Stieglers Gorge Dam Construction: Potential Impacts and Possible Mangrove Restoration Options in the Rufiji Delta, Tanzania

*Claude Gasper Mung'ong'o*

## **Abstract**

The varied importance of mangroves has long been recognized. And so have been the threats to their existence, leading to various actions taken locally by local communities, national governments, and through international agreements for the protection and integration of human livelihood needs in a manner that balances conservation goals and goals of socio-economic development. In Tanzania the mangrove conservation ethos began during the German colonization of Tanganyika and has been persistent in the age of high globalization. In an effort to deepen our understanding of the dynamics of global, national and local nature conservation, this chapter documents the various strategies and approaches used in mangrove restoration elsewhere in the world generally, and then specifically in the Rufiji Delta. The chapter further unpacks the contrasting socio-political interests behind the efforts to conserve mangroves worldwide and in Tanzania. It does so by looking at three competing narratives, i.e. the mainstream perspective, the neo-liberal perspective, and the local cultural perspective, acting at a number of nested scales from the local grassroots to the national and the global scales.

**Keywords:** ecosystem goods, ecosystem services, Africa, coastal community, conservation management, socioeconomic

#### **1. Introduction**

#### **1.1 Framing the problem**

Mangroves have provided critical services to humans and the ecosystems. They have done this well and their ecological, economic, cultural and esthetic importance values have long been recognized. It was not until recently in the Anthropocene when the threats to their existence have been magnified with losses of the habitat of more than 50% reported in some parts of the globe due to their commoditization [1–5]. It is thus that the mangrove conservation ethos has particularly been persistent now than ever before in human history [6].

In an attempt to deepen our understanding of the dynamics of nature conservation reinforced by dominant discourses of the 1990s, neo-liberalism and ecological modernization, this chapter documents the strategies and approaches used in mangrove restoration in Tanzania, in general, and specifically in the Rufiji Delta. The chapter further unpacks the contrasting interests behind the efforts to conserve mangroves worldwide. This is done by looking at three competing moral narratives operating at nested scales from the grassroots to achieve conservation with social justice through the national, regional to the global and back again [7–9]. The three narratives interrogated here are the mainstream ecological conservation narrative, the neo-liberal economic narrative and the local cultural narrative at the grassroots [10] as discussed later in this chapter.

#### **1.2 Methodology**

Data collection for this study involved a desk-based literature search during September–November, 2019. Published and gray literature and secondary sources were purposively sampled using key words in the Google search engine. Key words such as mangroves, restoration, commoditization, ecosystem goods and services, Rufiji Delta, et cetera, were used to create a document set for known mangrove countries in the world.

A qualitative content analysis approach was then used to analyze each of the relevant research categories. Through a directed approach each document was reviewed to identify and collate evidence for each of the research themes and the level at which they operated. Three levels were identified: namely, local factors that operate at the community, village and household level; national factors that operate at the state level; and international factors that operate beyond the level of the state.

Content analysis was then followed by discourse and narrative analyses that have long been a major part of political ecology. While discourse analysis was an epistemological exercise, narrative analysis was important for understanding how environmental knowledge of specific events was communicated [11]. These narratives were deemed important for policymakers as they would make arguments for controlling the actions of certain, often unknowing groups; to achieve desired environmental outcomes. The rest of this chapter is structured according to the results of these latter analyses.

#### **2. Results and discussion**

#### **2.1 Defining the mangrove ecosystem**

The word "mangrove" refers to trees, families of the plant, and the ecosystem that has adapted to flourish in tidal zones in tropical and sub-tropical regions. Mangroves have been defined variously by many people; but they all agreed that mangroves are salt-tolerant evergreen forests found at sheltered coastlines, shallow-water lagoons, estuaries, rivers or deltas in intertidal areas around the world [12, 13].

They comprise around 73 species covering an area of over 150,000 km<sup>2</sup> spread in 123 countries [1]. (See also **Figure 1**). Over two-thirds of the mangroves exist in just 12 countries, with Indonesia accounting for over 20% of the global mangrove area. With about 8% of the total mangrove estate, Brazil has the largest contiguous mangrove forest cover. In tropical estuaries of Indonesia and Brazil and deltas like the Rufiji, there grows some of the largest mangrove trees in the world, reaching heights of 30 m or more, with extensive roots penetrating into soft mud deposits. Mangrove trees growing in the sediments of a carbonated shoreline and in arid,

**133**

*Stieglers Gorge Dam Construction: Potential Impacts and Possible Mangrove Restoration Options...*

very salty regions along the Red Sea are so much smaller that they look like stunted

*Mangroves are common along tropical and subtropical coastlines around the world, and among the most biologically important systems on earth [12]. Source: NASA earth observatory as described by Twilley and* 

by the Forest Act of 2002 [16]. They occur along almost the entire coastline in continuous or fragmented stands [17]. Recent estimates by the National Forest Resources Monitoring and Assessment (NAFORMA) indicate that mangroves cover approximately 158,100 ha, which is about 0.3% of the total forest area in the

Despite the commercial value of mangroves, "blue" carbon ecosystems are globally being lost twice as fast as tropical rainforests [19]. They are threatened by changing climate, natural impacts such as hurricanes, and human impacts such as deforestation and alterations in freshwater management regimes. Approximately 35% of mangrove trees were lost in this way during the last two decades of the 20th

Ngongolo *et al* [21] note, for example, that by 2000 the total estimate for man-

1980 and 1990, and 0.7% per year for the period 1990–2000. Hence, the anticipated

Ecosystem services are the benefits that people get from ecosystems such as mangroves [21, 22]. Forests moderate the amount and type of water we get from a river. It also decreases both the erosion and run-off of a place. They also provide food security as far as the variety of biodiversity they contain and general economic development. The goods and services they provide have the capacity to bring

, representing a decline from 198,000 km<sup>2</sup>

in 1990. These losses represent about 2.0% per year between

of mangroves in

Mangrove forests in mainland Tanzania are categorized as State Forest Reserves

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94141*

"ornamental trees in public parks" [15].

task of mangrove restoration is immense.

**2.2 Mangrove's ecosystem services**

country [18].

**Figure 1.**

*Rovai [14].*

century [20].

groves was 137,760 km2

1980, and 157,630 km<sup>2</sup>

*Stieglers Gorge Dam Construction: Potential Impacts and Possible Mangrove Restoration Options... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94141*

#### **Figure 1.**

*Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration*

[10] as discussed later in this chapter.

**1.2 Methodology**

countries in the world.

analyses.

world [12, 13].

**2. Results and discussion**

**2.1 Defining the mangrove ecosystem**

modernization, this chapter documents the strategies and approaches used in mangrove restoration in Tanzania, in general, and specifically in the Rufiji Delta. The chapter further unpacks the contrasting interests behind the efforts to conserve mangroves worldwide. This is done by looking at three competing moral narratives operating at nested scales from the grassroots to achieve conservation with social justice through the national, regional to the global and back again [7–9]. The three narratives interrogated here are the mainstream ecological conservation narrative, the neo-liberal economic narrative and the local cultural narrative at the grassroots

Data collection for this study involved a desk-based literature search during September–November, 2019. Published and gray literature and secondary sources were purposively sampled using key words in the Google search engine. Key words such as mangroves, restoration, commoditization, ecosystem goods and services, Rufiji Delta, et cetera, were used to create a document set for known mangrove

A qualitative content analysis approach was then used to analyze each of the relevant research categories. Through a directed approach each document was reviewed to identify and collate evidence for each of the research themes and the level at which they operated. Three levels were identified: namely, local factors that operate at the community, village and household level; national factors that operate at the state level; and international factors that operate beyond the level of the state. Content analysis was then followed by discourse and narrative analyses that have long been a major part of political ecology. While discourse analysis was an epistemological exercise, narrative analysis was important for understanding how environmental knowledge of specific events was communicated [11]. These narratives were deemed important for policymakers as they would make arguments for controlling the actions of certain, often unknowing groups; to achieve desired environmental outcomes. The rest of this chapter is structured according to the results of these latter

The word "mangrove" refers to trees, families of the plant, and the ecosystem that has adapted to flourish in tidal zones in tropical and sub-tropical regions. Mangroves have been defined variously by many people; but they all agreed that mangroves are salt-tolerant evergreen forests found at sheltered coastlines, shallow-water lagoons, estuaries, rivers or deltas in intertidal areas around the

spread

They comprise around 73 species covering an area of over 150,000 km<sup>2</sup>

in 123 countries [1]. (See also **Figure 1**). Over two-thirds of the mangroves exist in just 12 countries, with Indonesia accounting for over 20% of the global mangrove area. With about 8% of the total mangrove estate, Brazil has the largest contiguous mangrove forest cover. In tropical estuaries of Indonesia and Brazil and deltas like the Rufiji, there grows some of the largest mangrove trees in the world, reaching heights of 30 m or more, with extensive roots penetrating into soft mud deposits. Mangrove trees growing in the sediments of a carbonated shoreline and in arid,

**132**

*Mangroves are common along tropical and subtropical coastlines around the world, and among the most biologically important systems on earth [12]. Source: NASA earth observatory as described by Twilley and Rovai [14].*

very salty regions along the Red Sea are so much smaller that they look like stunted "ornamental trees in public parks" [15].

Mangrove forests in mainland Tanzania are categorized as State Forest Reserves by the Forest Act of 2002 [16]. They occur along almost the entire coastline in continuous or fragmented stands [17]. Recent estimates by the National Forest Resources Monitoring and Assessment (NAFORMA) indicate that mangroves cover approximately 158,100 ha, which is about 0.3% of the total forest area in the country [18].

Despite the commercial value of mangroves, "blue" carbon ecosystems are globally being lost twice as fast as tropical rainforests [19]. They are threatened by changing climate, natural impacts such as hurricanes, and human impacts such as deforestation and alterations in freshwater management regimes. Approximately 35% of mangrove trees were lost in this way during the last two decades of the 20th century [20].

Ngongolo *et al* [21] note, for example, that by 2000 the total estimate for mangroves was 137,760 km2 , representing a decline from 198,000 km2 of mangroves in 1980, and 157,630 km<sup>2</sup> in 1990. These losses represent about 2.0% per year between 1980 and 1990, and 0.7% per year for the period 1990–2000. Hence, the anticipated task of mangrove restoration is immense.

#### **2.2 Mangrove's ecosystem services**

Ecosystem services are the benefits that people get from ecosystems such as mangroves [21, 22]. Forests moderate the amount and type of water we get from a river. It also decreases both the erosion and run-off of a place. They also provide food security as far as the variety of biodiversity they contain and general economic development. The goods and services they provide have the capacity to bring

resilience among smallholder farmers, through diversification of incomes and livelihoods such as fishing.

Ecosystem services are necessary for people's livelihoods and wellbeing. They include provisioning, regulating, and cultural services that directly affect people, and supporting services needed to maintain other services (**Figure 2**). This is from the provisioning of food and water, to disease regulation and maintenance of general conditions of the natural environment. Biodiversity is behind every ecosystem services.

The concept of ecosystem services has been used in diverse ways by different interests to justify different kinds of interventions that at times might be totally opposed. The concept has historically been depicted as a one-way flow of services from ecosystems to people. Jeffers *et al.* [21] argue, however, that this conceptualization is inaccurate. It neglects the reality that humans have often also contributed to the maintenance and enhancement of ecosystems, as evidenced in many traditional and indigenous societies.

