and the mangrove degradation status in three sub-regions in the Menabe Antimena protected area, Western Madagascar. A total of 114 assessment points were taken across all three areas. Right: Location (red square) of surveyed area in Madagascar.*


#### **Table 2.**

*Average mangrove degradation (range from 1 = much degraded to 6 = intact, high-quality) at selected sites in Myanmar and Madagascar between 2016 and 2019 [6, 19, 20].*

#### *Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration*

Examples from Madagascar, show similar patterns and demonstrate the value of a scale that can be widely applied across the Indian Ocean. **Figure 3** shows the results of the application of this degradation scale in 2019 on the western coast within the Menabe Antimena Protected Area. **Table 2** shows the average assessment scale as a measure of the overall status of the mangrove quality in each region or sub-region.

#### **4. Summary assessment of selected mangrove areas**

**Table 2** shows the average degradation levels observed in different coastal regions in Myanmar and Madagascar. The first area on the Mawdin coast was based on a small sample size (n = 21). It suggests a relatively low average of just over 3, reflecting the wide-scale destruction and degradation of mangroves in the region as well as early stages of rehabilitation efforts.

In the Taninthary region, the northern side, closer to the business capital Myeik, appears to have suffered more mangrove losses and disturbances, the degradation is lower with a score of 3.4 than the southern more remote mangroves around Whale Bay and Kan Maw island which averaged over 4.5 (see **Figure 3**). This suggests that the southern mangroves are healthier than the northern mangroves of Taninthary.

Madagascar also displayed differences in mangrove status in the three selected sub-regions (see **Table 2** and **Figure 3**). Kivalo, followed by Andrahangy and Tsangajoly/Baie de Borongeny showed the highest overall degradation. Although this was not specifically tested, it might well be due to higher population densities in the southern areas, which are closer to the biggest regional city of Morondava. All three areas show significant signs of degradation of which most are rather unlikely to be detected using remote sensing methods. Most signs of degradation were spatially associated with local communities depicting increased pressure on the mangroves mainly due to logging for fire wood and construction material. Over-exploitation of mangrove wood in the region by local fisherman for cooking, treatment of fishery products, and construction of boats and houses was already described by Rasolofo [23]. In some surveyed areas, grazing of zebu or goats also present increasing threats to mangroves.

#### **5. Discussion**

This simple, rapid degradation assessment tool allows the assessment of the present status and degree of degradation of a mangrove forest, but it also demonstrates the state of forest succession and rate of restoration after intervention and restoration activities have taken place. The tool is applicable over at least the Indo-West Pacific and West-Indian Ocean regions in non-arid situations, where high salinity is not the limiting factor. In the northern margins of the mangrove belt, mangroves develop much smaller 'dwarf' versions, which do not allow the application of the full range of the degradation scale, particularly the assessment of height. We hope that beyond these areas, where similar species at genus level provide comparable forest structures, this assessment tool will also allow comparisons across regions and possibly also for mangroves across the Pacific, Caribbean and South America.

Like any tool this degradation scale approach has its limitations. It only provides a restricted window from the sea front or from a boat, at best within navigable channels or small access roads, excluding large areas of the inner part of the mangroves, which are often, especially in levels 3 and 4, inaccessible on foot. While this is certainly a restriction, this rapid assessment tool is only meant to provide an initial, qualitative assessment of damage by logging and cutting or other degrading activities. We are

**35**

*A Visual Assessment Scale for Rapid Evaluation of Mangrove Degradation, Using Examples…*

encouraging assessors to get out of survey boats as much as possible to provide additional survey points on foot. In addition, assessments might be hampered by observer

This degradation scale has not been tested and verified, but initial comparisons by different observers using the same locations did not indicate a significant difference in the assessment results. This first draft would benefit from further testing in other mangrove systems including non-deltaic mangroves to develop a more robust scale of degradation. Later on, a combination of this rapid assessment tool together with drone surveys would provide a more accurate scale of degradation and present status of any chosen mangrove forest. Repeated surveys are encouraged as they could reveal changes in the status of a mangrove stand over time. This would be particularly valuable to assess the effectiveness of in-situ protection measures, community forest agreements and active restoration schemes if baseline data is collected before, and then at intervals afterwards. Additionally, it is hoped that the scale can be tested and used on its own by community groups and government mangrove agency field officers to assess and rank their mangroves in order to prioritise rehabilitation and protection measures. Being simple and cheap the proposed rapid assessment tool has major advantages in comparison with remote sensing and LIDAR approaches and could provide substantial benefits to community-based

The tool offers the identification of degraded areas that have not appeared to be in need for restoration based on superficial consideration or often remote sensing. In addition, the tool can also be applied in recently restored mangroves and plantations and could also provide a good measure for success of restoration projects and activities, whereby the age of the restoration activities needs to be taken into consideration. It also allows comparisons and can point to errors and failures of the

In comparison to deforested mangroves, areas with reversible mangrove degradation represent opportunities for rapid and effective conservation interventions, and thus can substantially facilitate mangrove restoration initiatives [24]. The tool provides rapid and effective identification of sites most suitable for mangrove rehabilitation. We would welcome input, comments and improvements, including extra photos, particularly from groups that have tried to use this scale. Eventually it will be available for download and printing as well as a smart phone app. It is suggested that a version of it is laminated for use in the mangrove while conducting surveys.

We are very grateful for Fauna Flora International (FFI) and the Manfred-Hermsen Foundation who have supported the mangrove surveys financially and logistically and encouraged the development of a rapid assessment tool. In particular we like to thank Frank Momberg (FFI) for his vision and support for coastal mangrove surveys and Mark Grindley (FFI) for his continued support. Patrick Oswald and Milan Fanck helped with the GIS mapping. Surveys in Madagascar were

restoration efforts and highlights mitigation measures required.

supported by Chances for Nature and the Stiftung Artenschutz.

bias or difficulty in allocating local degradation to the appropriate class.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95340*

mangrove conservation projects.

**Acknowledgements**

#### *A Visual Assessment Scale for Rapid Evaluation of Mangrove Degradation, Using Examples… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95340*

encouraging assessors to get out of survey boats as much as possible to provide additional survey points on foot. In addition, assessments might be hampered by observer bias or difficulty in allocating local degradation to the appropriate class.

This degradation scale has not been tested and verified, but initial comparisons by different observers using the same locations did not indicate a significant difference in the assessment results. This first draft would benefit from further testing in other mangrove systems including non-deltaic mangroves to develop a more robust scale of degradation. Later on, a combination of this rapid assessment tool together with drone surveys would provide a more accurate scale of degradation and present status of any chosen mangrove forest. Repeated surveys are encouraged as they could reveal changes in the status of a mangrove stand over time. This would be particularly valuable to assess the effectiveness of in-situ protection measures, community forest agreements and active restoration schemes if baseline data is collected before, and then at intervals afterwards. Additionally, it is hoped that the scale can be tested and used on its own by community groups and government mangrove agency field officers to assess and rank their mangroves in order to prioritise rehabilitation and protection measures. Being simple and cheap the proposed rapid assessment tool has major advantages in comparison with remote sensing and LIDAR approaches and could provide substantial benefits to community-based mangrove conservation projects.

The tool offers the identification of degraded areas that have not appeared to be in need for restoration based on superficial consideration or often remote sensing. In addition, the tool can also be applied in recently restored mangroves and plantations and could also provide a good measure for success of restoration projects and activities, whereby the age of the restoration activities needs to be taken into consideration. It also allows comparisons and can point to errors and failures of the restoration efforts and highlights mitigation measures required.

In comparison to deforested mangroves, areas with reversible mangrove degradation represent opportunities for rapid and effective conservation interventions, and thus can substantially facilitate mangrove restoration initiatives [24]. The tool provides rapid and effective identification of sites most suitable for mangrove rehabilitation.

We would welcome input, comments and improvements, including extra photos, particularly from groups that have tried to use this scale. Eventually it will be available for download and printing as well as a smart phone app. It is suggested that a version of it is laminated for use in the mangrove while conducting surveys.

#### **Acknowledgements**

We are very grateful for Fauna Flora International (FFI) and the Manfred-Hermsen Foundation who have supported the mangrove surveys financially and logistically and encouraged the development of a rapid assessment tool. In particular we like to thank Frank Momberg (FFI) for his vision and support for coastal mangrove surveys and Mark Grindley (FFI) for his continued support. Patrick Oswald and Milan Fanck helped with the GIS mapping. Surveys in Madagascar were supported by Chances for Nature and the Stiftung Artenschutz.

*Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration*

Examples from Madagascar, show similar patterns and demonstrate the value of a scale that can be widely applied across the Indian Ocean. **Figure 3** shows the results of the application of this degradation scale in 2019 on the western coast within the Menabe Antimena Protected Area. **Table 2** shows the average assessment scale as a measure of the overall status of the mangrove quality in each region or sub-region.

**Table 2** shows the average degradation levels observed in different coastal regions in Myanmar and Madagascar. The first area on the Mawdin coast was based on a small sample size (n = 21). It suggests a relatively low average of just over 3, reflecting the wide-scale destruction and degradation of mangroves in the region as

sub-regions (see **Table 2** and **Figure 3**). Kivalo, followed by Andrahangy and Tsangajoly/Baie de Borongeny showed the highest overall degradation. Although this was not specifically tested, it might well be due to higher population densities in the southern areas, which are closer to the biggest regional city of Morondava. All three areas show significant signs of degradation of which most are rather unlikely to be detected using remote sensing methods. Most signs of degradation were spatially associated with local communities depicting increased pressure on the mangroves mainly due to logging for fire wood and construction material. Over-exploitation of mangrove wood in the region by local fisherman for cooking, treatment of fishery products, and construction of boats and houses was already described by Rasolofo [23]. In some surveyed areas, grazing of zebu or goats also

In the Taninthary region, the northern side, closer to the business capital Myeik, appears to have suffered more mangrove losses and disturbances, the degradation is lower with a score of 3.4 than the southern more remote mangroves around Whale Bay and Kan Maw island which averaged over 4.5 (see **Figure 3**). This suggests that the southern mangroves are healthier than the northern mangroves of Taninthary. Madagascar also displayed differences in mangrove status in the three selected

This simple, rapid degradation assessment tool allows the assessment of the present status and degree of degradation of a mangrove forest, but it also demonstrates the state of forest succession and rate of restoration after intervention and restoration activities have taken place. The tool is applicable over at least the Indo-West Pacific and West-Indian Ocean regions in non-arid situations, where high salinity is not the limiting factor. In the northern margins of the mangrove belt, mangroves develop much smaller 'dwarf' versions, which do not allow the application of the full range of the degradation scale, particularly the assessment of height. We hope that beyond these areas, where similar species at genus level provide comparable forest structures, this assessment tool will also allow comparisons across regions and pos-

Like any tool this degradation scale approach has its limitations. It only provides a restricted window from the sea front or from a boat, at best within navigable channels or small access roads, excluding large areas of the inner part of the mangroves, which are often, especially in levels 3 and 4, inaccessible on foot. While this is certainly a restriction, this rapid assessment tool is only meant to provide an initial, qualitative assessment of damage by logging and cutting or other degrading activities. We are

sibly also for mangroves across the Pacific, Caribbean and South America.