Secondly, the ecosystem services idea has mainly been used to justify forest conservation in ways open to critique for its neo-liberalization of nature [25, 26] or disempowerment of communities in some developing countries such as Madagascar. On the other hand, the discourse of ecosystem services has also served the liberating agendas of traditional populations and family farm lobbies in places like the Brazilian Amazon, where the ecosystem services concept has been mobilized by diverse actor interests in real-life situations that have led "to complex, regionally particular and fundamentally political outcomes" [27].

Irrespective of the range of species and forest types, the manifold ecological role of mangrove ecosystems is, economically and socially, highly significant. The international discourse on mangroves hypothesizes that they play an important part in shaping the physical coastline by trapping sediments and stabilizing the coast.

#### **Figure 2.**

*Healthy ecosystems benefit human well-being. Humans have often also contributed to the maintenance and enhancement of ecosystems in a reciprocal fashion [23]. Source: Adopted and modified from Chapin*  et al. *[24].*

**135**

**Figure 3.**

*Mwansasu [29]).*

*Stieglers Gorge Dam Construction: Potential Impacts and Possible Mangrove Restoration Options...*

Moreover, the mangroves are highly productive ecosystem that can store carbon in sediment for long period; therefore, they have the potential of providing an effi-

Mangrove plantation provides the possibility of forestation for the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) project worldwide. Recent studies revealed that mangrove restoration can continue to combat climate change after 25–30 years [28]. Anthropogenic interventions decrease the capacity of ecosystems to provide goods

Located between latitudes 7°50′ and 8°03′ S and longitudes 39°15′ and 32°17′E, the Rufiji Delta is about 200 km south of Dar-es-Salaam (**Figure 3**). The lower Rufiji valley starts upstream from Stiegler's Gorge, some 180 km from the Indian Ocean, and into the Selous Game Reserve. Below the gorge the river fans out into an outer plain with numerous lakes before entering its lower floodplain. This part of the floodplain gradually widens until the river branches out and forms the 23 km

Before reaching the Mafia Channel in the East, the river passes through 20 islands and 31 villages, and supports the largest contiguous block of mangrove

*Location of the delta area in Rufiji District, Tanzania. The crescent shaped Rufiji Delta has extensive, estuarine mangrove forests that constitute almost half of Tanzania's mangrove forests (Source: Adopted from* 

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94141*

cient CO2 sink [11].

and services as discussed above.

**2.3 The mangrove estate of the Rufiji Delta**

wide and 65 km long cobra like hood of the delta [30].

*Stieglers Gorge Dam Construction: Potential Impacts and Possible Mangrove Restoration Options... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94141*

Moreover, the mangroves are highly productive ecosystem that can store carbon in sediment for long period; therefore, they have the potential of providing an efficient CO2 sink [11].

Mangrove plantation provides the possibility of forestation for the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) project worldwide. Recent studies revealed that mangrove restoration can continue to combat climate change after 25–30 years [28]. Anthropogenic interventions decrease the capacity of ecosystems to provide goods and services as discussed above.

#### **2.3 The mangrove estate of the Rufiji Delta**

*Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration*

tional and indigenous societies.

fundamentally political outcomes" [27].

hoods such as fishing.

resilience among smallholder farmers, through diversification of incomes and liveli-

Ecosystem services are necessary for people's livelihoods and wellbeing. They include provisioning, regulating, and cultural services that directly affect people, and supporting services needed to maintain other services (**Figure 2**). This is from the provisioning of food and water, to disease regulation and maintenance of general conditions of the natural environment. Biodiversity is behind every ecosystem services. The concept of ecosystem services has been used in diverse ways by different interests to justify different kinds of interventions that at times might be totally opposed. The concept has historically been depicted as a one-way flow of services from ecosystems to people. Jeffers *et al.* [21] argue, however, that this conceptualization is inaccurate. It neglects the reality that humans have often also contributed to the maintenance and enhancement of ecosystems, as evidenced in many tradi-

Secondly, the ecosystem services idea has mainly been used to justify forest conservation in ways open to critique for its neo-liberalization of nature [25, 26] or disempowerment of communities in some developing countries such as Madagascar. On the other hand, the discourse of ecosystem services has also served the liberating agendas of traditional populations and family farm lobbies in places like the Brazilian Amazon, where the ecosystem services concept has been mobilized by diverse actor interests in real-life situations that have led "to complex, regionally particular and

Irrespective of the range of species and forest types, the manifold ecological role of mangrove ecosystems is, economically and socially, highly significant. The international discourse on mangroves hypothesizes that they play an important part in shaping the physical coastline by trapping sediments and stabilizing the coast.

*Healthy ecosystems benefit human well-being. Humans have often also contributed to the maintenance and enhancement of ecosystems in a reciprocal fashion [23]. Source: Adopted and modified from Chapin* 

**134**

**Figure 2.**

et al. *[24].*

Located between latitudes 7°50′ and 8°03′ S and longitudes 39°15′ and 32°17′E, the Rufiji Delta is about 200 km south of Dar-es-Salaam (**Figure 3**). The lower Rufiji valley starts upstream from Stiegler's Gorge, some 180 km from the Indian Ocean, and into the Selous Game Reserve. Below the gorge the river fans out into an outer plain with numerous lakes before entering its lower floodplain. This part of the floodplain gradually widens until the river branches out and forms the 23 km wide and 65 km long cobra like hood of the delta [30].

Before reaching the Mafia Channel in the East, the river passes through 20 islands and 31 villages, and supports the largest contiguous block of mangrove

#### **Figure 3.**

*Location of the delta area in Rufiji District, Tanzania. The crescent shaped Rufiji Delta has extensive, estuarine mangrove forests that constitute almost half of Tanzania's mangrove forests (Source: Adopted from Mwansasu [29]).*

forest (53,255 ha) in East Africa. Eight mangrove species are reported to occur and are well represented in the delta, i.e. *Avicennia marina, Sonneratia alba, Ceriops tagal, Lumnitzera racemosa, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Rhizophora mucronata, Xylocarpus granatum* and *Heritiera littoralis* [31]. Two particular species, *Xylocarpus molluccensis* and *Pemphis acidula,* are missing in the delta. These are characteristically rare in the region due to a limited geomorphological niche [17].

In the delta mangroves are cleared mostly for rice farming and timber to feed urban Tanzania, including Zanzibar, and some parts of the United Arab Emirates. Areas dominated by *H. littoralis* are more favored for rice farming while *C. tagal, R. mucronata* and *B. gymnorrhiza* are heavily cut for poles. *X. granatum,* and more recently *S. alba,* are logged for timber [32].

Rufiji River is also endowed with the greatest fish potential along Tanzania's coastline, supporting about 80% of all prawn fisheries in the country [33, 34]. With a mean annual flow of approximately 800 m3/, Rufiji is one of the largest rivers in Africa and drains 20% of mainland Tanzania through three major tributaries, the Great Ruaha, the Kilombero and the Luwegu. Together, the rivers provide approximately 18%, 62% and 15% of Rufiji's annual flow, respectively [35].

The basin is targeted for major socio-economic development over the next two decades as part of the Southern Agricultural Growth Corridor of Tanzania (SAGCOT). Its water resources are central to the development plans. If the plans go on as arranged targets are met, irrigation water demand will increase by 7 billion m3 /per year. 2.4 giga watts of new hydropower are expected to be produced from the controversial Stigler's Gorge. Many of these developments will be in the most valued landscapes and ecosystems of Kilombero and Lower Rufiji sub-basins [36].

Coastal sedimentation and siltation of coastal waters due to agricultural expansion on the highlands has always been a blessing rather than a curse. Of primary threat will probably be reduced stream and peak water flows due to the proposed river impoundment for the hydroelectricity power (HEP) station, with the associated trapping of sediments in the proposed dam [37]. This is further expected to have significant consequences with respect to increased salt water intrusion and diminished nutrient availability for agriculture and altered natural vegetation in the floodplain and the delta.

The delta is also an internationally recognized wetland protected under the Ramsar Convention and a system of UNESCO's World Heritage Sites upstream [38]. These aquatic systems have historically provided valuable ecosystem services, including the *mlau* agriculture performed by the Warufiji as discussed elsewhere by Ochieng [30], Duvail and Hamerlynck [35], and others.

#### **2.4 Mangrove restoration initiatives/options**

The characteristics of ecosystems, such as species composition, tree cover or growth conditions, modulate the type and magnitude of ecosystem services that can flow to societies. Mangrove restoration is an important strategy for reversing plant decline and rebuilding the ecosystem services lost due to deforestation and degradation. Mangrove restoration has usually been in the form of replants of single species, and has mostly been for silvicultural purposes. More recently replants have, however, also been undertaken to re-create the lost ecosystem functions [17]. The Indian Ocean region, for example, saw the rapid expansion of government and NGO-funded mangrove replants after the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami to maximize the coastal protection function provided by mangroves.

Large-scale planting projects have, nevertheless, had mixed success. Many causes have contributed to the low success of plantation interventions, including:

**137**

below.

*Stieglers Gorge Dam Construction: Potential Impacts and Possible Mangrove Restoration Options...*

i) biological causes such as pest infestations, ii) unsuitable physical locations, and

In addition, knowledge of the ecological processes has been added in some projects to increase restoration success. One such approach has been the Ecological Mangrove Restoration (EMR), a community based restoration practice that used several ecological principles to support natural decolonization [39]. This approach shifts the emphasis from seedling planting to prior physical site preparation. For example, the hydrology and topography of a site can be restored to allow natural

Nested within mainstream values and definitions of development in Tanzania,

2.inadequate perceptions about the socio-economic benefits of local aquaculture

3.the central government may be seeing mangrove restoration from the angle of ecological services, while local people view mangrove forests as part of their

For example, local aquaculture production systems are considered by regional and district officials to be economically inefficient and incongruent with broader national economic development goals for wetlands [21]. Such assumptions and

In contrast, traditional use of common property mangrove resources is not accorded the same economic value in mainstream discourse despite the numerous benefits provided to local communities [42, 43]. Such conceptions of local inefficiencies and the economic productivity of external aquaculture and carbon sequestration for REDD+ situate well within the broader value sets and definitions of "development" and encourage neo-liberal narratives in developing countries like

Moreover, in the case of Rufiji study area, values supportive of common property ecosystems held by indigenous groups have been usurped by an influx of different interest groups, including international environmental NGOs with their political

The practice of mangrove restoration is based on restoration ecology, which aims to help the recovery of resilience and capacity of ecosystems to adapt to degradation and other damage. Since environmental impacts are ongoing, successful restoration of an ecosystem implies not merely to recreate its former condition, but to strengthen its capacity to adapt to change over time [48]. One of these capacities is

After the acknowledgement that strict protection of mangroves did not work in Tanzania, experiments have recently been unfolding in the Rufiji Delta and elsewhere in the country. Three different models of community engagement have been tried in the delta with varying degrees of success [49] as discussed

perceptions are even captured in formal policy documents [41].

agendas and economic modes of production [44, 46, 47].

the management aspects of mangrove conservation.

several assumptions tend to have guided a policy narrative that has supported

1. assumptions of inefficiency in local resource use and management

iii) the socio-economic aspects, as elaborated in Section 3.3 below.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94141*

regeneration of selected mangrove species [40].

mangrove forest conservation in the country:

culture and source of livelihoods.

regimes [28];

Tanzania [44, 45].

production system, and

**2.5 Mangroves in the mainstream development narrative**

*Stieglers Gorge Dam Construction: Potential Impacts and Possible Mangrove Restoration Options... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94141*

i) biological causes such as pest infestations, ii) unsuitable physical locations, and iii) the socio-economic aspects, as elaborated in Section 3.3 below.

In addition, knowledge of the ecological processes has been added in some projects to increase restoration success. One such approach has been the Ecological Mangrove Restoration (EMR), a community based restoration practice that used several ecological principles to support natural decolonization [39]. This approach shifts the emphasis from seedling planting to prior physical site preparation. For example, the hydrology and topography of a site can be restored to allow natural regeneration of selected mangrove species [40].

#### **2.5 Mangroves in the mainstream development narrative**

Nested within mainstream values and definitions of development in Tanzania, several assumptions tend to have guided a policy narrative that has supported mangrove forest conservation in the country:


For example, local aquaculture production systems are considered by regional and district officials to be economically inefficient and incongruent with broader national economic development goals for wetlands [21]. Such assumptions and perceptions are even captured in formal policy documents [41].

In contrast, traditional use of common property mangrove resources is not accorded the same economic value in mainstream discourse despite the numerous benefits provided to local communities [42, 43]. Such conceptions of local inefficiencies and the economic productivity of external aquaculture and carbon sequestration for REDD+ situate well within the broader value sets and definitions of "development" and encourage neo-liberal narratives in developing countries like Tanzania [44, 45].

Moreover, in the case of Rufiji study area, values supportive of common property ecosystems held by indigenous groups have been usurped by an influx of different interest groups, including international environmental NGOs with their political agendas and economic modes of production [44, 46, 47].

The practice of mangrove restoration is based on restoration ecology, which aims to help the recovery of resilience and capacity of ecosystems to adapt to degradation and other damage. Since environmental impacts are ongoing, successful restoration of an ecosystem implies not merely to recreate its former condition, but to strengthen its capacity to adapt to change over time [48]. One of these capacities is the management aspects of mangrove conservation.

After the acknowledgement that strict protection of mangroves did not work in Tanzania, experiments have recently been unfolding in the Rufiji Delta and elsewhere in the country. Three different models of community engagement have been tried in the delta with varying degrees of success [49] as discussed below.

*Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration*

recently *S. alba,* are logged for timber [32].

forest (53,255 ha) in East Africa. Eight mangrove species are reported to occur and are well represented in the delta, i.e. *Avicennia marina, Sonneratia alba, Ceriops tagal, Lumnitzera racemosa, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Rhizophora mucronata, Xylocarpus granatum* and *Heritiera littoralis* [31]. Two particular species, *Xylocarpus molluccensis* and *Pemphis acidula,* are missing in the delta. These are characteristi-

In the delta mangroves are cleared mostly for rice farming and timber to feed urban Tanzania, including Zanzibar, and some parts of the United Arab Emirates. Areas dominated by *H. littoralis* are more favored for rice farming while *C. tagal, R. mucronata* and *B. gymnorrhiza* are heavily cut for poles. *X. granatum,* and more

Rufiji River is also endowed with the greatest fish potential along Tanzania's coastline, supporting about 80% of all prawn fisheries in the country [33, 34]. With a mean annual flow of approximately 800 m3/, Rufiji is one of the largest rivers in Africa and drains 20% of mainland Tanzania through three major tributaries, the Great Ruaha, the Kilombero and the Luwegu. Together, the rivers provide approxi-

The basin is targeted for major socio-economic development over the next two decades as part of the Southern Agricultural Growth Corridor of Tanzania (SAGCOT). Its water resources are central to the development plans. If the plans go on as arranged targets are met, irrigation water demand will increase by 7 billion

/per year. 2.4 giga watts of new hydropower are expected to be produced from the controversial Stigler's Gorge. Many of these developments will be in the most valued landscapes and ecosystems of Kilombero and Lower Rufiji sub-basins [36]. Coastal sedimentation and siltation of coastal waters due to agricultural expansion on the highlands has always been a blessing rather than a curse. Of primary threat will probably be reduced stream and peak water flows due to the proposed river impoundment for the hydroelectricity power (HEP) station, with the associated trapping of sediments in the proposed dam [37]. This is further expected to have significant consequences with respect to increased salt water intrusion and diminished nutrient availability for agriculture and altered natural vegetation in the

The delta is also an internationally recognized wetland protected under the Ramsar Convention and a system of UNESCO's World Heritage Sites upstream [38]. These aquatic systems have historically provided valuable ecosystem services, including the *mlau* agriculture performed by the Warufiji as discussed elsewhere by

The characteristics of ecosystems, such as species composition, tree cover or growth conditions, modulate the type and magnitude of ecosystem services that can flow to societies. Mangrove restoration is an important strategy for reversing plant decline and rebuilding the ecosystem services lost due to deforestation and degradation. Mangrove restoration has usually been in the form of replants of single species, and has mostly been for silvicultural purposes. More recently replants have, however, also been undertaken to re-create the lost ecosystem functions [17]. The Indian Ocean region, for example, saw the rapid expansion of government and NGO-funded mangrove replants after the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami to maximize

Large-scale planting projects have, nevertheless, had mixed success. Many causes have contributed to the low success of plantation interventions, including:

Ochieng [30], Duvail and Hamerlynck [35], and others.

the coastal protection function provided by mangroves.

**2.4 Mangrove restoration initiatives/options**

cally rare in the region due to a limited geomorphological niche [17].

mately 18%, 62% and 15% of Rufiji's annual flow, respectively [35].

**136**

m3

floodplain and the delta.

#### **3. Managing mangroves by restoration and reserves**

Declines in the extent of mangrove forest cover have a long history in the Rufiji Delta [29, 32]. The Rufiji mangrove forest was the first to be declared a forest reserve in Tanzania during the German colonial period in 1898 [45]. The delicate socio-ecological balance was, however, upset during the course of successive German, British, and the national governments.

The British colonial government adopted and expanded a strict protection approach in the 1920s and 1930s [49]. The Forest Ordinance of 1957 allowed for the creation of forest reserves by government decree after considering "any objections" by interested parties to this de jure transfer of rights from local communities to the state. The independent state expanded mangrove forest reserves in the 1960s and has repeatedly used its authority over mangrove forests to exert control over the Rufiji Delta communities and resources. In 1987, for instance, the current Tanzania Forest Service (formerly Forestry and Beekeeping Division) declared a ban on the cutting of all mangroves in the northern Rufiji Delta, with forest officers posted to the area to enforce this ban [12].

By creating 'forest reserves' for the exclusive use of the government, local communities were effectively excluded from using these socially, culturally, and economically important resources. Meanwhile, various large-scale extractive projects were proposed for the delta, including commercial shrimp harvesting [12]. Elsewhere in the Coast Region and the country a devolution of resource management to local government, in combination with improved road access and the opening-up of the Tanzanian economy, led to increasingly unsustainable use of other forests in general.

Evidence from literature shows that traditional government agencies have not been effective in protecting forest ecosystems, including mangrove forests. Constraints of capacity and the economic position of many district agencies have resulted in few controls on the scale and intensity of mangrove conservation in the delta, despite an increasingly well-established legal framework for forest conservation [29, 32].

Tanzania was the first country in Africa to develop a mangrove management plan [49]. Although it was never implemented, the 1991 National Mangrove Management Plan crafted by the TFS was the first attempt at halting mangrove conversion alongside monitoring and regulating the use of the resource. Strict mangrove protection entailed actively excluding people living in and around mangroves from accessing and using mangroves for their survival, while the government controlled the harvest and export of mangrove products, particularly timber and building poles [13].

Tanzania's protectionist policies generally achieved limited and short term success in some locations around the country, with general failure in most mangrove areas of the country. At the local level, to the mid-1990s local residents had, from the colonial period, actively resisted state-led protection of forests, including mangroves [49].

As a result, efforts by the government to continue with strict protection approaches, such as establishment of new marine parks in the late 1990s and mangrove forest reserves continued to face serious implementation challenges, including resistance from coastal residents who complained that these forest reserves and marine parks marginalized them from their main livelihoods [46].

Lack of an appropriate institutional framework for the allocation of management rights and responsibilities between the local government and the national state, as well as weak government enforcement capacity at the national level [33, 51] have been the main culprits of this failure. It was because of these weaknesses, for

**139**

*Stieglers Gorge Dam Construction: Potential Impacts and Possible Mangrove Restoration Options...*

example, that Wang *et al.* [43] and Mwansasu [29] noted the ambiguous features of the forest reserve in the Delta - that there were legally established village settlements within it which relied on mangroves and the associated marine environment for a range of ecosystem goods and services. Population estimates by then indicated that over 49,000 people lived in and around the delta, directly engaging in rice

This was possible partly because of political influence at the national and local levels. Mshale *et al.* [49] point out that politicians at various levels in the Rufiji Delta had been issuing statements that encouraged unsustainable use of mangrove forests and mangrove clearance for paddy rice farming to gain residents' political support, particularly during election times. Such statements sent confusing messages to the populace. While elective politicians often promoted mangrove clearance when this was pertinent to increase votes, the civil service maintained a strict protectionist approach. Often, the rural poor who depended on mangroves for their subsistence continued to be characterized by the state institutions as culprits of the degradation

The 1990s can be dubbed the age of policy shifts. Many natural resource management policies were changed during this period. Since then, the approach to mangrove protection changed, with new efforts being more and more directed toward collaborative management of the trees with local communities. This paradigm shift later led to the emergence of what I call "community appeasement forest management" that was seen as an appropriate alternative to state control with its ambiguous institutional arrangement for ensuring management of forest resources, including mangroves. The turn toward community appeasement forest management was motivated by a number of reasons, including conflicts over forest use between local residents and outsiders seeking to use the forests, and political interests at the

I would argue in this context that mangrove restoration, including replanting, has in fact also been an attempt at community appeasement rather than a forest management practice adopted to regenerate areas that have been seriously degraded. Mangrove restoration has thus been conducted in various parts of the country by the Mangrove Management Programme, as well as in Tanga and Mbweni by local coastal management efforts. In the Rufiji Delta WWF's Rufiji-Mafia-Kilwa Seascape (RUMAKI) programme has invested substantial donor resources since 2005 to help communities in the delta, as well as in Mafia and Kilwa Districts, to secure long-term

The philosophy behind this supposedly "new approach" has arguably been to show local stakeholders that the restoration projects and the protected areas were in fact theirs, providing a range of benefits such as access to carbon financing schemes, eco-tourism revenue and sustainable sale of commercially valuable timber and non-timber products. It has been the carrot side of the Equation [44, 45]. Three different models of community engagement have, therefore, been tried – with

This is a TFS system whereby individuals are given permits to farm forest plots with the aim of clearing them of weeds. Farmers apply for renewable one-year licenses allowing them to continue farming rice in exchange for facilitating the natural regeneration of mangrove trees on their plots. Once the trees reach a certain

farming, mangrove cutting for poles and timber, and fishing [32].

national and sub-national levels as discussed above [49].

mangrove co-management rights [8, 53, 54].

varying degrees of success as discussed below.

**4. Three models of community engagement**

**4.1 Individual taungya farming with permits**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94141*

of the resource [17, 52].

#### *Stieglers Gorge Dam Construction: Potential Impacts and Possible Mangrove Restoration Options... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94141*

example, that Wang *et al.* [43] and Mwansasu [29] noted the ambiguous features of the forest reserve in the Delta - that there were legally established village settlements within it which relied on mangroves and the associated marine environment for a range of ecosystem goods and services. Population estimates by then indicated that over 49,000 people lived in and around the delta, directly engaging in rice farming, mangrove cutting for poles and timber, and fishing [32].