**4. Summary assessment of selected mangrove areas**

well as early stages of rehabilitation efforts.

present increasing threats to mangroves.

**5. Discussion**

**34**

*Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration*

## **Author details**

Christoph Zöckler1 \*, Dominic Wodehouse2 and Matthias Markolf<sup>3</sup>

1 Manfred-Hermsen Foundation, Bremen, Germany

2 Mangrove Action Project (MAP), Thailand

3 German Primate Center (DPZ), University of Göttingen, Germany

\*Address all correspondence to: christoph.zoeckler@m-h-s.org

© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**37**

*A Visual Assessment Scale for Rapid Evaluation of Mangrove Degradation, Using Examples…*

& Ziegler, A.D. 2014. Deforestation in the Ayeyarwady Delta and the conservation implications of an internationally-engaged Myanmar. *Global Environmental Change* **24:** 321- 333. doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2013.10.007

[10] Jones, T., Glass, L., Gandhi, S., Ravaoarinorotsihoarana, L., Carro, A., Benson, L., Ratsimba, H., Giri, C., Randriamanatena, D., Cripps, G., 2016. Madagascar's Mangroves: Quantifying Nation-Wide and Ecosystem Specific Dynamics, and Detailed Contemporary Mapping of Distinct Ecosystems. Remote Sensing 8, 106. https://doi.

[11] Razakanirina, H. & E. Roger (2013). Mangrove status and management in the Western Indian Ocean Region:

org/10.3390/rs8020106

Madagascar. WIOMSA. 29p.

s11273-019-09680-5

[13] Friess, D. A., Yando, E. S., Abuchahla, G. M., Adams, J. B., Cannicci, S., Canty, S. W. & Diele, K. (2020). Mangroves give cause for conservation optimism, for now. Current Biology, 30(4), R153-R154.

[14] Ellison, A. M., Felson, A. J., & Friess, D. A. (2020). Mangrove Rehabilitation and Restoration as Experimental Adaptive Management.

Frontiers in Marine Science.

report. 37 pp.

[15] Yong, J., W., H., 2016. An Ecological and Plant Biodiversity assessment of the Meinmahla Kyun Wildlife Sanctuary (MKWS) in relation to biodiversity conservation and restoration, and human livelihood. FFI

[12] Scales, I.R., Friess, D.A., 2019. Patterns of mangrove forest disturbance and biomass removal due to small-scale harvesting in southwestern Madagascar. Wetlands Ecology and Management 27, 609-625. https://doi.org/10.1007/

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95340*

[1] FAO, 2003. Status and trends in mangrove area extent worldwide, in: Wilkie, M.L., Fortuna, S. (Eds.), Forest Resources Assessment Working Paper

[2] FAO, 2007. The world's mangroves 1980-2005. FAO For. Pap. 153, 89. https://doi.org/978-92-5-105856-5

Bunting P, Hardy A, Rosenqvist A, Simard M (2017) Distribution and drivers of global mangrove forest change, 1996-2010. PLoS ONE 12(6): e0179302. https://doi.org/10.1371/

[4] Bryan-Brown, D. N., Connolly, R. M., Richards, D. R., Adame, F., Friess, D. A., & Brown, C. J. (2020). Global trends in mangrove forest fragmentation. Scientific Reports,

[5] Richards, D.R. & Friess, D.A. 2016. Rates and drivers of mangrove deforestation in Southeast Asia, 200-

[6] Zöckler C., Aung C. (2019) The Mangroves of Myanmar. In: Gul B., Böer B., Khan M., Clüsener-Godt M., Hameed A. (eds) Sabkha Ecosystems. Tasks for Vegetation Science, vol 49.

[7] Hamilton, S.E., Casey, D., 2016. Creation of a high spatio-temporal resolution global database of continuous mangrove forest cover for the 21st century (CGMFC-21). Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr. 25, 729-738. https://doi.

[8] Ohn, U., n.d. Coastal Resource Management with Special Reference to Mangroves of Myanmar. FREDA.

[9] Webb, E.L, Jachowski, N.R.A, Phelps, J., Fries, D. A., Than ,M.M.

2012. PNAS **113** (2): 344-349

No. 63. FAO, Rome, Italy.

[3] Thomas N, Lucas R,

journal.pone.0179302

*10*(1), 1-8.

Springer, Cham

org/10.1111/geb.12449

**References**

*A Visual Assessment Scale for Rapid Evaluation of Mangrove Degradation, Using Examples… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95340*

#### **References**

*Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration*

**36**

**Author details**

Christoph Zöckler1

\*, Dominic Wodehouse2

3 German Primate Center (DPZ), University of Göttingen, Germany

© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

\*Address all correspondence to: christoph.zoeckler@m-h-s.org

1 Manfred-Hermsen Foundation, Bremen, Germany

2 Mangrove Action Project (MAP), Thailand

provided the original work is properly cited.

and Matthias Markolf<sup>3</sup>

[1] FAO, 2003. Status and trends in mangrove area extent worldwide, in: Wilkie, M.L., Fortuna, S. (Eds.), Forest Resources Assessment Working Paper No. 63. FAO, Rome, Italy.

[2] FAO, 2007. The world's mangroves 1980-2005. FAO For. Pap. 153, 89. https://doi.org/978-92-5-105856-5

[3] Thomas N, Lucas R, Bunting P, Hardy A, Rosenqvist A, Simard M (2017) Distribution and drivers of global mangrove forest change, 1996-2010. PLoS ONE 12(6): e0179302. https://doi.org/10.1371/ journal.pone.0179302

[4] Bryan-Brown, D. N., Connolly, R. M., Richards, D. R., Adame, F., Friess, D. A., & Brown, C. J. (2020). Global trends in mangrove forest fragmentation. Scientific Reports, *10*(1), 1-8.

[5] Richards, D.R. & Friess, D.A. 2016. Rates and drivers of mangrove deforestation in Southeast Asia, 200- 2012. PNAS **113** (2): 344-349

[6] Zöckler C., Aung C. (2019) The Mangroves of Myanmar. In: Gul B., Böer B., Khan M., Clüsener-Godt M., Hameed A. (eds) Sabkha Ecosystems. Tasks for Vegetation Science, vol 49. Springer, Cham

[7] Hamilton, S.E., Casey, D., 2016. Creation of a high spatio-temporal resolution global database of continuous mangrove forest cover for the 21st century (CGMFC-21). Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr. 25, 729-738. https://doi. org/10.1111/geb.12449

[8] Ohn, U., n.d. Coastal Resource Management with Special Reference to Mangroves of Myanmar. FREDA.

[9] Webb, E.L, Jachowski, N.R.A, Phelps, J., Fries, D. A., Than ,M.M. & Ziegler, A.D. 2014. Deforestation in the Ayeyarwady Delta and the conservation implications of an internationally-engaged Myanmar. *Global Environmental Change* **24:** 321- 333. doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2013.10.007

[10] Jones, T., Glass, L., Gandhi, S., Ravaoarinorotsihoarana, L., Carro, A., Benson, L., Ratsimba, H., Giri, C., Randriamanatena, D., Cripps, G., 2016. Madagascar's Mangroves: Quantifying Nation-Wide and Ecosystem Specific Dynamics, and Detailed Contemporary Mapping of Distinct Ecosystems. Remote Sensing 8, 106. https://doi. org/10.3390/rs8020106

[11] Razakanirina, H. & E. Roger (2013). Mangrove status and management in the Western Indian Ocean Region: Madagascar. WIOMSA. 29p.

[12] Scales, I.R., Friess, D.A., 2019. Patterns of mangrove forest disturbance and biomass removal due to small-scale harvesting in southwestern Madagascar. Wetlands Ecology and Management 27, 609-625. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11273-019-09680-5

[13] Friess, D. A., Yando, E. S., Abuchahla, G. M., Adams, J. B., Cannicci, S., Canty, S. W. & Diele, K. (2020). Mangroves give cause for conservation optimism, for now. Current Biology, 30(4), R153-R154.

[14] Ellison, A. M., Felson, A. J., & Friess, D. A. (2020). Mangrove Rehabilitation and Restoration as Experimental Adaptive Management. Frontiers in Marine Science.

[15] Yong, J., W., H., 2016. An Ecological and Plant Biodiversity assessment of the Meinmahla Kyun Wildlife Sanctuary (MKWS) in relation to biodiversity conservation and restoration, and human livelihood. FFI report. 37 pp.

[16] Worthington, T. A., Andradi-Brown, D. A., Bhargava, R., Buelow, C., Bunting, P., Duncan, C., ... & Lagomasino, D. (2020). Harnessing Big Data to Support the Conservation and Rehabilitation of Mangrove Forests Globally. One Earth, 2(5), 429-443.

[17] Giri, C., Ochieng, E., Tieszen, L.L., Zhu, Z., Singh, A., Loveland, T., Masek, J., Duke, N.C., 2011. Status and distribution of mangrove forests of the world using earth observation satellite data. Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr. 20, 154-159. https://doi. org/10.1111/j.1466-8238.2010.00584.x

[18] Carugati, L., Gatto, B., Rastelli, E., Lo Martire, M., Coral, C., Greco, S., Danovaro, R., 2018. Impact of mangrove forests degradation on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. Scientific Reports 8. https://doi.org/10.1038/ s41598-018-31683-0

[19] Zöckler, C. & Saw Moses. 2016. Bird survey report Eastern Delta and Mawdin Coast, Ayeyarwaddy Region, Myanmar, 18-28 February 2016. Unpubl. Report for FFI

[20] Zöckler, C., 2016. Bird Fauna of the Southern Myeik Archipelago: Report on Historic and New Surveys in the Tanintharyi Coast of Southern Myanmar. Report No. 32 of the Tanintharyi Conservation Programme. Yangon, Myanmar.

[21] Lewis, R. R., Brown, B. M., and Flynn, L. L. (2019). "Methods and criteria for successful mangrove forest rehabilitation," in Coastal Wetlands: An Integrated Ecosystem Approach, 2nd Edn, eds G. M. E. Perillo, E. Wolanski, D. R. Cahoon, and C. S. Hopkinson (Amsterdam: Elsevier), 863-887. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-444-63893-9.00024-1

[22] Harris C., K. Lorenz & C. Zöckler. (2016). Land cover classification, Mawdin Coast, Ayeyarwady Division,

Myanmar. Unpubl. Report for Fauna Flora International. 27p

[23] Rasolofo, MV (1997) Use of mangroves by traditional fishermen in Madagascar. *Mangroves and Salt Marshe*s 1:243-253.