This was possible partly because of political influence at the national and local levels. Mshale *et al.* [49] point out that politicians at various levels in the Rufiji Delta had been issuing statements that encouraged unsustainable use of mangrove forests and mangrove clearance for paddy rice farming to gain residents' political support, particularly during election times. Such statements sent confusing messages to the populace. While elective politicians often promoted mangrove clearance when this was pertinent to increase votes, the civil service maintained a strict protectionist approach. Often, the rural poor who depended on mangroves for their subsistence continued to be characterized by the state institutions as culprits of the degradation of the resource [17, 52].

The 1990s can be dubbed the age of policy shifts. Many natural resource management policies were changed during this period. Since then, the approach to mangrove protection changed, with new efforts being more and more directed toward collaborative management of the trees with local communities. This paradigm shift later led to the emergence of what I call "community appeasement forest management" that was seen as an appropriate alternative to state control with its ambiguous institutional arrangement for ensuring management of forest resources, including mangroves. The turn toward community appeasement forest management was motivated by a number of reasons, including conflicts over forest use between local residents and outsiders seeking to use the forests, and political interests at the national and sub-national levels as discussed above [49].

I would argue in this context that mangrove restoration, including replanting, has in fact also been an attempt at community appeasement rather than a forest management practice adopted to regenerate areas that have been seriously degraded. Mangrove restoration has thus been conducted in various parts of the country by the Mangrove Management Programme, as well as in Tanga and Mbweni by local coastal management efforts. In the Rufiji Delta WWF's Rufiji-Mafia-Kilwa Seascape (RUMAKI) programme has invested substantial donor resources since 2005 to help communities in the delta, as well as in Mafia and Kilwa Districts, to secure long-term mangrove co-management rights [8, 53, 54].

The philosophy behind this supposedly "new approach" has arguably been to show local stakeholders that the restoration projects and the protected areas were in fact theirs, providing a range of benefits such as access to carbon financing schemes, eco-tourism revenue and sustainable sale of commercially valuable timber and non-timber products. It has been the carrot side of the Equation [44, 45]. Three different models of community engagement have, therefore, been tried – with varying degrees of success as discussed below.

#### **4. Three models of community engagement**

#### **4.1 Individual taungya farming with permits**

This is a TFS system whereby individuals are given permits to farm forest plots with the aim of clearing them of weeds. Farmers apply for renewable one-year licenses allowing them to continue farming rice in exchange for facilitating the natural regeneration of mangrove trees on their plots. Once the trees reach a certain

*Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration*

the area to enforce this ban [12].

other forests in general.

conservation [29, 32].

building poles [13].

mangroves [49].

**3. Managing mangroves by restoration and reserves**

German, British, and the national governments.

Declines in the extent of mangrove forest cover have a long history in the Rufiji

Delta [29, 32]. The Rufiji mangrove forest was the first to be declared a forest reserve in Tanzania during the German colonial period in 1898 [45]. The delicate socio-ecological balance was, however, upset during the course of successive

The British colonial government adopted and expanded a strict protection approach in the 1920s and 1930s [49]. The Forest Ordinance of 1957 allowed for the creation of forest reserves by government decree after considering "any objections" by interested parties to this de jure transfer of rights from local communities to the state. The independent state expanded mangrove forest reserves in the 1960s and has repeatedly used its authority over mangrove forests to exert control over the Rufiji Delta communities and resources. In 1987, for instance, the current Tanzania Forest Service (formerly Forestry and Beekeeping Division) declared a ban on the cutting of all mangroves in the northern Rufiji Delta, with forest officers posted to

By creating 'forest reserves' for the exclusive use of the government, local communities were effectively excluded from using these socially, culturally, and economically important resources. Meanwhile, various large-scale extractive projects were proposed for the delta, including commercial shrimp harvesting [12]. Elsewhere in the Coast Region and the country a devolution of resource management to local government, in combination with improved road access and the opening-up of the Tanzanian economy, led to increasingly unsustainable use of

Evidence from literature shows that traditional government agencies have not been effective in protecting forest ecosystems, including mangrove forests. Constraints of capacity and the economic position of many district agencies have resulted in few controls on the scale and intensity of mangrove conservation in the delta, despite an increasingly well-established legal framework for forest

Tanzania was the first country in Africa to develop a mangrove management plan [49]. Although it was never implemented, the 1991 National Mangrove Management Plan crafted by the TFS was the first attempt at halting mangrove conversion alongside monitoring and regulating the use of the resource. Strict mangrove protection entailed actively excluding people living in and around mangroves from accessing and using mangroves for their survival, while the government controlled the harvest and export of mangrove products, particularly timber and

Tanzania's protectionist policies generally achieved limited and short term success in some locations around the country, with general failure in most mangrove areas of the country. At the local level, to the mid-1990s local residents had, from the colonial period, actively resisted state-led protection of forests, including

As a result, efforts by the government to continue with strict protection approaches, such as establishment of new marine parks in the late 1990s and mangrove forest reserves continued to face serious implementation challenges, including resistance from coastal residents who complained that these forest reserves and

Lack of an appropriate institutional framework for the allocation of management rights and responsibilities between the local government and the national state, as well as weak government enforcement capacity at the national level [33, 51] have been the main culprits of this failure. It was because of these weaknesses, for

marine parks marginalized them from their main livelihoods [46].

**138**

height, their shade renders rice paddies less productive, and farmers must move elsewhere to repeat the process.

This scheme has not fared well though. Farmers have found it one-sided – imposing a lot of conservation responsibility on the farmers in exchange for meager returns. It has also been creating insecurity. People know that once the mangroves have re-grown farmers will be kicked out, so there is a perverse incentive for farmers to intentionally prevent mangrove recovery.

The written contracts have also been problematic. Many people in the delta are illiterate, and they fear anything that is written and requires to be signed. People feel like they are getting tricked. As one respondent in a focus group discussion remarked: "*perhaps there is something written there that we don't understand...*?" During the introduction phase of one of these projects many communities refused to sign these contracts due to such apprehensions [12]. After so many years of mistrust and harsh policies, people (especially pastoralists and "squatters" around protected areas) do not always trust government's intentions [49].

#### **4.2 Group rehabilitation**

This is another rehabilitation strategy that has been tried for the mangroves in the Rufiji Delta, with the support of the UNDP and UNEP. Local collectives of 15–30 men and women were assigned an area of mangrove forest to rehabilitate, and were paid for each day they used replanting or weeding the young trees. Under this arrangement, small-scale mangrove replanting was undertaken between 2009 and 2010 as a community project by 100–200 community members from 10 villages over about 70 ha of former mangrove habitat, of which around 45 ha were abandoned rice farming plots [12].

Communities initially embraced the project, but as one project official confessed sometime later, some villagers complained about favoritism, saying they felt excluded from the scheme (Mshale, pers. comm.) Even though TFS were emphatic that the project would be expanded to ensure benefits were shared by as many people as possible, the program could not manage to give people a sense of ownership over the forest. As the official later noted:

*"These people are providing casual labour, but they don't have any other rights over the areas that they are replanting. So the moment you stop paying them, they won't be able to come and work for you."* (Mshale, pers. comm.)

Hence, the future of the program itself was uncertain because it relied heavily upon donor support. Once the funds dried up, the system could not be sustained. And because these schemes also failed to confer long-term management rights or responsibilities on community members, those involved were not incentivized to ensure the trees' survival and in many cases people returned to farming the areas once the scheme failed.

#### **4.3 Community co-management of mangrove resources, including Joint Forest Management**

Community participation as a neo-liberal approach to natural resources management in Tanzania has become the most important approach within the forestry sector following its inclusion in the National Forest Policy of 1998, Land Act of 1999 and the Forest Act of 2002. Nevertheless, the efficacy of the move to designate responsibility of forest management to local communities remains unclear [51, 55].

**141**

emission levels.

*Stieglers Gorge Dam Construction: Potential Impacts and Possible Mangrove Restoration Options...*

Building interest in poverty reduction to enhance sustainable resource management and strengthen the rights of communities to access and manage mangrove forests to improve livelihoods and resource conditions is one thing. But, whether this has translated into actual poverty reduction in practice is another thing altogether. So, the dilemma persists in poor countries like Tanzania on account of building a strong synergy of community participation and poverty reduction, *at* 

The most promising approach, according to CIFOR research, has been the Joint Forest Management (JFM) scheme being tried in the Rufiji Delta as part of the Participatory Forest Management program [49]. By the time of this study TFS had negotiated with individual communities in four (4) Rufiji villages to draw up plans for sharing the costs and benefits of managing the mangrove forest. Though the state retains ultimate ownership of the mangroves, the scheme transfers some

By the time of the Mshale *et al* [49] study, the communities had embraced the scheme. The JFM system appeared to provide broader rights and benefits than the other two mechanisms. It meant that community members' actions such as harvesting timber, poles, charcoal, firewood and other products were no longer criminalized. What is needed is proper management and making sure that the benefits and costs are equitably and fairly distributed among community members. In particular, it needs ensuring women's meaningful participation in decisionmaking in a culture where women are traditionally meant to stay silent during group meetings. That could need providing a separate space for women to debate ideas among themselves, before bringing their concerns to the wider community. However, implementation efforts and tangible evaluation of progress continues to

The proposed mechanism for REDD+ offers significant potential for conserving forests to reduce negative impacts of climate change. Tanzania has been one of nine pilot countries for the United Nations REDD Program, receiving significant funding from the Norwegian, Finnish and German governments. The country is also a participant in the World Bank's Forest Carbon Partnership Facility. In combination, these interventions aim to mitigate GHG emissions, provide an income to rural communi-

As already noted above the mangrove plantation is expected to be one of the options of afforestation in the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) project through its ability to accumulate sequestered carbon below-ground [58]. However, it is the economics of the initiative that is of interest to us here. The establishment of the UN-REDD Program in Tanzania, for example, illustrates the challenges that face many developing countries. As noted by Burgess *et al.* [59], the challenges have included inadequate baseline forestry data sets needed to calculate reference

It has also involved inadequate government capacity and insufficient experience of implementing REDD+ type measures at operational levels. In addition, for REDD+ to succeed, current users of forest resources must adopt new practices, including the equitable sharing of benefits that accrue from REDD+ implementation. This challenge is compounded by failure of conservation (as a form of land use) to

For example, it is reported that the annual global economic value of ecosystem services is estimated to be between US\$200,000 - US \$900,000 per hectare [12]. The value of commercial mangrove timber products and poles in the Rufiji mangrove delta and flood plain in Tanzania is around \$771,789 per year, fuel wood extraction \$156,000 per year and honey extraction \$9000 per year [19]. Most of the

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94141*

*least in theory* (emphasis added) [56].

decision-making power to the local people.

lag behind conceptual development [57].

ties and conserve biodiversity for the market [58].

compete effectively with alternative land uses [60].

#### *Stieglers Gorge Dam Construction: Potential Impacts and Possible Mangrove Restoration Options... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94141*

Building interest in poverty reduction to enhance sustainable resource management and strengthen the rights of communities to access and manage mangrove forests to improve livelihoods and resource conditions is one thing. But, whether this has translated into actual poverty reduction in practice is another thing altogether. So, the dilemma persists in poor countries like Tanzania on account of building a strong synergy of community participation and poverty reduction, *at least in theory* (emphasis added) [56].