**Chapter 3**

**Abstract**

Secondary Ecological Succession

Created Wetlands of South

*V. Shiva Shankar, Neelam Purti, Ravi Pratap Singh*

followed by *Acrostichum aureum* and *Acanthus ilicifolius* facilitating *Avicennia spp/Rhizophora spp* for ecological succession in the TCWs.

Short Wave Infra-Red, GIS (Geographic Information Systems), fluvial influx,

A befitting example of the interaction of Sea, land, and air is the 'coastal frontier'. This Coastal frontier comprises of fragile, sensitive, dynamic, and diverse ecosystems like forests, estuaries, coral reefs, tidal mudflats, salt marshes, seagrass,

**Keywords:** natural disasters, Landsat (7 & 8), satellite image,

mangrove biodiversity

**1. Introduction**

**39**

Andaman, India

*and Faiyaz A. Khudsar*

of Mangrove in the 2004 Tsunami

Andaman and Nicobar Islands (ANI's) being situated in the Tropical zone is the cradle of multi-disasters viz., cyclones, floods, droughts, land degradation, runoff, soil erosion, shallow landslides, epidemics, earthquakes, volcanism, tsunami and storm surges. Mangroves are one of the first visible reciprocators above land and sea surface to cyclonic storms, storm surges, and tsunamis among the coastal wetlands. The Indian Ocean 2004 tsunami was denoted as one of the most catastrophic ever recorded in humankind's recent history. A mega-earthquake of Magnitude (9.3) near Indonesia ruptured the Andaman-Sunda plate triggered this tsunami. Physical fury, subsidence, upliftment, and prolonged water logging resulted in the massive loss of mangrove vegetation. A decade and half years after the 2004 tsunami, a study was initiated to assess the secondary ecological succession of mangrove in Tsunami Created Wetlands (TCWs) of south Andaman using Landsat satellite data products. Since natural ecological succession is a rather slow process and demands isotope techniques to establish a sequence of events succession. However, secondary ecological succession occurs in a short frame of time after any catastrophic event like a tsunami exemplifying nature's resilience. Band-5 (before tsunami, 2003) and Band-6 (after tsunami, 2018) of Landsat 7 and Landsat-8 satellite respectively were harnessed to delineate mangrove patches and TCWs in the focus area using ArcMap 10.5, Geographic Information Systems (GIS) software. From the study, it was understood that *Fimbrisstylis littoralis* is the pioneering key-stone plant

[24] Worthington, T., and Spalding, M. (2018). Mangrove Restoration Potential: A Global Map Highlighting a Critical Opportunity. https://doi.org/ 10.17863/ CAM.39153.

#### **Chapter 3**

*Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration*

[16] Worthington, T. A., Andradi-Brown, D. A., Bhargava, R., Buelow, C., Bunting, P., Duncan, C., ... & Lagomasino, D. (2020). Harnessing Big Data to Support the Conservation and Rehabilitation of Mangrove Forests Globally. One Earth, 2(5), 429-443.

Myanmar. Unpubl. Report for Fauna

[24] Worthington, T., and Spalding, M. (2018). Mangrove Restoration Potential: A Global Map Highlighting a Critical Opportunity. https://doi.org/ 10.17863/

[23] Rasolofo, MV (1997) Use of mangroves by traditional fishermen in Madagascar. *Mangroves and Salt Marshe*s

Flora International. 27p

1:243-253.

CAM.39153.

[17] Giri, C., Ochieng, E., Tieszen, L.L., Zhu, Z., Singh, A., Loveland, T., Masek, J., Duke, N.C., 2011. Status and distribution of mangrove forests of the world using earth observation satellite data. Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr. 20, 154-159. https://doi. org/10.1111/j.1466-8238.2010.00584.x

[18] Carugati, L., Gatto, B., Rastelli, E., Lo Martire, M., Coral, C., Greco, S., Danovaro, R., 2018. Impact of mangrove forests degradation on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. Scientific Reports 8. https://doi.org/10.1038/

[19] Zöckler, C. & Saw Moses. 2016. Bird survey report Eastern Delta and Mawdin Coast, Ayeyarwaddy Region, Myanmar, 18-28 February 2016. Unpubl. Report

[20] Zöckler, C., 2016. Bird Fauna of the Southern Myeik Archipelago: Report on Historic and New Surveys in the Tanintharyi Coast of Southern Myanmar. Report No. 32 of the

Tanintharyi Conservation Programme.

[21] Lewis, R. R., Brown, B. M., and Flynn, L. L. (2019). "Methods and criteria for successful mangrove forest rehabilitation," in Coastal Wetlands: An Integrated Ecosystem Approach, 2nd Edn, eds G. M. E. Perillo, E. Wolanski, D. R. Cahoon, and C. S. Hopkinson (Amsterdam: Elsevier), 863-887. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-444-63893-9.00024-1

[22] Harris C., K. Lorenz & C. Zöckler. (2016). Land cover classification, Mawdin Coast, Ayeyarwady Division,

s41598-018-31683-0

Yangon, Myanmar.

for FFI

**38**

## Secondary Ecological Succession of Mangrove in the 2004 Tsunami Created Wetlands of South Andaman, India

*V. Shiva Shankar, Neelam Purti, Ravi Pratap Singh and Faiyaz A. Khudsar*

#### **Abstract**

Andaman and Nicobar Islands (ANI's) being situated in the Tropical zone is the cradle of multi-disasters viz., cyclones, floods, droughts, land degradation, runoff, soil erosion, shallow landslides, epidemics, earthquakes, volcanism, tsunami and storm surges. Mangroves are one of the first visible reciprocators above land and sea surface to cyclonic storms, storm surges, and tsunamis among the coastal wetlands. The Indian Ocean 2004 tsunami was denoted as one of the most catastrophic ever recorded in humankind's recent history. A mega-earthquake of Magnitude (9.3) near Indonesia ruptured the Andaman-Sunda plate triggered this tsunami. Physical fury, subsidence, upliftment, and prolonged water logging resulted in the massive loss of mangrove vegetation. A decade and half years after the 2004 tsunami, a study was initiated to assess the secondary ecological succession of mangrove in Tsunami Created Wetlands (TCWs) of south Andaman using Landsat satellite data products. Since natural ecological succession is a rather slow process and demands isotope techniques to establish a sequence of events succession. However, secondary ecological succession occurs in a short frame of time after any catastrophic event like a tsunami exemplifying nature's resilience. Band-5 (before tsunami, 2003) and Band-6 (after tsunami, 2018) of Landsat 7 and Landsat-8 satellite respectively were harnessed to delineate mangrove patches and TCWs in the focus area using ArcMap 10.5, Geographic Information Systems (GIS) software. From the study, it was understood that *Fimbrisstylis littoralis* is the pioneering key-stone plant followed by *Acrostichum aureum* and *Acanthus ilicifolius* facilitating *Avicennia spp/Rhizophora spp* for ecological succession in the TCWs.

**Keywords:** natural disasters, Landsat (7 & 8), satellite image, Short Wave Infra-Red, GIS (Geographic Information Systems), fluvial influx, mangrove biodiversity

#### **1. Introduction**

A befitting example of the interaction of Sea, land, and air is the 'coastal frontier'. This Coastal frontier comprises of fragile, sensitive, dynamic, and diverse ecosystems like forests, estuaries, coral reefs, tidal mudflats, salt marshes, seagrass, and mangroves [1, 2]. Mangroves are circum-tropical halophytes representing an ecotone between terrestrial and marine habitats which are adapted to wet and saline conditions having a vital ecological and economic relevance at global, regional, and local scales [3]. These mangrove forests comprise of 65 true mangrove species and 6 hybrids [4], housed in one hundred and twenty-three countries between 32°N and 38°S covering an area of 1.5 million sq. Km [5]. The highest concentration (60%) of global mangrove species (44) are reported from southeast Asia [5, 6]. The mangroves of Andaman and Nicobar Islands (ANI's) represent the third-largest cover on the Indian subcontinent next to Gujarat and Sunderbans respectively [5]. ANI's comprise 38 true mangrove species belonging to 19 genera, and 13 families. Thus, ANI's houses 50% of the global mangrove species [7, 8].

**2. Study area**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94113*

11°27<sup>0</sup>

**Figure 1.**

**41**

*Study area map showing TCWs with mangrove forest.*

<sup>00</sup>″and 11°45<sup>0</sup>

dence as well [48, 49].

00"N and 92°30<sup>0</sup>

ANI's is a union territory of India in the Bay of Bengal between peninsular India and Myanmar, trending in a north-south direction. Bounded by the coordinates (92° to 94° East and 6° to 14° North), it is an archipelago with > 500 islands/islets, stretching over 700 km [39]. They are closer to the Indonesian landmass than to mainland India (1200 km), with the southernmost island only 150 km from Sumatra and the northernmost landfall, 190 km south of West Myanmar. ANI's being the cradle of multi-disasters like cyclones, storm surges, earthquakes, and tsunami, the mangroves of this region are vulnerable to disaster. However, nature has its own plans for resilience after any disaster. The present study illustrates the ecological succession of mangrove in south Andaman after the 2004 devastating tsunami. Subsidence and Upliftment of landmass were observed in ANI's due to the 2004 tsunami [48]. Subsidence of landmass around the coastal frontiers rendered it to be permanently waterlogged thus creating wetlands that are very conducive for the mangroves to colonize [37–39]. The area under focus is bounded by the coordinates

*Secondary Ecological Succession of Mangrove in the 2004 Tsunami Created Wetlands of South…*

<sup>00</sup>″and 92°46<sup>0</sup>

area of 333.18 km<sup>2</sup> that encountered destruction from the 2004 tsunami and subsi-

<sup>47</sup>″E (**Figure 1**) covering a land

Globally mangrove forests are known as among one of the most productive and biologically important ecosystems because they deliver a variety of vital and distinctive ecosystem goods and services to humankind and other coastal marine ecosystems like the mudflats, coral reefs, seagrass, etc [9]. Since time immemorial mangrove is been conventionally used for firewood, charcoal, alcohol, folk-lore therapeutics, roof thatching [10, 11]. They act as nursery and breeding ground for the juveniles of many commercial fish, crustaceans, including avifauna and reptiles [12–15]. Also, they reduce coastal erosion, stabilize the shoreline, provide sediment and nutrient retention, improve water quality, and provide both flood and flow control as well as protection against storms, hurricanes, and tsunamis [16–21]. Carbon sequestration is presently recognized as the most important service of the mangrove owing to the growing appreciation of the efficacy of these habitats in climate regulation through fixing carbon from the atmosphere [22–24].