The most promising approach, according to CIFOR research, has been the Joint Forest Management (JFM) scheme being tried in the Rufiji Delta as part of the Participatory Forest Management program [49]. By the time of this study TFS had negotiated with individual communities in four (4) Rufiji villages to draw up plans for sharing the costs and benefits of managing the mangrove forest. Though the state retains ultimate ownership of the mangroves, the scheme transfers some decision-making power to the local people.

By the time of the Mshale *et al* [49] study, the communities had embraced the scheme. The JFM system appeared to provide broader rights and benefits than the other two mechanisms. It meant that community members' actions such as harvesting timber, poles, charcoal, firewood and other products were no longer criminalized. What is needed is proper management and making sure that the benefits and costs are equitably and fairly distributed among community members.

In particular, it needs ensuring women's meaningful participation in decisionmaking in a culture where women are traditionally meant to stay silent during group meetings. That could need providing a separate space for women to debate ideas among themselves, before bringing their concerns to the wider community. However, implementation efforts and tangible evaluation of progress continues to lag behind conceptual development [57].

The proposed mechanism for REDD+ offers significant potential for conserving forests to reduce negative impacts of climate change. Tanzania has been one of nine pilot countries for the United Nations REDD Program, receiving significant funding from the Norwegian, Finnish and German governments. The country is also a participant in the World Bank's Forest Carbon Partnership Facility. In combination, these interventions aim to mitigate GHG emissions, provide an income to rural communities and conserve biodiversity for the market [58].

As already noted above the mangrove plantation is expected to be one of the options of afforestation in the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) project through its ability to accumulate sequestered carbon below-ground [58]. However, it is the economics of the initiative that is of interest to us here. The establishment of the UN-REDD Program in Tanzania, for example, illustrates the challenges that face many developing countries. As noted by Burgess *et al.* [59], the challenges have included inadequate baseline forestry data sets needed to calculate reference emission levels.

It has also involved inadequate government capacity and insufficient experience of implementing REDD+ type measures at operational levels. In addition, for REDD+ to succeed, current users of forest resources must adopt new practices, including the equitable sharing of benefits that accrue from REDD+ implementation. This challenge is compounded by failure of conservation (as a form of land use) to compete effectively with alternative land uses [60].

For example, it is reported that the annual global economic value of ecosystem services is estimated to be between US\$200,000 - US \$900,000 per hectare [12]. The value of commercial mangrove timber products and poles in the Rufiji mangrove delta and flood plain in Tanzania is around \$771,789 per year, fuel wood extraction \$156,000 per year and honey extraction \$9000 per year [19]. Most of the

*Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration*

**4.2 Group rehabilitation**

doned rice farming plots [12].

once the scheme failed.

**Management**

ship over the forest. As the official later noted:

*be able to come and work for you."* (Mshale, pers. comm.)

elsewhere to repeat the process.

height, their shade renders rice paddies less productive, and farmers must move

This scheme has not fared well though. Farmers have found it one-sided – imposing a lot of conservation responsibility on the farmers in exchange for meager returns. It has also been creating insecurity. People know that once the mangroves have re-grown farmers will be kicked out, so there is a perverse incen-

The written contracts have also been problematic. Many people in the delta are illiterate, and they fear anything that is written and requires to be signed. People feel like they are getting tricked. As one respondent in a focus group discussion remarked: "*perhaps there is something written there that we don't understand...*?" During the introduction phase of one of these projects many communities refused to sign these contracts due to such apprehensions [12]. After so many years of mistrust and harsh policies, people (especially pastoralists and "squatters" around

This is another rehabilitation strategy that has been tried for the mangroves in the Rufiji Delta, with the support of the UNDP and UNEP. Local collectives of 15–30 men and women were assigned an area of mangrove forest to rehabilitate, and were paid for each day they used replanting or weeding the young trees. Under this arrangement, small-scale mangrove replanting was undertaken between 2009 and 2010 as a community project by 100–200 community members from 10 villages over about 70 ha of former mangrove habitat, of which around 45 ha were aban-

Communities initially embraced the project, but as one project official confessed sometime later, some villagers complained about favoritism, saying they felt excluded from the scheme (Mshale, pers. comm.) Even though TFS were emphatic that the project would be expanded to ensure benefits were shared by as many people as possible, the program could not manage to give people a sense of owner-

*"These people are providing casual labour, but they don't have any other rights over the areas that they are replanting. So the moment you stop paying them, they won't* 

Hence, the future of the program itself was uncertain because it relied heavily upon donor support. Once the funds dried up, the system could not be sustained. And because these schemes also failed to confer long-term management rights or responsibilities on community members, those involved were not incentivized to ensure the trees' survival and in many cases people returned to farming the areas

**4.3 Community co-management of mangrove resources, including Joint Forest** 

Community participation as a neo-liberal approach to natural resources management in Tanzania has become the most important approach within the forestry sector following its inclusion in the National Forest Policy of 1998, Land Act of 1999 and the Forest Act of 2002. Nevertheless, the efficacy of the move to designate responsibility of forest management to local communities remains unclear [51, 55].

tive for farmers to intentionally prevent mangrove recovery.

protected areas) do not always trust government's intentions [49].

**140**

latter benefits go straight into the communities' household economy but stand to be foregone under global conservation.

Büscher *et al* [59] provide an interesting thesis on this phenomenon. They note that in the spirit of "ecological modernization", modern environmental problems and related crises are in fact themselves increasingly becoming conceptualized as opportunities for capitalist expansion rather than vehicles of poverty reduction. In a study that measured the impact of a national community-based conservation and poverty reduction initiative in Tanzania, it was found that from 2007 to 2015, the impacts of Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs) on wealth of the local communities were small and variable, with no clear evidence of widespread poverty reduction [61].

On the other hand, another study using five (5) years of photographic data capture-recapture found greater densities of livestock and lower densities of wildlife inside a WMA. After the management changes, the study documented significantly higher densities of wild ungulate species and lower densities of domestic ungulates in the WMA [62]. Giraffes' survival and population growth rate were both found to have increased in response to the management changes, indicating that the WMAs were effectively providing habitat and protection for wild ungulates while generally excluding domestic livestock [62].

#### **4.4 Mangroves in the neo-liberal perspective**

Neo-liberal conservation takes many forms, but more significant it reframes conservation in terms of market mechanisms [63]. Neo-liberal conservation is being defined as the decentralization of environmental governance, or a shift in responsibility for formal resource management from state to local institutions and new forms of commoditization and commercialization of nature that emerge in these contexts in order to fund conservation efforts. Advocates of market-based conservation argue that such markets will increase conservation funding and increase environmental-friendly businesses. People say it will promote participatory conservation and protect native property rights. Others say it promotes environmental consciousness, thus enhancing more effective and efficient conservation [64, 65].

Ever since the first Earth Summit in 1992 which was perceived to be a potential regulatory constraint on the operation of business, corporate interests have struggled to draw the sting out of the regulatory measures that the Summit recommended. States are said to have out-maneuvered NGOs around the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) to produce a convention which prioritized generating profit from genetic resources over protecting the environment [63]. Business interests have thus enjoyed access to prime slots during Conferences to the Parties of the CBD. Crucial to all these developments has been the formation of a transnational capitalist class fostering alliances and giving business interests the space and support they require [66].

It has been observed that much as conservation NGOs need the capital and legitimacy businesses provide, it has been the corporate interest which has reached out to conservation groups [63]. Corporate interests are seeking to make money out of new opportunities in mangrove restoration and conservation. They are looking for new profits in ecological modernization rather than biodiversity conservation. Although the gains for biodiversity are less clear within conservation organizations, the result of their embrace by commercial interests is that there has been a "near universal conflation of nature and capital [which] has established itself as a dominant view" (*ibid* [67]*.* See also [25].

Costanza *et al.* [68] assessed the economic value of 17 ecosystem services for 16 different habitats. They found out that the value of the whole biosphere was

**143**

*Stieglers Gorge Dam Construction: Potential Impacts and Possible Mangrove Restoration Options...*

However, market-based conservation has also been observed to lead to primitive accumulation, accumulation by dispossession and green grabbing [64]. All these processes have been proved to have negative impacts on local people's access to natural resources, food security, human rights, and the environment. Mariki [64] reports, for example, that some WMAs in Tanzania have disappointed the local people as people were persuaded to demarcate their land for conservation, take management responsibility and benefit from the resources through tourism. Instead in WMAs like Enduimet the central government has retained the power of strategic decision making over the WMA and only minimal benefits have been realized by

approximately US\$16–54 trillion per year or US\$33 trillion per year on average. They note that those figures may probably be higher today. Hence, they insist that drastic measures need to be taken if we are to prevent further widespread and irreversible loss of these ecosystems and *sustain their ability to generate new profit* 

*With a grim look on her face, Maimuna (Maimuna Ramadhani, 39-year old lady, Mchungu village) laments over the dwindling number of fish in the area for which she blames the destruction of mangroves. "The trees are harvested without replanting and now even when there is a high tide, it floods our homes," she says. "Why don't you do something about it?" we ask. "Because it is not my place to do* 

Formal sources specifically linking people and mangroves, in particular their management and tenure regimes are lacking. However, basing on knowledge on linguistic analyses of some of the ancestors' myths and other oral traditions, coupled with the written narratives by European explorers, mangroves seem to the colonizers to have long been wastelands [13]. Nevertheless, to a majority of the local people, the mangrove landscapes were communal territories, inhabited, managed into multiple use systems, governed by access and use rights and controlled by local

A second point that can also be surmised from these histories is the diversity of the human establishments in the mangroves and the highly varied forms of customary tenure with their "simple" knowledge of resources, the presence of spirits and super-

South of the Rufiji Delta, the island of Kilwa establishes a remarkable evidence of an urban and commercial civilization built in the mangroves dating from 9th to the 16th centuries. The historian Sheriff [71] reports of palaces and mosques, testifying of a glorious past of the sultanate, until the arrival of the Portuguese, who destroyed the estate in 1505 and monopolized the trade of gold, textile, spices, ivory

The colonial institutions, then the independent State competed to destroy the former order in the form of traditional institutions [13]. They also tried to marginalize the traditional users. The tragedy of the commons observed elsewhere by Hardin [72] became their explanatory theory. But observers such as McCay and Acheson [73] see a new struggle brewing up by the present generation that is trying

In general, however, the main image of mangrove swamps, the one that emerges

from the narratives of European voyagers and missionaries in the 17th century, echoed throughout the 18th and 19th centuries in the writings of colonial agents, is one of a hostile and impenetrable environment [13]. For hygienic and productivity

natural creatures, with which the populations had to negotiate [13].

to grapple with in the Rufiji Delta and elsewhere in the country.

*avenues worldwide* [64] (emphasis added). See also [69, 70].

**4.5 Mangroves from a local cultural perspective**

*so," she says.* (Mshale, pers. comm.)

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94141*

the local communities.

customs [64].

and slaves.

*Stieglers Gorge Dam Construction: Potential Impacts and Possible Mangrove Restoration Options... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94141*

approximately US\$16–54 trillion per year or US\$33 trillion per year on average. They note that those figures may probably be higher today. Hence, they insist that drastic measures need to be taken if we are to prevent further widespread and irreversible loss of these ecosystems and *sustain their ability to generate new profit avenues worldwide* [64] (emphasis added). See also [69, 70].