The mangrove forests of the world are dwindling at a rate of 1–2% annually and if this trend continues the mangrove and its ecosystem shall be erased from the face of the earth by the 21st century [25–27]. The deterioration of mangrove is more alarming than any other ecosystem like the coral reef and marine forests. At this rate of destruction, the world would be deprived of mangrove and its ecosystem services by the end of this century [28]. The loss of mangrove forests can be attributed to anthropogenic and natural factors. Anthropogenic factors such as dumping of wet and solid wastes generated by the urban population, deforestation, conversion for aquaculture, agriculture, industrial discharge, petroleum spills, the combustion of fossil fuels, automobile exhaust are responsible for the loss of mangrove forests [25, 27, 29–33]. Although the mangrove forest act as a bio-shield against natural disasters such as climate change, cyclones, hurricanes, typhoons, storm surges, and tsunamis [3, 16–21]. On the contrary, these natural factors are also partly responsible for the loss of mangrove forests [34]. However, Mangroves demonstrates the ability to be resilient to natural eventualities [18, 35–40] by following the fluvial influx [39, 41].

The resilience of mangrove is naturally ensured by ecological succession. It is rather a slow process of development and adjustment of species compositions of the mangrove communities over time and space. Further, the ecological succession is dependent on the vital driving factors such as growth potential of the mangrove species, dispersal, settlement, competition, and external or biogenic changes in abiotic conditions [42]. The fluvial influx in the landmass subsided zones due to the 2004 tsunami created a conducive environment for mangrove colonization (ecological succession). Hence, the present study aims at understanding the secondary ecological succession of mangrove in Tsunami Created Wetlands (TCWs) of South Andaman so that it would help in initiating anthropogenically induced massive restoration and rehabilitation of it in the future [6, 28, 43–47].

*Secondary Ecological Succession of Mangrove in the 2004 Tsunami Created Wetlands of South… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94113*

#### **2. Study area**

and mangroves [1, 2]. Mangroves are circum-tropical halophytes representing an ecotone between terrestrial and marine habitats which are adapted to wet and saline conditions having a vital ecological and economic relevance at global, regional, and local scales [3]. These mangrove forests comprise of 65 true mangrove species and 6 hybrids [4], housed in one hundred and twenty-three countries between 32°N and 38°S covering an area of 1.5 million sq. Km [5]. The highest concentration (60%) of global mangrove species (44) are reported from southeast Asia [5, 6]. The mangroves of Andaman and Nicobar Islands (ANI's) represent the third-largest cover on the Indian subcontinent next to Gujarat and Sunderbans respectively [5]. ANI's comprise 38 true mangrove species belonging to 19 genera, and 13 families. Thus,

Globally mangrove forests are known as among one of the most productive and biologically important ecosystems because they deliver a variety of vital and distinctive ecosystem goods and services to humankind and other coastal marine ecosystems like the mudflats, coral reefs, seagrass, etc [9]. Since time immemorial mangrove is been conventionally used for firewood, charcoal, alcohol, folk-lore therapeutics, roof thatching [10, 11]. They act as nursery and breeding ground for the juveniles of many commercial fish, crustaceans, including avifauna and reptiles [12–15]. Also, they reduce coastal erosion, stabilize the shoreline, provide sediment and nutrient retention, improve water quality, and provide both flood and flow control as well as protection against storms, hurricanes, and tsunamis [16–21]. Carbon sequestration is presently recognized as the most important service of the mangrove owing to the growing appreciation of the efficacy of these habitats in

The mangrove forests of the world are dwindling at a rate of 1–2% annually and if this trend continues the mangrove and its ecosystem shall be erased from the face of the earth by the 21st century [25–27]. The deterioration of mangrove is more alarming than any other ecosystem like the coral reef and marine forests. At this rate of destruction, the world would be deprived of mangrove and its ecosystem services by the end of this century [28]. The loss of mangrove forests can be attributed to anthropogenic and natural factors. Anthropogenic factors such as dumping of wet and solid wastes generated by the urban population, deforestation, conversion for aquaculture, agriculture, industrial discharge, petroleum spills, the combustion of fossil fuels, automobile exhaust are responsible for the loss of mangrove forests [25, 27, 29–33]. Although the mangrove forest act as a bio-shield against natural disasters such as climate change, cyclones, hurricanes, typhoons, storm surges, and tsunamis [3, 16–21]. On the contrary, these natural factors are also partly responsible for the loss of mangrove forests [34]. However, Mangroves demonstrates the ability to be resilient to natural eventualities [18, 35–40] by

The resilience of mangrove is naturally ensured by ecological succession. It is rather a slow process of development and adjustment of species compositions of the mangrove communities over time and space. Further, the ecological succession is dependent on the vital driving factors such as growth potential of the mangrove species, dispersal, settlement, competition, and external or biogenic changes in abiotic conditions [42]. The fluvial influx in the landmass subsided zones due to the 2004 tsunami created a conducive environment for mangrove colonization (ecological succession). Hence, the present study aims at understanding the secondary ecological succession of mangrove in Tsunami Created Wetlands (TCWs) of South Andaman so that it would help in initiating anthropogenically induced massive

restoration and rehabilitation of it in the future [6, 28, 43–47].

climate regulation through fixing carbon from the atmosphere [22–24].

ANI's houses 50% of the global mangrove species [7, 8].

*Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration*

following the fluvial influx [39, 41].

**40**

ANI's is a union territory of India in the Bay of Bengal between peninsular India and Myanmar, trending in a north-south direction. Bounded by the coordinates (92° to 94° East and 6° to 14° North), it is an archipelago with > 500 islands/islets, stretching over 700 km [39]. They are closer to the Indonesian landmass than to mainland India (1200 km), with the southernmost island only 150 km from Sumatra and the northernmost landfall, 190 km south of West Myanmar. ANI's being the cradle of multi-disasters like cyclones, storm surges, earthquakes, and tsunami, the mangroves of this region are vulnerable to disaster. However, nature has its own plans for resilience after any disaster. The present study illustrates the ecological succession of mangrove in south Andaman after the 2004 devastating tsunami. Subsidence and Upliftment of landmass were observed in ANI's due to the 2004 tsunami [48]. Subsidence of landmass around the coastal frontiers rendered it to be permanently waterlogged thus creating wetlands that are very conducive for the mangroves to colonize [37–39]. The area under focus is bounded by the coordinates 11°27<sup>0</sup> <sup>00</sup>″and 11°45<sup>0</sup> 00"N and 92°30<sup>0</sup> <sup>00</sup>″and 92°46<sup>0</sup> <sup>47</sup>″E (**Figure 1**) covering a land area of 333.18 km<sup>2</sup> that encountered destruction from the 2004 tsunami and subsidence as well [48, 49].

**Figure 1.** *Study area map showing TCWs with mangrove forest.*

#### **2.1 Geology, soils, geomorphology, and drainage**

The origin of the Andaman-Nicobar islands is approximately dated as late Pliocene to Pleistocene [50]. The subsidence of landmass is defined by the rock type. Two types of rocks are encountered in the study area viz., (1) Sedimentary rock (Andaman flysch), and (2) Ophiolite suite of volcanic origin [51, 52]. Sedimentary rock comprises of greywacke, siltstone, chalk, limestone are soft and more susceptible to subsidence due to tectonic activity when compared to the Ophiolite suite (**Figure 2a**).

stream within a short distance. There are no landlocked watersheds hence all the

*Secondary Ecological Succession of Mangrove in the 2004 Tsunami Created Wetlands of South…*

and the area under investigation originate in the Bay of Bengal [54].

**3. Conducive environment for mangrove ecosystem**

The study area is situated south of Tropic of Cancer and the region is surrounded by warm seas. The climate of this region is categorized as Warm and Humid. The recorded average temperature ranges from 25°C to 30.5°C. The prevalent temperature along with relatively high humidity gives rise to perceptible and sultry weather. However, this type of weather is moderated with pleasant sea breezes. The relative humidity is high throughout the year reaching > 90 % during the northeast monsoons. The maximum temperature recorded at Port Blair is 32°C. The average annual rainfall is around 3000 to 3500 mm. May to August is the rainiest months and April is the warmest month in this region. It is observed that the South-West monsoon brings in most of the rainfall. During May-June, the onset of the monsoon occurs and in September-October withdrawal of monsoon is observed. The North-East monsoons beginning in November and persists till the end of February. This transitional period is nonetheless disturbed by cyclonic storms which may be accompanied by thundershowers. Most of the storms experienced by the mainland

The prevalent geology, soil, geomorphology, drainage system, and climatic conditions in the study area favour the tall and gregarious growth of mangrove flora. The rocks of sedimentary origin are more susceptible to weathering than volcanic rocks. Tropical rains weather the rock material and escort them to the coastal front through the natural drainage system along with abundant freshwater. The climate of any tropical intertidal zone acts as a vital and requisite factor for the natural growth, development, and succession of mangroves. Among these necessary climatic factors are (i) the temperature fluctuation-ranges between 20°C and 30°C [55, 56], (ii) the humidity is of a higher range [57], (iii) the total annual rainfall is above 1000 mm [58], (iv) there is regular wind flow, (v) the area is frost free [59], (vi) radiation and (vii) sedimentation along with upstream water supply plays a very dominant role for the growth and viability of mangrove in a holistic

Landsat (7 & 8) satellite data products before (2003) and after (2018) tsunami respectively, for the study were downloaded from the website (www.earthexplorer. usgs.gov/). The study area is covered by the scene with path (134) and row (52). Mangrove patches and water bodies decipherably picked up very well by band-5 and band-6 by the short-wave infrared (SWIR) sensor of Landsat 7 and 8 satellites respectively from other features like the forest, human settlements, etc. Using ArcGIS Desktop 10.5 software mangrove patches and TCWs were demarcated. Apart from the demarcation of TCWs, stream networks were delineated from the 1979 Survey of India (SOI) toposheet. An overlay analysis of stream network was comprehended over (1) satellite imageries, (2) geology map, (3) geomorphology map, (4) soil texture map, and (5) village administrative boundary map to understand the source of fluvial Influx dynamics and ecological succession.

streams empties into the adjacent sea (**Figure 2d**).

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94113*

**2.2 Meteorology**

manner [60].

**43**

**4. Materials and methodology**

Geomorphogically the study area is dominated by the structural hill, valley trending N-S direction followed by pediments and coastal plains (**Figure 2b**). The coastal plains are dominated by alluvium and colluvium.

The soils of the study area have developed under the dominant influence of vegetation and climate and over diverse parent material. The soil is either present on the hill tops or deposited in the valleys or along the coast as escorted soil. Along the coast, the soil is sandy and contains shingles and old corals, etc. It is extremely porous. In the valley and in the lower slopes of hills, the soil is clayey loam. On the hills, it is rigid clay and dark red loam. There are three orders of soil Entisols, Inceptisols, and Alfisols [53] in six soil texture class viz., Clay, Clay loam, Loamy sand, Sandy, Sandy Clay, Sandy Clay loam. Clay loam is the dominant textural class of soil well distributed throughout the study area followed by clay. Sandy texture was seen along the coastal fringes (**Figure 2c**).