However, market-based conservation has also been observed to lead to primitive accumulation, accumulation by dispossession and green grabbing [64]. All these processes have been proved to have negative impacts on local people's access to natural resources, food security, human rights, and the environment. Mariki [64] reports, for example, that some WMAs in Tanzania have disappointed the local people as people were persuaded to demarcate their land for conservation, take management responsibility and benefit from the resources through tourism. Instead in WMAs like Enduimet the central government has retained the power of strategic decision making over the WMA and only minimal benefits have been realized by the local communities.

#### **4.5 Mangroves from a local cultural perspective**

*With a grim look on her face, Maimuna (Maimuna Ramadhani, 39-year old lady, Mchungu village) laments over the dwindling number of fish in the area for which she blames the destruction of mangroves. "The trees are harvested without replanting and now even when there is a high tide, it floods our homes," she says. "Why don't you do something about it?" we ask. "Because it is not my place to do so," she says.* (Mshale, pers. comm.)

Formal sources specifically linking people and mangroves, in particular their management and tenure regimes are lacking. However, basing on knowledge on linguistic analyses of some of the ancestors' myths and other oral traditions, coupled with the written narratives by European explorers, mangroves seem to the colonizers to have long been wastelands [13]. Nevertheless, to a majority of the local people, the mangrove landscapes were communal territories, inhabited, managed into multiple use systems, governed by access and use rights and controlled by local customs [64].

A second point that can also be surmised from these histories is the diversity of the human establishments in the mangroves and the highly varied forms of customary tenure with their "simple" knowledge of resources, the presence of spirits and supernatural creatures, with which the populations had to negotiate [13].

South of the Rufiji Delta, the island of Kilwa establishes a remarkable evidence of an urban and commercial civilization built in the mangroves dating from 9th to the 16th centuries. The historian Sheriff [71] reports of palaces and mosques, testifying of a glorious past of the sultanate, until the arrival of the Portuguese, who destroyed the estate in 1505 and monopolized the trade of gold, textile, spices, ivory and slaves.

The colonial institutions, then the independent State competed to destroy the former order in the form of traditional institutions [13]. They also tried to marginalize the traditional users. The tragedy of the commons observed elsewhere by Hardin [72] became their explanatory theory. But observers such as McCay and Acheson [73] see a new struggle brewing up by the present generation that is trying to grapple with in the Rufiji Delta and elsewhere in the country.

In general, however, the main image of mangrove swamps, the one that emerges from the narratives of European voyagers and missionaries in the 17th century, echoed throughout the 18th and 19th centuries in the writings of colonial agents, is one of a hostile and impenetrable environment [13]. For hygienic and productivity

*Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration*

reduction [61].

foregone under global conservation.

latter benefits go straight into the communities' household economy but stand to be

Büscher *et al* [59] provide an interesting thesis on this phenomenon. They note that in the spirit of "ecological modernization", modern environmental problems and related crises are in fact themselves increasingly becoming conceptualized as opportunities for capitalist expansion rather than vehicles of poverty reduction. In a study that measured the impact of a national community-based conservation and poverty reduction initiative in Tanzania, it was found that from 2007 to 2015, the impacts of Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs) on wealth of the local communities were small and variable, with no clear evidence of widespread poverty

On the other hand, another study using five (5) years of photographic data capture-recapture found greater densities of livestock and lower densities of wildlife inside a WMA. After the management changes, the study documented significantly higher densities of wild ungulate species and lower densities of domestic ungulates in the WMA [62]. Giraffes' survival and population growth rate were both found to have increased in response to the management changes, indicating that the WMAs were effectively providing habitat and protection for

Neo-liberal conservation takes many forms, but more significant it reframes conservation in terms of market mechanisms [63]. Neo-liberal conservation is being defined as the decentralization of environmental governance, or a shift in responsibility for formal resource management from state to local institutions and new forms of commoditization and commercialization of nature that emerge in these contexts in order to fund conservation efforts. Advocates of market-based conservation argue that such markets will increase conservation funding and increase environmental-friendly businesses. People say it will promote participatory conservation and protect native property rights. Others say it promotes environmental consciousness, thus enhancing more effective and efficient conservation [64, 65]. Ever since the first Earth Summit in 1992 which was perceived to be a potential regulatory constraint on the operation of business, corporate interests have struggled to draw the sting out of the regulatory measures that the Summit recommended. States are said to have out-maneuvered NGOs around the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) to produce a convention which prioritized generating profit from genetic resources over protecting the environment [63]. Business interests have thus enjoyed access to prime slots during Conferences to the Parties of the CBD. Crucial to all these developments has been the formation of a transnational capitalist class fostering alliances and giving business interests the space and

It has been observed that much as conservation NGOs need the capital and legitimacy businesses provide, it has been the corporate interest which has reached out to conservation groups [63]. Corporate interests are seeking to make money out of new opportunities in mangrove restoration and conservation. They are looking for new profits in ecological modernization rather than biodiversity conservation. Although the gains for biodiversity are less clear within conservation organizations, the result of their embrace by commercial interests is that there has been a "near universal conflation of nature and capital [which] has established itself as a domi-

Costanza *et al.* [68] assessed the economic value of 17 ecosystem services for 16 different habitats. They found out that the value of the whole biosphere was

wild ungulates while generally excluding domestic livestock [62].

**4.4 Mangroves in the neo-liberal perspective**

**142**

support they require [66].

nant view" (*ibid* [67]*.* See also [25].

aims, mangrove swamps were reclaimed under the control of colonizers, who finally became their landlords.

Thus the first enclosures of mangroves were both public and colonial and aimed at converting mangrove swamps into rice fields. The following more recent enclosures (especially from the years 1970s) joins what certain authors qualified as "green imperialism" and aim at making it world heritages through conservation [13]. Nevertheless, the effectiveness of such protection has been highly variable, with several protected areas failing to halt mangrove decline because they were poorly designed or lacked enforcement.

In Tanzania there were greater mangrove gains between 2009 and 2015 than in other years [40]. This is probably due to conservation projects initiated in the delta in late 1990s and implemented by WWF-Tanzania, the TFS Agency and the Rufiji District Authority aimed to restore the deforested areas [17]. The projects are now promoting Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) as the most rational approach to environmental management. PES uses the language of economics to convince potentially resistant policymakers, corporate actors and domestic populations, particularly in developing countries, to farther ecological goals such as biodiversity conservation.

Thus, environmental nongovernmental organizations (ENGOs), academics and international organizations alike spend considerable effort trying to "translate" the worthiness of the environment into the mutually intelligible language of neoliberal economics, in order to convince policymakers and economic actors of the validity of the conservation actions [9, 74].

Nevertheless, a study on the outcomes of CDM projects in Argentina a few years ago did not give such a hopeful picture at all. The study demonstrated that under the current Argentina's energy policy framework, the income by the selling of CERs covered less than 6% of the incremental costs for renewable energy projects [75]. A sensitivity analysis to evaluate the impact of CDM in the coverage of incremental costs for renewable energy based on the prices of both the energy in the local market and the CER demonstrated that the best conditions would only cover 15% of those costs. The contribution of CDM to technology transfer in Argentina was minor considering that 45% of the projects qualified as type III where technological learning and capacity building were limited at the level of operation and maintenance of a foreign technology [75].

In another research on REDD+ implementation in two case study villages in Tanzania, Scheba [65] argued that the emergence and nature of market-based conservation are complex and more shaped by structural challenges than is commonly acknowledged. The research identified three important challenges:


**145**

mental costs.

*Stieglers Gorge Dam Construction: Potential Impacts and Possible Mangrove Restoration Options...*

market-based instruments share a common objective of re-framing landscapes as providers of "ecosystem services" and rural communities as latent eco-entrepreneurs, who can cultivate and sell the services as commodities for profit. "Selling nature to save it" is promoted as the best philosophy of achieving sustainable rural livelihoods

In fact, some authors (e.g. [67]) even think the commoditization of nature is part of broader project of neo-liberal globalization and encompasses a number of scientific and political techniques meant to bring non-market and non-economic materials, processes and things, including those that are considered part of natural ecosystems and are objects of traditional conservation, into the logics of economics

Many indigenous peoples are concerned about the ways in which carbon markets commodify nature [79]. A market-based view prioritizes cost-effective strategies and the commoditization of ecological services, thereby utilizing the same economic tools and logic of capitalism that is also the underlying cause of the climate change problem. It is thus that some observers emphasize that market-based conservation is more complex, contested in practice, with mixed outcomes than is implied in the mainstream narrative [65]. It produces both benefits and risks. It produces benefits in the form of nature protection, political inclusion, and economic opportunities, while risks include physical displacement, loss of livelihoods, increased human–wildlife conflicts, and unequal distribution of benefits to some

Since the late 2010 mangroves have become an important focus of market-based

However, what the neo-liberal approach describes as "effective management" has not always been compatible with effective management of resources. For practical and ethical reasons, practitioners need to be critical of any assumption that neo-liberal economics is always an appropriate framework upon which to base local environmental management. Initiatives like REDD+ just represent the latest in

It is thus that current difficulties in the REDD+ mechanism are essentially symptomatic of inherent deficiencies in the market-based conservation in general. The fundamental problem is that conservation markets are intended to counter the conventional extractive markets, which generate profit by externalizing environ-

Conservation markets seek to reverse this by internalizing these costs within the payments they provide to forest managers. Yet to function as market mechanisms, *payments must provide at least as much revenue as the extractive markets they replace* (emphasis added), covering not only opportunity costs of extraction but also the

a long line of efforts to tap global markets for conservation finance.

social and environmental costs that this extraction externalizes.

carbon-oriented nature conservation. A lot of work by different conservation organizations has been focused on framing or branding mangroves as particularly charismatic and valuable, but vulnerable, ecosystems. Beyond carbon, conserved mangroves and other coastal ecosystems are framed as untapped resources for ecosystem services, including coastal protection, fisheries, water purification, and

in the face of mounting environmental crises and persistent poverty.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94141*

and markets [65, 76–78].

local community groups.

**5. Concluding remarks**

conservation of marine and coastal biodiversity.

The challenges were conceptualized not only as teething problems. The results questioned the very fundamental assumptions of market-based conservation. Moreover, adopting neo-liberal approaches like PES may cause problems for the effective management of nature at the local level, and by extension, the implementation of the environmental regimes themselves. According to Scheba [65],

*Stieglers Gorge Dam Construction: Potential Impacts and Possible Mangrove Restoration Options... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94141*

market-based instruments share a common objective of re-framing landscapes as providers of "ecosystem services" and rural communities as latent eco-entrepreneurs, who can cultivate and sell the services as commodities for profit. "Selling nature to save it" is promoted as the best philosophy of achieving sustainable rural livelihoods in the face of mounting environmental crises and persistent poverty.

In fact, some authors (e.g. [67]) even think the commoditization of nature is part of broader project of neo-liberal globalization and encompasses a number of scientific and political techniques meant to bring non-market and non-economic materials, processes and things, including those that are considered part of natural ecosystems and are objects of traditional conservation, into the logics of economics and markets [65, 76–78].

Many indigenous peoples are concerned about the ways in which carbon markets commodify nature [79]. A market-based view prioritizes cost-effective strategies and the commoditization of ecological services, thereby utilizing the same economic tools and logic of capitalism that is also the underlying cause of the climate change problem. It is thus that some observers emphasize that market-based conservation is more complex, contested in practice, with mixed outcomes than is implied in the mainstream narrative [65]. It produces both benefits and risks. It produces benefits in the form of nature protection, political inclusion, and economic opportunities, while risks include physical displacement, loss of livelihoods, increased human–wildlife conflicts, and unequal distribution of benefits to some local community groups.