The drainage in the area under investigation exhibits dendritic and trellis patterns a typical structurally controlled drainage pattern of volcanic origin. In general, almost all the drainages are very young and terminate their first or second-order

**Figure 2.** *Maps of (a) Geology, (b) Geomorphology, (c) Soil texture, and (d) Drainage.*

stream within a short distance. There are no landlocked watersheds hence all the streams empties into the adjacent sea (**Figure 2d**).

#### **2.2 Meteorology**

**2.1 Geology, soils, geomorphology, and drainage**

*Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration*

coastal plains are dominated by alluvium and colluvium.

was seen along the coastal fringes (**Figure 2c**).

*Maps of (a) Geology, (b) Geomorphology, (c) Soil texture, and (d) Drainage.*

(**Figure 2a**).

**Figure 2.**

**42**

The origin of the Andaman-Nicobar islands is approximately dated as late Pliocene to Pleistocene [50]. The subsidence of landmass is defined by the rock type. Two types of rocks are encountered in the study area viz., (1) Sedimentary rock (Andaman flysch), and (2) Ophiolite suite of volcanic origin [51, 52]. Sedimentary rock comprises of greywacke, siltstone, chalk, limestone are soft and more susceptible to subsidence due to tectonic activity when compared to the Ophiolite suite

Geomorphogically the study area is dominated by the structural hill, valley trending N-S direction followed by pediments and coastal plains (**Figure 2b**). The

The soils of the study area have developed under the dominant influence of vegetation and climate and over diverse parent material. The soil is either present on the hill tops or deposited in the valleys or along the coast as escorted soil. Along the coast, the soil is sandy and contains shingles and old corals, etc. It is extremely porous. In the valley and in the lower slopes of hills, the soil is clayey loam. On the hills, it is rigid clay and dark red loam. There are three orders of soil Entisols, Inceptisols, and Alfisols [53] in six soil texture class viz., Clay, Clay loam, Loamy sand, Sandy, Sandy Clay, Sandy Clay loam. Clay loam is the dominant textural class of soil well distributed throughout the study area followed by clay. Sandy texture

The drainage in the area under investigation exhibits dendritic and trellis patterns a typical structurally controlled drainage pattern of volcanic origin. In general, almost all the drainages are very young and terminate their first or second-order

The study area is situated south of Tropic of Cancer and the region is surrounded by warm seas. The climate of this region is categorized as Warm and Humid. The recorded average temperature ranges from 25°C to 30.5°C. The prevalent temperature along with relatively high humidity gives rise to perceptible and sultry weather. However, this type of weather is moderated with pleasant sea breezes. The relative humidity is high throughout the year reaching > 90 % during the northeast monsoons. The maximum temperature recorded at Port Blair is 32°C. The average annual rainfall is around 3000 to 3500 mm. May to August is the rainiest months and April is the warmest month in this region. It is observed that the South-West monsoon brings in most of the rainfall. During May-June, the onset of the monsoon occurs and in September-October withdrawal of monsoon is observed. The North-East monsoons beginning in November and persists till the end of February. This transitional period is nonetheless disturbed by cyclonic storms which may be accompanied by thundershowers. Most of the storms experienced by the mainland and the area under investigation originate in the Bay of Bengal [54].

#### **3. Conducive environment for mangrove ecosystem**

The prevalent geology, soil, geomorphology, drainage system, and climatic conditions in the study area favour the tall and gregarious growth of mangrove flora. The rocks of sedimentary origin are more susceptible to weathering than volcanic rocks. Tropical rains weather the rock material and escort them to the coastal front through the natural drainage system along with abundant freshwater. The climate of any tropical intertidal zone acts as a vital and requisite factor for the natural growth, development, and succession of mangroves. Among these necessary climatic factors are (i) the temperature fluctuation-ranges between 20°C and 30°C [55, 56], (ii) the humidity is of a higher range [57], (iii) the total annual rainfall is above 1000 mm [58], (iv) there is regular wind flow, (v) the area is frost free [59], (vi) radiation and (vii) sedimentation along with upstream water supply plays a very dominant role for the growth and viability of mangrove in a holistic manner [60].

#### **4. Materials and methodology**

Landsat (7 & 8) satellite data products before (2003) and after (2018) tsunami respectively, for the study were downloaded from the website (www.earthexplorer. usgs.gov/). The study area is covered by the scene with path (134) and row (52). Mangrove patches and water bodies decipherably picked up very well by band-5 and band-6 by the short-wave infrared (SWIR) sensor of Landsat 7 and 8 satellites respectively from other features like the forest, human settlements, etc. Using ArcGIS Desktop 10.5 software mangrove patches and TCWs were demarcated.

Apart from the demarcation of TCWs, stream networks were delineated from the 1979 Survey of India (SOI) toposheet. An overlay analysis of stream network was comprehended over (1) satellite imageries, (2) geology map, (3) geomorphology map, (4) soil texture map, and (5) village administrative boundary map to understand the source of fluvial Influx dynamics and ecological succession.

Village-wise mangrove stand and TCWs (subsided landmass and permanent waterlogging thereafter) were inferred from before and after tsunami satellite image interpretation. A fishnet grid of 1 km<sup>2</sup> covering mangroves and TCWs was generated with unique ID's and the same was converted into Global Positioning System (GPS) compatible format (\*.gpx). These grids were loaded in the handheld Garmin 62CSX, GPS for field investigation. Enumeration of mangrove species was carried out through a 150 m line transect technique [61] with a 50 m interval between each transect within the 1 km<sup>2</sup> grid during the dry season (January-May, 2019 and March-April, 2020). These line transects were laid orthogonal to the coast either ways (land to sea and sea to land). A subplot of 4 m<sup>2</sup> dimension was laid for enumerating individual plants [8]. Mangrove phenology and habitat description were carried out as per Debnath 2004 [62].

#### **5. Results and discussion**

Through field survey, a total of twenty-eight mangrove species around existing mangrove and TCWs in forty-three village locations were enumerated and presented in **Table 1**. Also, village-wise pre-tsunami landuse with soil type and the maximum distance from the existing mangrove patch (km) were tabulated in **Table 2**.

Tsunami is rather a rare disaster in the Indian Ocean [63]. A mega-earthquake of magnitude 9.3 on the Richter scale struck near Indonesia On December 26th, 2004 at 07:58:53 local time [64, 65]. The epicenter was located 80km west of the coast of Northern Sumatra (at approximately 95°51' W and 3°25'N). The earthquake advanced thereafter approximately northward rupturing 1200 km to 1300 km (with an average rupture speed of 2.5 to 3 km/s) of the Andaman-Sunda plate in about 8 to 10 minutes [66–68] causing up to 6 m of bottom subsidence and 10 m of uplift parallel to the rupture and about100-150 km wide across the subduction area [69]. Upliftment and subsidence of landmass [38] were generated as a consequence of earthquake elastic rebound, offshore of Banda Aceh, the northern tip of Sumatra [70]. Rupture of the plate and coseismic activities spontaneously triggered a tsunami catastrophic devastation ever witnessed in the modern history of humankind [70–73]. All the above sequential events just occurred in a short span of few hours resulting in unprecedented destruction and mangroves were one of the first visible responders of the tsunami [3, 74–77].

Voluminous literature speaks about mangrove demonstrating resilience after a disaster like hurricane, cyclone, and tsunami [18, 35–40, 78, 79]. However, very few studies were conducted to understand the dynamics of the ecological succession of mangroves after natural disasters like hurricanes and tsunamis [80]. The mangroves of the study area faced the double impact of mortality due to 26th December 2004 tsunami viz., (1) physical fury, and (2) prolonged submergence due to subsidence of land mass [38–48]. Zones of subsided landmass were waterlogged permanently resulting in (TCWs). Nudation of mangrove (**Figure 3**) occurred due to a catastrophic event [81].

Overlay analysis of geology geomorphology and stream network of pre-post– tsunami satellite imageries suggest that subsidence of landmass (TCWs) has occurred in the regions of sedimentary rock and on the coastal plains. Sedimentary rocks (Andaman flysh) being soft are more susceptible to deformation due to tectonic activity when compared to volcanic rock (Ophiolite suite). Also, the streams once which were emptying itself in the shallow depths of the coastal frontiers started depositing in the TCWs (**Figures 1, 3**, and **4**). Mineral-rich fine sediments and abundant freshwater were deposited into TCWs through the

**Species**

**45**

**1\* 2\* 3 4 5 6\* 7 8\* 9\* 10\* 11\* 12\* 13 14\* 15 16 17 18 19\* 20\* 21\* 22\* 23 24 25 26\* 27\* 28\* 29 30 31 32 33\* 34 35 36\*\* 37\*\* 38\*\* 39\*\* 40\*\* 41\*\* 42\*\* 43\*\***

**Name**

*Acanthus*

 **+ + + \*+ + + + +** 

**+++** **+++**

 

*Secondary Ecological Succession of Mangrove in the 2004 Tsunami Created Wetlands of South…*

 **+ ++**

 **+**

 

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94113*

*ebracteatus*

*Acanthus*

**\***

**\***

**+ + + \*+ + \*+ \*+ \*+ \*+ \*+ + \*+ + + + + \*+ \*+ + \*+ + + + \*+ \*+ + + + \*+ + + + + + + + + + +**

*ilicifolius*

*Acrostichum*

**\***

**\***

**+ + + \*+ + \*+ \*+ \*+ \*+ \*+ + \*+ + + + + \*+ \*+ + \*+ + + + \*+ \*+ \*+ + + + + \*+ + + + + + + + + + +**

*aureum*

*Aegiceras*

 **+ ++**

*corniculatum*

*Avicennia*

**\***

**\***

**+ + + \*+ + \*+ \*+ \*+ + \*+ + + + + \*+ \*+ \*+ \*+ + + + \*+ \*+ \*+ + + + + \*+ + +** 

*marina*

*Avicennia*

**\***

**\***

**+ + + \*+ + \*+ \*+ \*+ + \*+ + + + + \*+ \*+ \*+ + + + \*+ \*+ \*+ + + + + \*+ + + + + + + + + + +**

*officinalis*

*Bruguiera*

**+ ++++**

 **+ ++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +** 

*cylindrica*

*Bruguiera*

**+ ++++**

 **+ ++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +**

*gymnorhiza*

*Bruguiera*

**+**

**++++**

 **+ + + ++++**

 **+ + + + +++**

 **+ + + + + +**

 

 

 

 

 

 

*parviflora*

*Ceriops tagal* **+ ++++**

*Cynometra*

**+**

 **+ +**

*iripa*

*Dolichandrone*

**+ ++++**

 **+ ++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ++**

*spathacea*

*Excoecaria*

**+ ++++**

 **+ ++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ++**

*agallocha*

*Heritiera*

**+ ++++**

 **+ ++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ++**

*littoralis*

*Lumnitzera*

**+ ++++**

 **+ +** 

 **+ +**

 

 

 

*littorea*

*Lumnitzera*

 **+ +**

*racemosa*

 **+ ++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +**

**+**

**+**

**+**

**+**

**+**

**+**

**+**

**+**

#### *Secondary Ecological Succession of Mangrove in the 2004 Tsunami Created Wetlands of South… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94113*


Village-wise mangrove stand and TCWs (subsided landmass and permanent waterlogging thereafter) were inferred from before and after tsunami satellite image interpretation. A fishnet grid of 1 km<sup>2</sup> covering mangroves and TCWs was generated with unique ID's and the same was converted into Global Positioning System (GPS) compatible format (\*.gpx). These grids were loaded in the handheld Garmin 62CSX, GPS for field investigation. Enumeration of mangrove species was carried out through a 150 m line transect technique [61] with a 50 m interval between each transect within the 1 km<sup>2</sup> grid during the dry season (January-May, 2019 and March-April, 2020). These line transects were laid orthogonal to the coast either ways (land to sea and sea to land). A subplot of 4 m<sup>2</sup> dimension was laid for enumerating individual plants [8]. Mangrove phenology and habitat description

Through field survey, a total of twenty-eight mangrove species around existing

Tsunami is rather a rare disaster in the Indian Ocean [63]. A mega-earthquake of magnitude 9.3 on the Richter scale struck near Indonesia On December 26th, 2004 at 07:58:53 local time [64, 65]. The epicenter was located 80km west of the coast of Northern Sumatra (at approximately 95°51' W and 3°25'N). The earthquake

advanced thereafter approximately northward rupturing 1200 km to 1300 km (with an average rupture speed of 2.5 to 3 km/s) of the Andaman-Sunda plate in about 8 to 10 minutes [66–68] causing up to 6 m of bottom subsidence and 10 m of uplift parallel to the rupture and about100-150 km wide across the subduction area [69]. Upliftment and subsidence of landmass [38] were generated as a consequence of earthquake elastic rebound, offshore of Banda Aceh, the northern tip of Sumatra [70]. Rupture of the plate and coseismic activities spontaneously triggered a tsunami catastrophic devastation ever witnessed in the modern history of humankind [70–73]. All the above sequential events just occurred in a short span of few hours resulting in unprecedented destruction and mangroves were one of the first visible

Voluminous literature speaks about mangrove demonstrating resilience after a disaster like hurricane, cyclone, and tsunami [18, 35–40, 78, 79]. However, very few studies were conducted to understand the dynamics of the ecological succession of mangroves after natural disasters like hurricanes and tsunamis [80]. The mangroves of the study area faced the double impact of mortality due to 26th December 2004 tsunami viz., (1) physical fury, and (2) prolonged submergence due to subsidence of land mass [38–48]. Zones of subsided landmass were waterlogged permanently

Overlay analysis of geology geomorphology and stream network of pre-post–

resulting in (TCWs). Nudation of mangrove (**Figure 3**) occurred due to a

tsunami satellite imageries suggest that subsidence of landmass (TCWs) has occurred in the regions of sedimentary rock and on the coastal plains. Sedimentary rocks (Andaman flysh) being soft are more susceptible to deformation due to tectonic activity when compared to volcanic rock (Ophiolite suite). Also, the streams once which were emptying itself in the shallow depths of the coastal frontiers started depositing in the TCWs (**Figures 1, 3**, and **4**). Mineral-rich fine sediments and abundant freshwater were deposited into TCWs through the

presented in **Table 1**. Also, village-wise pre-tsunami landuse with soil type and the maximum distance from the existing mangrove patch (km) were tabulated in

mangrove and TCWs in forty-three village locations were enumerated and

were carried out as per Debnath 2004 [62].

**5. Results and discussion**

*Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration*

responders of the tsunami [3, 74–77].

catastrophic event [81].

**44**

**Table 2**.


#### **Table 1.**

*Village-wise distribution of mangrove and its associated species.* **Sl no**

1

2

9

10

11

12

14

19

20

21

22

26

27

28

**47**

**Village name Soil texture type Pre-tsunami land**

\* Chidiyatapu Clay loam Agricultural Land

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94113*

\* Manjeri Clay loam Agricultural Land

8\* Chouldari Loamy sand Agricultural Land

\* Portmout Clay loam Agricultural Land

\* Hobdipur Clay Agricultural Land

loam

loam

clay, sandy clay loam

\* Namunaghar Clay and clay loam Agricultural Land

\* Mitha Khari Clay Plantation/

\* Ograbraj Clay and clay loam Agricultural Land

\* Sippighat Clay and clay loam Agricultural Land

\* Garacharma Clay and clay loam Agricultural Land

13 Temple Myo Clay loam — —

15 Shore Point Clay loam — — 16 Bamboo Flat Clay loam and clay — — 17 Mathura Clay and clay loam — — 18 Brindaban Clay and clay loam — —

\* Dundas Point Clay loam OpenJungle 0.65

23 Badmasphar Clay and clay loam — — 24 Craikabad Sandy and clay loam — — 25 Dhanikhari Clay and clay loam — —

\* Dolligunj Clay and clay loam OpenJungle 1.05 29 Minne Bay Clay and clay loam — — 30 Ward X Clay loam — —

\* Balu Ghat Clay loam and sandy clay

\* Mohwa Dera Sandy and sandy clay

\* Tirur Clay loam, Loamy sand,

3 Guptapara Clay and loamy sand — — 4 Manglutan Clay loam — — 5 Hashmatabad Sandy clay loam — — 6\* Wandoor Clay Agricultural Land 1.14 7 Maymyo Clay — —

*Secondary Ecological Succession of Mangrove in the 2004 Tsunami Created Wetlands of South*

**use land cover**

& Settlement

& Settlement

& Settlement

& Settlement

& Settlement

Agricultural Land & Settlement

& Settlement

Agricultural land

& Settlement

& Settlement

& Settlement

Open jungle 0.15

Open jungle 1.5

**Max distance from the existing mangrove patch (km)**

*…*

1.2

0.12

0.55

0.29

0.35

0.25

0.27

1.5

0.22

1.01

0.45


*Secondary Ecological Succession of Mangrove in the 2004 Tsunami Created Wetlands of South… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94113*

**Species**

**46**

**1\* 2\* 3 4 5 6\* 7 8\* 9\* 10\* 11\* 12\* 13 14\* 15 16 17 18 19\* 20\* 21\* 22\* 23 24 25 26\* 27\* 28\* 29 30 31 32 33\* 34 35 36\*\* 37\*\* 38\*\* 39\*\* 40\*\* 41\*\* 42\*\* 43\*\***

**Name**

*Nypa fruticans* 

*Pemphis*

 **+**

*acidula*

*Phoenix*

 **+ +++**

 

 

 

 

 

*Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration*

*paludosa*

*Pandanus*

 **+** 

*tectorius*

*Rhizophora*

**\***

**\***

**+ + + \*+ + \*+ \*+ \*+ \*+ \*+ + \*+ + + + + \*+ \*+ \*+ \*+ + + + \*+ \*+ \*+ + + + + \*+ + + + + + + + + + +**

*apiculata*

*Rhizophora*

**\***

**\***

**+ + + \*+ + \*+ \*+ \*+ \*+ \*+ + \*+ + + + + \*+ \*+ \*+ \*+ + + + \*+ \*+ \*+ + + + + \*+ + + + + + + + + + +**

*mucronata*

*Rhizophora*

**+ + ++ + ++ + +** 

 

 **+ ++**

 

*stylosa*

*Scyphiphora*

**++++**

 **+ ++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +** 

*hydrophylacea*

*Sonneratia*

**+ + ++ + ++ + + + +** 

**++++**

**++++**

 **+ +** 

 

 **+ +**

 

 

 **+ + + + +++**

 **+ + + + + + ++**

 

*alba*

*Sonneratia*

**+ ++ + ++ + +** 

*ovata*

*Xylocarpus*

**+ ++++**

 **+ ++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ++**

*granatum*

*Fimbrisstylis*

**\***

**\***

**+ + + \*+ + \*+ \*+ \*+ \*+ \*+ + \*+ + + + + \*+ \*+ \*+ \*+ + + + \*+ \*+ \*+ + + + + \*+ + + + + + + + + + +**

*littoralis*

*'\*' -Village-wise distribution of Mangroves, "\*\*" -Village-wise distribution of Mangrove in new venues of TCWs,"" - Indicates absence of Mangrove species, "+" - Indicates presence of Mangrove Species, "\*+"- Indicates presence of Mangrove species in TCWs*

**Table 1.** *Village-wise*

 *distribution*

 *of mangrove and its associated species.*

**+**

**+**

**+**

**+**

**+**

**+**

 **+ + ++++**

 **+ + + + +++**

 **+ + + + + + ++**

 

 


#### **Table 2.**

*Village-wise soil texture, pre-tsunami landuse pattern and maximum distance from the existing mangrove patch.*

conduits of natural streams network (**Figure 4**). Freshly deposited fine sediments are barren and are called as mud banks.

combinations were found in the focus area (**Table 2**). The flowering and fruiting

*Satellite image showing before and nudation of mangrove after tsunami (a) Bambooflat, (b) South Flat Bay*

*Secondary Ecological Succession of Mangrove in the 2004 Tsunami Created Wetlands of South…*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94113*

The mangrove seedlings were transported to the TCWs through the tidal influx from pre-existing mangrove (**Tables 1** and **2**) and thus had a stable environment. TCWs being situated in the shallow sheltered bays with low tidal amplitude favours the rooting of propagules [82, 89]. Mangroves follow the existing patterns of fluvial influx and their distribution is determined by the formation of banks, deltas, channels, levees, lagoons, and bays [55, 90–92]. Mangroves respond to geomorphic changes [93, 94] and attain a steady-state system in low energy tropical saline environments [95]. Mangrove succession is a continuous process, where the

species recruitment and replacement is systematic and anticipated [96]. It has to be noted here that the likelihood of this phenomenon is of enormous benefit in assessing the evolution towards the climax species complex. The ecological succes-

sion from land towards the sea in TCWS in south Andaman is as follows: *Fimbrisstylis littoralis* is the pioneering key-stone plant followed by *Acrostichum aureum* and *Acanthus ilicifolius*. *Avicennia spp/Rhizopara spp* are the prime mangroves to colonize. The ecological succession of mangrove in TCWs are

phenology along with the habitat descriptions are presented in **Table 3**.