#### **5. Concluding remarks**

*Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration*

finally became their landlords.

designed or lacked enforcement.

of the conservation actions [9, 74].

nance of a foreign technology [75].

management;

the ground; and

nities [65].

conservation.

aims, mangrove swamps were reclaimed under the control of colonizers, who

Thus the first enclosures of mangroves were both public and colonial and aimed at converting mangrove swamps into rice fields. The following more recent enclosures (especially from the years 1970s) joins what certain authors qualified as "green imperialism" and aim at making it world heritages through conservation [13]. Nevertheless, the effectiveness of such protection has been highly variable, with several protected areas failing to halt mangrove decline because they were poorly

In Tanzania there were greater mangrove gains between 2009 and 2015 than in other years [40]. This is probably due to conservation projects initiated in the delta in late 1990s and implemented by WWF-Tanzania, the TFS Agency and the Rufiji District Authority aimed to restore the deforested areas [17]. The projects are now promoting Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) as the most rational approach to environmental management. PES uses the language of economics to convince potentially resistant policymakers, corporate actors and domestic populations, particularly in developing countries, to farther ecological goals such as biodiversity

Thus, environmental nongovernmental organizations (ENGOs), academics and international organizations alike spend considerable effort trying to "translate" the worthiness of the environment into the mutually intelligible language of neoliberal economics, in order to convince policymakers and economic actors of the validity

Nevertheless, a study on the outcomes of CDM projects in Argentina a few years ago did not give such a hopeful picture at all. The study demonstrated that under the current Argentina's energy policy framework, the income by the selling of CERs covered less than 6% of the incremental costs for renewable energy projects [75]. A sensitivity analysis to evaluate the impact of CDM in the coverage of incremental costs for renewable energy based on the prices of both the energy in the local market and the CER demonstrated that the best conditions would only cover 15% of those costs. The contribution of CDM to technology transfer in Argentina was minor considering that 45% of the projects qualified as type III where technological learning and capacity building were limited at the level of operation and mainte-

In another research on REDD+ implementation in two case study villages in Tanzania, Scheba [65] argued that the emergence and nature of market-based conservation are complex and more shaped by structural challenges than is commonly

1.the politics surrounding the establishment of community-based forest

2.the mismatch between formal governance institutions and actual practices on

3.the fickleness of income from carbon sales and alternative livelihood opportu-

The challenges were conceptualized not only as teething problems. The results questioned the very fundamental assumptions of market-based conservation. Moreover, adopting neo-liberal approaches like PES may cause problems for the effective management of nature at the local level, and by extension, the implementation of the environmental regimes themselves. According to Scheba [65],

acknowledged. The research identified three important challenges:

**144**

Since the late 2010 mangroves have become an important focus of market-based carbon-oriented nature conservation. A lot of work by different conservation organizations has been focused on framing or branding mangroves as particularly charismatic and valuable, but vulnerable, ecosystems. Beyond carbon, conserved mangroves and other coastal ecosystems are framed as untapped resources for ecosystem services, including coastal protection, fisheries, water purification, and conservation of marine and coastal biodiversity.

However, what the neo-liberal approach describes as "effective management" has not always been compatible with effective management of resources. For practical and ethical reasons, practitioners need to be critical of any assumption that neo-liberal economics is always an appropriate framework upon which to base local environmental management. Initiatives like REDD+ just represent the latest in a long line of efforts to tap global markets for conservation finance.

It is thus that current difficulties in the REDD+ mechanism are essentially symptomatic of inherent deficiencies in the market-based conservation in general. The fundamental problem is that conservation markets are intended to counter the conventional extractive markets, which generate profit by externalizing environmental costs.

Conservation markets seek to reverse this by internalizing these costs within the payments they provide to forest managers. Yet to function as market mechanisms, *payments must provide at least as much revenue as the extractive markets they replace* (emphasis added), covering not only opportunity costs of extraction but also the social and environmental costs that this extraction externalizes.

*Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration*

## **Author details**

Claude Gasper Mung'ong'o Institute of Resource Assessment, University of Dar es Salaam, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

\*Address all correspondence to: claude\_gasper@yahoo.com

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**147**

*Stieglers Gorge Dam Construction: Potential Impacts and Possible Mangrove Restoration Options...*

[10] Havnevik, K (1993). Tanzania - The limits to development from above. Nordic Africa Institute and Mkuki na Nyota Publishers, Dar es Salaam.

[11] Mcleod, Elizabeth, Gail L. Chmura, Steven Bouillon, Rodney Salm, Mats Björk, Carlos M. Duarte, Catherine E. Lovelock, William H. Schlesinger, and Brian R. Silliman (2011). "A blueprint for blue carbon: toward an improved understanding of the role of vegetated coastal habitats in sequestering CO2." *Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment*

[12] Alongi, DM (2002). Present state and future of the world's mangrove forests. *Environmental Conservation,*

s0376892902000231. ISSN 0376-8929.

29 (3): 331-349. doi:10.1017/

[13] Cormier-Salem, M-C (2017). Mangrove grabbing: an exploration of changes in mangrove tenure from a political ecology perspective. H. Artaud & A. Surallés (eds). The sea within: maritime

tenure and cosmopolitical debates, IWGIA" pp.143-162. ffird-01824202ff

[14] Twilley, R; Rovai, A (2019). Mapping the world's 'blue carbon' hot spots in coastal mangrove forests. *The* 

[15] UNEP (2014). The Importance of mangroves to people: A call to action, edited by van Bochove, J., Sullivan, E., Nakamura, T. United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre,

[16] URT (2002). The Forest Act of 2002.

[17] Monga, E; Mangora, MM; Mayunga, JS (2018). Mangrove cover change detection in the Rufiji Delta in Tanzania. *WIO Journal of Marine Science,* 17 (2):

*Conversation,* January 11.

Cambridge. 128 pp.

1-10.

Dar es Salaam: Govt Printer

9 (10): 552-560.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94141*

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[2] Iftekhar, MS (2008). Functions and development of reforested mangrove areas: A review. *International Journal of Biodiversity Science and Management* **4:**

[3] Friess, DA (2016). Ecosystem services and disservices of mangrove forests: Insights from historical colonial observations, *Forests* 2016, *7*: 183;

[4] Romañach, SS, DeAngelis, DL, Koh, HL, Li, Y, *et al* (2018). Conservation and restoration of mangroves: Global status, perspectives, and prognosis. *Ocean and Coastal Management* 154: 72-82.)

[5] Serrano, D; Duarte, C; Lovelock, C; Lavery, P; Atwood, TB (2019). Australia's hidden opportunity to cut carbon emissions, and make money in the process. *The Conversation,*

[6] Duke, NC; Meynecke, JO; Dittmann, S; Ellison, AM; *et al* (2007). A world without mangroves? *Science.* **317** (5834): 41-42. doi:10.1126/science.317.5834.41b.

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#### **References**

*Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration*

**146**

**Author details**

Tanzania

Claude Gasper Mung'ong'o

Institute of Resource Assessment, University of Dar es Salaam, Dar es Salaam,

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

\*Address all correspondence to: claude\_gasper@yahoo.com

provided the original work is properly cited.

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Tenure and Global Climate Change

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[63] Brockington, D; Duffy, R

[64] Mariki, SB (2016)

(2010). Capitalism and conservation: The production and reproduction of biodiversity conservation. *Antipode* 42(3):469-484; May DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8330.2010.00760.x

Commercialization of nature: Can market-based mechanisms deliver positive conservation and development outcomes? *Open Journal of Social Sciences*, **4**, 61-69.http://dx.doi. org/10.4236/jss.2016.46007

*West Indian Ocean J Mar Sci*

12(2):95-110

15483-290.

*Sustainability*.

jwmg.21549

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CBNRM Initiative, February

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10.2015.1065906

339-351.

September.

19(4):446-467.

[53] Moshy, VH; Bryceson, I; Mwaipopo, R (2015). Social ecological changes, livelihoods and resilience among fishing communities in Mafia Island Marine Park, Tanzania. *Forum for Development Studies*, *42*, 529-553. doi:10.1080/080394

**150**

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[67] Spalding, M; Kainuma, M; Collins, L (2010). World atlas of mangroves. London, UK: Washington, DC: Earthscan.

[68] Costanza R, de Groot R, Sutton P, van der Ploeg S, *et al.* (2014). Changes in the global value of ecosystem services. *Global Environmental Change* 26: 152-158.

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**153**

**1. Introduction**

**Chapter 8**

Indonesia

*Djumanto*

**Abstract**

Conservation Management of

Evaluating Ecosystem Services

in Baros Village Bantul Regency,

Planting mangrove trees on sandy land in Baros village into forest conservation has many ecological, economic, social, and tourism benefits for the surrounding community. The mangrove conservation in Baros village is artificial conservation managed by the men and women Baros youth. The coastal area of Baros village is often affected by tidal flooding, which causes losses to agriculture, fisheries, and livestock. In the early 2000s, an NGO assisted at research sites in mangrove restoration in a mangrove restoration area in the lagoon of Baros village to prevent abrasion and sea intrusion and protect agricultural areas. Restored mangroves can grow well to bring ecological, biological, economic, and social benefits. The local government of Bantul has designated the Baros mangrove forest as a reserve of a coastal park conservation area. The existence of the tree is beneficial ecological, biological, economic, and social. The Baros village youth group made various efforts to increase mangrove trees' area so that their benefits were sustainable. Managers and the village government and tour guides are expected to accommodate the existence of culture and local wisdom. Also, increasing community participation, fisheries, agriculture, and animal husbandry activities can provide socio-economic benefits

for the community and the wider community's welfare.

market city, warm city, bakpia city, and so on.

**Keywords:** community, diversity, ecotourism, youth group, Yogyakarta

Yogyakarta is one of the fourth most considerable cities in Indonesia by population, located in the southern part of the Java island. It became the capital of the Republic of Indonesia in January 1946–August 1950. It became a Special Province of Yogyakarta because of its enormous role in the founding of the Republic of Indonesia. It is a province that has many nicknames, namely as a student city, cultural city, tourist city, culinary city, artist city, batik city, palace-city, traditional

Planted Mangroves through

#### **Chapter 8**

Conservation Management of Planted Mangroves through Evaluating Ecosystem Services in Baros Village Bantul Regency, Indonesia

*Djumanto*

## **Abstract**

Planting mangrove trees on sandy land in Baros village into forest conservation has many ecological, economic, social, and tourism benefits for the surrounding community. The mangrove conservation in Baros village is artificial conservation managed by the men and women Baros youth. The coastal area of Baros village is often affected by tidal flooding, which causes losses to agriculture, fisheries, and livestock. In the early 2000s, an NGO assisted at research sites in mangrove restoration in a mangrove restoration area in the lagoon of Baros village to prevent abrasion and sea intrusion and protect agricultural areas. Restored mangroves can grow well to bring ecological, biological, economic, and social benefits. The local government of Bantul has designated the Baros mangrove forest as a reserve of a coastal park conservation area. The existence of the tree is beneficial ecological, biological, economic, and social. The Baros village youth group made various efforts to increase mangrove trees' area so that their benefits were sustainable. Managers and the village government and tour guides are expected to accommodate the existence of culture and local wisdom. Also, increasing community participation, fisheries, agriculture, and animal husbandry activities can provide socio-economic benefits for the community and the wider community's welfare.