**Figure 3.**

**49**

*and (c) North Flat Bay.*

These mud banks in the TCWs were wet, saline, and poorly aerated proves unfavourable for higher plants [82] so, microbes and algae prepare the mud banks for the utilization of higher plants by aerating them [83, 84]. Also, sediments are counteracted by compaction and consolidation of both mud and peat [82]. Coaction of non-woody key-stone species like *Fimbrisstylis littoralis, Acrostichum aureum,* and *Acanthus ilicifolius* subsequently colonized the TCWs (**Figure 5**, **Tables 1–3**). The aforementioned key-stone species were the pioneer plants to colonize the landmass subsided zones thus trapping the sediments and nutrients resulting in the invasion of novel mangrove species [85, 86]. Basically, key-stone species for the initial succession perform the role of nurse plants which start on the bare aerated soil, modifying its conditions like decreasing interstitial salinity and increasing nutrient, enabling the succession of mangroves and can thus be called facilitator species [87, 88]. key-stone species like *Fimbrisstylis littoralis and Acrostichum aureum* were invariably found in all the forty-three sites. Similarly, mangrove species like *Rhizophora* and *Avicennia spp* were also encountered in all the stations. *Pandanus tectorius* and *Pemphis acidula* were found in Mitha Khari and Ward XVII respectively (**Table 1**). Basic soil textures like clay, sand, and loam in different

*Secondary Ecological Succession of Mangrove in the 2004 Tsunami Created Wetlands of South… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94113*

**Figure 3.**

conduits of natural streams network (**Figure 4**). Freshly deposited fine sediments

*Village-wise soil texture, pre-tsunami landuse pattern and maximum distance from the existing mangrove patch.*

43\*\* Wimberlygunj Clay loam and clay Agricultural Land 2.02

**Village name Soil texture type Pre-tsunami land**

36\*\* Nayasahar Clay and clay loam Agricultural Land

37\*\* Bimblitian Clay and clay loam Agricultural Land

38\*\* Taylerabad Clay and clay loam Agricultural Land

39\*\* Muslim Basti Clay and clay loam Agricultural Land

40\*\* Kanyapuram Clay loam and clay Agricultural Land

41\*\* Govindapuram Clay loam and clay Agricultural Land

42\*\* Stewardgunj Clay loam and clay Agricultural Land

31 Ward VII Sandy clay — — 32 Ward IV Sandy clay — — 33\* Ward XVII Clay Agricultural Land 1.01 34 Brookshabad Clay — —

**use land cover**

Clay loam — —

& Settlement

& Settlement

& Settlement

& Settlement

& Settlement

& Settlement

& Settlement

**Max distance from the existing mangrove patch (km)**

2.5

1.2

0.87

1.32

0.95

1.47

1.91

These mud banks in the TCWs were wet, saline, and poorly aerated proves unfavourable for higher plants [82] so, microbes and algae prepare the mud banks for the utilization of higher plants by aerating them [83, 84]. Also, sediments are counteracted by compaction and consolidation of both mud and peat [82]. Coaction of non-woody key-stone species like *Fimbrisstylis littoralis, Acrostichum aureum,* and *Acanthus ilicifolius* subsequently colonized the TCWs (**Figure 5**, **Tables 1–3**). The aforementioned key-stone species were the pioneer plants to colonize the landmass subsided zones thus trapping the sediments and nutrients resulting in the invasion of novel mangrove species [85, 86]. Basically, key-stone species for the initial succession perform the role of nurse plants which start on the bare aerated soil, modifying its conditions like decreasing interstitial salinity and increasing nutrient, enabling the succession of mangroves and can thus be called facilitator species [87, 88]. key-stone species like *Fimbrisstylis littoralis and Acrostichum aureum* were invariably found in all the forty-three sites. Similarly, mangrove species like *Rhizophora* and *Avicennia spp* were also encountered in all the stations. *Pandanus tectorius* and *Pemphis acidula* were found in Mitha Khari and Ward XVII respec-

tively (**Table 1**). Basic soil textures like clay, sand, and loam in different

are barren and are called as mud banks.

*Indicates TCWs in the vicinity of pre-existing mangrove.*

*\*\*Indicates new venues of TCWs.*

**Sl no**

*\**

**48**

**Table 2.**

35 New

Rangachang

*Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration*

*Satellite image showing before and nudation of mangrove after tsunami (a) Bambooflat, (b) South Flat Bay and (c) North Flat Bay.*

combinations were found in the focus area (**Table 2**). The flowering and fruiting phenology along with the habitat descriptions are presented in **Table 3**.

The mangrove seedlings were transported to the TCWs through the tidal influx from pre-existing mangrove (**Tables 1** and **2**) and thus had a stable environment. TCWs being situated in the shallow sheltered bays with low tidal amplitude favours the rooting of propagules [82, 89]. Mangroves follow the existing patterns of fluvial influx and their distribution is determined by the formation of banks, deltas, channels, levees, lagoons, and bays [55, 90–92]. Mangroves respond to geomorphic changes [93, 94] and attain a steady-state system in low energy tropical saline environments [95]. Mangrove succession is a continuous process, where the species recruitment and replacement is systematic and anticipated [96]. It has to be noted here that the likelihood of this phenomenon is of enormous benefit in assessing the evolution towards the climax species complex. The ecological succession from land towards the sea in TCWS in south Andaman is as follows: *Fimbrisstylis littoralis* is the pioneering key-stone plant followed by *Acrostichum aureum* and *Acanthus ilicifolius*. *Avicennia spp/Rhizopara spp* are the prime mangroves to colonize. The ecological succession of mangrove in TCWs are

**Figure 4.** *Siltation and freshwater influx by natural stream network in TCWs.*

considered as secondary ecological succession, which is caused by a natural disaster like the tsunami, subsidence of landmass followed by permanent waterlogging. This type of succession was studied worldwide [35, 37, 38, 80]. **Figure 5.**

1 *Acanthus ebracteatus*

2 *Acanthus ilicifolius*

3 *Acrostichum aureum*

4 *Aegiceras*

5 *Avicennia marina*

**51**

*corniculatum*

*Field photos of key-stone species and mangroves TCWs.*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94113*

**Sl no Species name Phenology Habitait**

**Flowering Fruiting**

Mar-Jun Jun-Aug Common along tidal streams, inland borders of

NA NA Landward side of mangrove, survives in TCWs completely cut off from sea

Apr-Jun Jun-Aug Often found in high intertidal and intermediate

Apr-Jun Jun-Aug Gregarious in brachish swamps along the seashore and

Throughout the year Often found in inner mangroves along with *Bruguiera*

Brackish water

*Secondary Ecological Succession of Mangrove in the 2004 Tsunami Created Wetlands of South…*

tidal streams

region.

polluted areas

Mangrove swamps under the influence of salt or

spp., *Ceriops* spp., and *Xylocarpus* spp. Also present at landward margin of mangroves inundated during normal high tides and fringing the banks at upstream

estuarine position also present in downstream and low intertidal areas. It is a dominant species in highly

#### **6. Conclusion**

From the present study, it is understood that secondary ecological succession has occurred in Andaman after the catastrophic 2004 tsunami. Key-stone species like *Fimbrisstylis littoralis, Acrostichum aureum* and *Acanthus ilicifolius* acting as a facilitator species were first to colonize the TCWs and followed by mangrove species like *Avicennia spp/Rhizopara spp.* Infact the key-stone species were the pioneer lower plants to colonize the landmass subsided zones of the 2004 tsunami. The nutrientrich upstream sediments trapped amongst the roots of the key-stone species provides a conducive environment for the mangrove to colonize. The present study provides a window for anthropogenically induced rehabilitation and restoration of mangrove forests. For any rehabilitation and restoration endeavor of mangrove firstly, the area should be seeded with key-stone species after couple of years mangrove species like *Avicennia spp and Rhizopara spp* has to planted. Thereafter it may take 15–20 years for dense patch of mangrove. A broad avenues for future

*Secondary Ecological Succession of Mangrove in the 2004 Tsunami Created Wetlands of South… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94113*

#### **Figure 5.**

considered as secondary ecological succession, which is caused by a natural disaster like the tsunami, subsidence of landmass followed by permanent waterlogging. This type of succession was studied worldwide [35, 37, 38, 80].

*Siltation and freshwater influx by natural stream network in TCWs.*

From the present study, it is understood that secondary ecological succession has occurred in Andaman after the catastrophic 2004 tsunami. Key-stone species like *Fimbrisstylis littoralis, Acrostichum aureum* and *Acanthus ilicifolius* acting as a facilitator species were first to colonize the TCWs and followed by mangrove species like *Avicennia spp/Rhizopara spp.* Infact the key-stone species were the pioneer lower plants to colonize the landmass subsided zones of the 2004 tsunami. The nutrientrich upstream sediments trapped amongst the roots of the key-stone species provides a conducive environment for the mangrove to colonize. The present study provides a window for anthropogenically induced rehabilitation and restoration of mangrove forests. For any rehabilitation and restoration endeavor of mangrove firstly, the area should be seeded with key-stone species after couple of years mangrove species like *Avicennia spp and Rhizopara spp* has to planted. Thereafter it may take 15–20 years for dense patch of mangrove. A broad avenues for future

**6. Conclusion**

**50**

**Figure 4.**

*Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration*

*Field photos of key-stone species and mangroves TCWs.*



research are generated like role of benthic community, avian population, physico-

*Secondary Ecological Succession of Mangrove in the 2004 Tsunami Created Wetlands of South…*

Mar-Jun Jun-Sep Often occurs on the landward edge of mangrove

Throughout the year Occur in the sheltered banks in association with

swamps in brackish water and muddy soil.

Kandelia candel, Rhizophora sp and Sonneratia alba

The author would like to acknowledge Dr. G. Narshimulu, guest faculty, Dept. Geography, JNRM, Port Blair, Andaman for the capturing field photos. Also, gratitude's is due to Dr. Manoharan, PG- teacher, Rangat, Middle Andaman for

Field visits and other incidentals were spent from our own coffer and no external funding's were received from either national or international agencies.

chemical and biological parametric studies, etc., in TCWs.

**Sl no Species name Phenology Habitait**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94113*

*Pehonology and habitat description is as per Ref. [62].*

*Phenology of mangrove and it associated species.*

**Flowering Fruiting**

**Acknowledgements**

26 *Sonneratia ovata*

27 *Xylocarpus granatum*

**Table 3.**

**Conflict of interest**

None.

**53**

inspiring to write this book chapter.

*Secondary Ecological Succession of Mangrove in the 2004 Tsunami Created Wetlands of South… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94113*


**Table 3.**

**Sl no Species name Phenology Habitait**

6 *Avicennia officinalis*

*Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration*

7 *Bruguiera cylindrica*

8 *Bruguiera gymnorhiza*

9 *Bruguiera parviflora*

11 *Cynometra iripa*

13 *Excoecaria agallocha*

14 *Heritiera littoralis*

15 *Lumnitzera littorea*

16 *Lumnitzera racemosa*

18 *Pemphis acidula*

19 *Phoenix paludosa*

20 *Pandanus tectorius*

21 *Rhizophora apiculata*

22 *Rhizophora mucronata*

23 *Rhizophora stylosa*

24 *Scyphiphora hydrophylacea*

25 *Sonneratia alba*

**52**

12 *Dolichandrone spathacea*

**Flowering Fruiting**

Jun-Aug Aug-Oct Often found in low and high intertidal position and also

Mar-Jun Jun-Aug Gregrious on stiff clay behind Avicennia, sometimes in association with Bruguiera gymnorrhiza

Throughout the year Commonly occur in intertidal zone, along creeks,

Apr-Jul Jul-Sep Occur in intertidal zones of esturaine swamps in

apiculata and R. mucronata

Sep-Nov Dec-Feb Frequent to back mangrove in the Heritiera littoralis

May-Jun Jun-Aug Sporadic occurrence, found around the inner edge

caseolaris and Heritiera littoralis

Mar-Jun Jun-Aug Occurs in muddy or sandy shores, commonly found in

extending into muddy or sandy shores

Mar-Jun Jun-Aug Commonly found in intertial zone, frequently

Jan-Apr Apr-Oct Occurs in middle zone of mangrove forest, where soulble salts are more

Jan-Apr Apr-Jul Occurs in muddy or sandy elevated zones of esturaine

preferably low saline regions

May-Jul Jul-Sep Occur in intertidal regions of the creek in the in sheltered parts of mangrove

establishing on the coral substrate.

Mar-Jun Jun-Sep Occurs along the mouth of tidal creeks, grows on sandy

Along mangrove creeks

or rocky soil

nearer to and under esturaine influnce

banks of the creek.

mucronata

10 *Ceriops tagal* Mar-Jul Jul-Oct Occur in intertidal banks of mangrove, also in areas

zones

intertidal

and backwater

Aug-Dec Dec-Apr Occur along the edge of mangrove forests

17 *Nypa fruticans* Feb-Jun Jun-Sep Sheltered intertidal creeks of mangrove swamps,

too

Jan-May May-

Sep-Nov Nov-

Jul-Sep Sep-

Jul-Sep Sep-

Mar-Aug Mar-

Aug

Marp

Nov

Nov

Aug

occur in mid and upper estuarine position along the

usually associated with Rhizophora apiculata and R.

association with Bruguriera gymnorrhiza,Rhizophora

ofmangrove swamps in association with Sonneratia

Elevated muddy swamps, esturaine banks, can tolerate higher percentage of salt, even found on the sea coast

Littoral shrub,often found in the tidal forests

Occur in intertidal banks of creeks or in estuaries

Often found in mid to low intertidal and downstream tidal creeks; grows in a variety of habitats and disrupted mangrove areas. One distinctive niche is its ability to grow on edges of small coral islands,

*Phenology of mangrove and it associated species.*

research are generated like role of benthic community, avian population, physicochemical and biological parametric studies, etc., in TCWs.

#### **Acknowledgements**

The author would like to acknowledge Dr. G. Narshimulu, guest faculty, Dept. Geography, JNRM, Port Blair, Andaman for the capturing field photos. Also, gratitude's is due to Dr. Manoharan, PG- teacher, Rangat, Middle Andaman for inspiring to write this book chapter.

Field visits and other incidentals were spent from our own coffer and no external funding's were received from either national or international agencies.

#### **Conflict of interest**

None.

*Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration*

#### **Author details**

V. Shiva Shankar<sup>1</sup> \*, Neelam Purti<sup>2</sup> , Ravi Pratap Singh<sup>3</sup> and Faiyaz A. Khudsar<sup>4</sup> **References**

[1] Pereira FRDS, Kampel M, Cunha-Lignon M. Mapping of mangrove forests on the southern coast of São Paulo, Brazil, using synthetic aperture radar data from ALOS/PALSAR. Remote Sensing Letters. 2011;**3**(7):567-576

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94113*

Journal of Coastal Conservation. 2015; **19**(4):417-443 https://doi.org/10.1007/

[9] Ragavan P, Mohan PM, Saxena A, Jayaraj RSC, Ravichandran K, Saxena M. Mangrove floristics of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands: critical review and current scenario. Marine Biodiversity.

2016 https://doi.org/10.1007/

[10] Lignon, C.M., Kampel, M.,

[11] Dodd RS, Ong JE. Future of Mangrove Ecosystems to 2025. In: Polunin NV, editor. Aquatic Ecosystems: Trends and Global Prospects. New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press; 2008.

[12] Robertson AI, Duke NC. Mangroves as nursery sites, comparisons of the abundance of fish and crustaceans in mangroves and other nearshore habitats in tropical Australia. Marine. Biology. 1987;**96**(2):193-205 https://doi.org/

[13] Twilley RR. The exchange of organic carbon in basin mangrove forests in a southwest Florida estuary. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science. 1985;**20**(5): 543-557 https://doi.org/10.1016/

[14] Moran MA, Wicks RJ, Hodson RE. Export of dissolved organic matter from

a mangrove swamp ecosystem – evidence from natural fluorescence, dissolved lignin phenols and bacterial secondary production. Marine Ecology Progress Series. 1991;**76**:175-184

Menghini, R.P., Novelli, S.Y., Cintrón., Guebas, D.F., (2011). Mangrove Forests Submitted to Depositional Processes and Salinity Variation Investigated using satellite images and vegetation structure surveys. Journal of Coastal Research. SI

s11852-015-0398-4

*Secondary Ecological Succession of Mangrove in the 2004 Tsunami Created Wetlands of South…*

s12526-016-0581-3

64, 344-348.

pp. 172-287

10.1007/BF00427019

0272-7714(85)90106-4

[2] Gnanappazham L, Selvam V. The dynamics in the distribution of

and remote sensing. Geocarto International. 2011;**26**(6):475-490

10.1016/j.ecss.2005.06.022

2007:153

978-1-84407-657-4.

[4] FAO. The world's mangroves 1980-2005. FAO forestry paper.

[5] Spalding, M., Kainuma, M., and Collins, F., (2010). World mangrove atlas. Earthscan, London, 319pp. ISBN:

[6] Sharma S, MacKenzie RA, Tieng T, Soben K, Tulyasuwan N, Resanond A, et al. The impacts of degradation, deforestation and restoration on mangrove ecosystem carbon stocks across Cambodia. Science of the Total Environment. 2019. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135416

[7] Goutham Bharathi MP, Roy SD, Krishnan P, Kaliyamoorthy M, Immanuel T. Species diversity and distribution of mangroves in Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India. Botanica Marina. 2014;**57**(6):421-432 https://doi.

[8] Ragavan P, Saxena A, Mohan PM,

Saravanan S. Diversity, distribution and vegetative structure of mangroves of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India.

org/10.1515/bot-2014-0033

Ravichandran K, Jayaraj RSC,

**55**

mangrove forests in Pichavaram, South India – perception by user community

[3] Kathiresan K, Rajendran N. Coastal mangrove forests mitigated tsunami. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science. 2006;**65**(3):601-606 https://doi.org/

1 Department of Coastal Disaster Management, Pondicherry University, Brookashabad Campus, Port Blair, Andaman, India

2 Department of Environment and Forest, Manglutan Range, South Andaman Forest Division, Andaman, India

3 Department of Ocean Studies and Marine Biology, Pondicherry University, Brookashabad Campus, Port Blair, Andaman, India

4 Yamuna Biodiversity Park, CEMDE, University of Delhi, Delhi, India

\*Address all correspondence to: shivashankarvj@gmail.com

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Secondary Ecological Succession of Mangrove in the 2004 Tsunami Created Wetlands of South… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94113*

#### **References**

[1] Pereira FRDS, Kampel M, Cunha-Lignon M. Mapping of mangrove forests on the southern coast of São Paulo, Brazil, using synthetic aperture radar data from ALOS/PALSAR. Remote Sensing Letters. 2011;**3**(7):567-576

[2] Gnanappazham L, Selvam V. The dynamics in the distribution of mangrove forests in Pichavaram, South India – perception by user community and remote sensing. Geocarto International. 2011;**26**(6):475-490

[3] Kathiresan K, Rajendran N. Coastal mangrove forests mitigated tsunami. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science. 2006;**65**(3):601-606 https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.ecss.2005.06.022

[4] FAO. The world's mangroves 1980-2005. FAO forestry paper. 2007:153

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[7] Goutham Bharathi MP, Roy SD, Krishnan P, Kaliyamoorthy M, Immanuel T. Species diversity and distribution of mangroves in Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India. Botanica Marina. 2014;**57**(6):421-432 https://doi. org/10.1515/bot-2014-0033

[8] Ragavan P, Saxena A, Mohan PM, Ravichandran K, Jayaraj RSC, Saravanan S. Diversity, distribution and vegetative structure of mangroves of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India.

Journal of Coastal Conservation. 2015; **19**(4):417-443 https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11852-015-0398-4

[9] Ragavan P, Mohan PM, Saxena A, Jayaraj RSC, Ravichandran K, Saxena M. Mangrove floristics of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands: critical review and current scenario. Marine Biodiversity. 2016 https://doi.org/10.1007/ s12526-016-0581-3

[10] Lignon, C.M., Kampel, M., Menghini, R.P., Novelli, S.Y., Cintrón., Guebas, D.F., (2011). Mangrove Forests Submitted to Depositional Processes and Salinity Variation Investigated using satellite images and vegetation structure surveys. Journal of Coastal Research. SI 64, 344-348.

[11] Dodd RS, Ong JE. Future of Mangrove Ecosystems to 2025. In: Polunin NV, editor. Aquatic Ecosystems: Trends and Global Prospects. New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press; 2008. pp. 172-287

[12] Robertson AI, Duke NC. Mangroves as nursery sites, comparisons of the abundance of fish and crustaceans in mangroves and other nearshore habitats in tropical Australia. Marine. Biology. 1987;**96**(2):193-205 https://doi.org/ 10.1007/BF00427019

[13] Twilley RR. The exchange of organic carbon in basin mangrove forests in a southwest Florida estuary. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science. 1985;**20**(5): 543-557 https://doi.org/10.1016/ 0272-7714(85)90106-4

[14] Moran MA, Wicks RJ, Hodson RE. Export of dissolved organic matter from a mangrove swamp ecosystem – evidence from natural fluorescence, dissolved lignin phenols and bacterial secondary production. Marine Ecology Progress Series. 1991;**76**:175-184

**Author details**

*Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration*

V. Shiva Shankar<sup>1</sup>

**54**

Forest Division, Andaman, India

\*, Neelam Purti<sup>2</sup>

Brookashabad Campus, Port Blair, Andaman, India

Brookashabad Campus, Port Blair, Andaman, India

provided the original work is properly cited.

\*Address all correspondence to: shivashankarvj@gmail.com

1 Department of Coastal Disaster Management, Pondicherry University,

2 Department of Environment and Forest, Manglutan Range, South Andaman

3 Department of Ocean Studies and Marine Biology, Pondicherry University,

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

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Section 2

Ecosystem Services

Section 2