**Keywords:** community, diversity, ecotourism, youth group, Yogyakarta

#### **1. Introduction**

Yogyakarta is one of the fourth most considerable cities in Indonesia by population, located in the southern part of the Java island. It became the capital of the Republic of Indonesia in January 1946–August 1950. It became a Special Province of Yogyakarta because of its enormous role in the founding of the Republic of Indonesia. It is a province that has many nicknames, namely as a student city, cultural city, tourist city, culinary city, artist city, batik city, palace-city, traditional market city, warm city, bakpia city, and so on.

Yogyakarta has a variety of tourist and cultural attractions that are very interesting to be visited and enjoyed by local and foreign tourists. Tourist attractions in Yogyakarta are quite complete, ranging from ecotourism, natural attractions such as beaches and mountains, historical tourism, religious tourism, shopping tourism, culinary tourism, and cultural tourism. Therefore, Yogyakarta ranks second as a tourist destination after Bali Island. Besides having full tourism potential, it also has several beautiful and challenging natural environments. One of them is the Merapi-Kaliurang lava tour, the off-road jeep Merapi lava tour, which is also an attraction for tourists to visit and try it. Some of these attractions include an excellent warm air climate, stunning views of the sandbanks, a culture that is still profoundly engraved with its people, and the friendliness of its citizens [1].

Bantul is a regency city located on the southern side of the Special Province of Yogyakarta. It has a 16.8 km long beach, which is very interesting as a tourist spot and various other activities. One of the tourist attractions is the sandbank or dune along the south coast with a width of 1–2 km. Residents partly use the dune area as a sultan ground for agriculture, animal husbandry, fisheries, tourist areas, and conservation areas. Local people also plant with evergreen shrimp trees (*Casuarina equisetifolia*) for a protector of crops and shade for visitors or tourists. Also, some areas of the southern coast of Bantul serve as turtle landing areas for laying eggs. Species of turtles that often land are hawksbill turtles (*Eretmochelys imbricata*), curved turtles (*Lepidochelys olivacea*), green turtles (*Chelonia mydas*) and leatherback turtles (*Dermochelys coriacea*). They use Pelangi Beach Depok, Samas Beach, Goa Cemara Beach, and Baru Pandansimo Beach as landing points for laying eggs. Furthermore, some people who are members of nongovernmental organizations carry out turtle conservation by saving and hatching to be released into the sea after they are old enough [2].

Bantul beach also has a natural attraction with the presence of mangrove forest conservation areas in the village of Baros. Administratively, the mangrove forest located in Baros village, Kretek sub-district, Bantul regency. The Baros Mangrove Conservation Area situated between Depok beach and Samas Beach in Yogyakarta. The mangrove forest is a conservation area that was initiated by the family of Baros young women (KP2B) since 2003. The Baros coastal area is planted with several types of mangroves, *namely Avicennia lanata, Avicennia officinalis, Nypa fruticans, Rhizophora mucronata, Rhizophora stylosa*, and *Sonneratia caseolaris*. The plants are used for area conservation due to natural disasters, such as coastal abrasion, crop failure, drought, intrusion, tsunami threats, and high salt levels that make crops wither. Natural hazards that routinely hit Baros beach have made people aware of cheap and durable natural protection. The position of Baros beach, which is at the mouth of the Opak river, causes various types of waste to be stranded on the beach, for example, wood debris. The community processes wood debris waste into highvalue decoration. Besides, the Baros youth family collaborated with NGOs of Relung initiatives to carried out mangrove planting and various other coastal plants. With the existence of environmental conservation activities in Baros Beach, Baros's youth family has increasingly gained the community's trust in managing the environment of the Baros village sustainably [3].

Baros mangrove conservation ecosystem is a dynamic area that has biotic and abiotic resources. Biodiversity consists of birds, land animals, terrestrial plants, mangroves, aquatic biota, while abiotic natural source includes lagoons, sandy beaches, river mouths. The area behind the mangrove is for agriculture, animal husbandry, and fisheries. Various components interact and are interdependent with each other, which has great potential in supporting the community's economy, so it must be managed optimally and sustainably [3]. The Baros mangrove

**155**

seawater intrusion.

*Conservation Management of Planted Mangroves through Evaluating Ecosystem Services…*

conservation area can have a positive impact on the surrounding community, including the following: (a) improve the economy of the surrounding community. (b) They are protecting rice fields from abrasion. (c) Protecting crops from the brunt of sea salt. (d) Opening job opportunities and new business opportunities. (e) Increasing public awareness to protect and preserve the environment, (f) Providing social, economic, and physical comfort. (g) Foster a sense of ownership of mangroves for community members. And (h) open networks with government, NGOs, universities, communities, and stakeholders to manage

The conservation mangrove area of Baros is an artificial natural tourism area that has very diverse natural resource potentials, but its management is not yet optimal. It is necessary to study their resource potential, the obstacles faced by managers, and opportunities for their development. This paper aims to identify the benefits of the existence of mangroves, and opportunities to increase their profits and sustainable management strategies while still considering their natural protective and coastal functions. Besides, it is as a reference for policymakers. It can add insight into the importance of mangrove forests as a natural tourist attraction as a place of learning to foster public awareness of the sustainability of mangroves. This paper was written based on field observations, interviews with the KP2B management, and Baros village officials, research results, and based on literature studies from various sources. Data or information from resource persons is analyzed descriptively to get an understanding of the level of mangrove utilization for the Baros village community and the role of the society in maintaining the sustainability of coastal ecosystems, as well as providing input for Baros mangrove conserva-

The mangrove forest ecosystem in Baros is an essential natural resource located on the southern coast of the Baros village and the west side of the Opak river estuary. The ecosystem has four main functions, namely, physical, biological, economic, and social services. The physical service is as a windbreak, filtering pollutants coming from upstream rivers and the sea, anchoring waves and rising tides, flood protection, waste repellent, and preventing seawater intrusion to land. The biological function is as a place for the parent and larvae of aquatic biota that is to spawn (spawning ground), nursery ground, and as a place to find food (feeding ground) for fish and other marine biotas. The direct economic function is as a producer of wood for building materials and industrial raw materials, food and medicines, animal feed sources, a place for grazing and raising poultry. The indirect economic function is for tourist attractions, places of education, research, its existence can protect crops. Also, mangroves become primary producers, forming stable microecosystems between marine and terrestrial ecosystems. The social function is the existence of mangroves capable of bridging the formation of social groups of Baros youth families, breeder groups, farmer groups, marketing women's groups [4]. The existence of mangroves on the Baros coast can provide ecosystem services directly and indirectly. For example, direct services filter out dust and salt vapors, provide oxygen, provide shade for visitors, and protect beaches. For example, indirect ecosystem services preserve agricultural, livestock, and fisheries areas, and prevent

The existence of mangroves is a characteristic of the coastal area, however the Opak estuary and the Bantul coast until 2003 were in the form of a very dry and

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93780*

mangroves.

tion managers.

**2. The benefits of Baros mangrove ecosystem**

#### *Conservation Management of Planted Mangroves through Evaluating Ecosystem Services… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93780*

conservation area can have a positive impact on the surrounding community, including the following: (a) improve the economy of the surrounding community. (b) They are protecting rice fields from abrasion. (c) Protecting crops from the brunt of sea salt. (d) Opening job opportunities and new business opportunities. (e) Increasing public awareness to protect and preserve the environment, (f) Providing social, economic, and physical comfort. (g) Foster a sense of ownership of mangroves for community members. And (h) open networks with government, NGOs, universities, communities, and stakeholders to manage mangroves.

The conservation mangrove area of Baros is an artificial natural tourism area that has very diverse natural resource potentials, but its management is not yet optimal. It is necessary to study their resource potential, the obstacles faced by managers, and opportunities for their development. This paper aims to identify the benefits of the existence of mangroves, and opportunities to increase their profits and sustainable management strategies while still considering their natural protective and coastal functions. Besides, it is as a reference for policymakers. It can add insight into the importance of mangrove forests as a natural tourist attraction as a place of learning to foster public awareness of the sustainability of mangroves.

This paper was written based on field observations, interviews with the KP2B management, and Baros village officials, research results, and based on literature studies from various sources. Data or information from resource persons is analyzed descriptively to get an understanding of the level of mangrove utilization for the Baros village community and the role of the society in maintaining the sustainability of coastal ecosystems, as well as providing input for Baros mangrove conservation managers.

#### **2. The benefits of Baros mangrove ecosystem**

The mangrove forest ecosystem in Baros is an essential natural resource located on the southern coast of the Baros village and the west side of the Opak river estuary. The ecosystem has four main functions, namely, physical, biological, economic, and social services. The physical service is as a windbreak, filtering pollutants coming from upstream rivers and the sea, anchoring waves and rising tides, flood protection, waste repellent, and preventing seawater intrusion to land. The biological function is as a place for the parent and larvae of aquatic biota that is to spawn (spawning ground), nursery ground, and as a place to find food (feeding ground) for fish and other marine biotas. The direct economic function is as a producer of wood for building materials and industrial raw materials, food and medicines, animal feed sources, a place for grazing and raising poultry. The indirect economic function is for tourist attractions, places of education, research, its existence can protect crops. Also, mangroves become primary producers, forming stable microecosystems between marine and terrestrial ecosystems. The social function is the existence of mangroves capable of bridging the formation of social groups of Baros youth families, breeder groups, farmer groups, marketing women's groups [4]. The existence of mangroves on the Baros coast can provide ecosystem services directly and indirectly. For example, direct services filter out dust and salt vapors, provide oxygen, provide shade for visitors, and protect beaches. For example, indirect ecosystem services preserve agricultural, livestock, and fisheries areas, and prevent seawater intrusion.

The existence of mangroves is a characteristic of the coastal area, however the Opak estuary and the Bantul coast until 2003 were in the form of a very dry and

*Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration*

they are old enough [2].

of the Baros village sustainably [3].

Yogyakarta has a variety of tourist and cultural attractions that are very interesting to be visited and enjoyed by local and foreign tourists. Tourist attractions in Yogyakarta are quite complete, ranging from ecotourism, natural attractions such as beaches and mountains, historical tourism, religious tourism, shopping tourism, culinary tourism, and cultural tourism. Therefore, Yogyakarta ranks second as a tourist destination after Bali Island. Besides having full tourism potential, it also has several beautiful and challenging natural environments. One of them is the Merapi-Kaliurang lava tour, the off-road jeep Merapi lava tour, which is also an attraction for tourists to visit and try it. Some of these attractions include an excellent warm air climate, stunning views of the sandbanks, a culture that is still profoundly

Bantul is a regency city located on the southern side of the Special Province of Yogyakarta. It has a 16.8 km long beach, which is very interesting as a tourist spot and various other activities. One of the tourist attractions is the sandbank or dune along the south coast with a width of 1–2 km. Residents partly use the dune area as a sultan ground for agriculture, animal husbandry, fisheries, tourist areas, and conservation areas. Local people also plant with evergreen shrimp trees (*Casuarina equisetifolia*) for a protector of crops and shade for visitors or tourists. Also, some areas of the southern coast of Bantul serve as turtle landing areas for laying eggs. Species of turtles that often land are hawksbill turtles (*Eretmochelys imbricata*), curved turtles (*Lepidochelys olivacea*), green turtles (*Chelonia mydas*) and leatherback turtles (*Dermochelys coriacea*). They use Pelangi Beach Depok, Samas Beach, Goa Cemara Beach, and Baru Pandansimo Beach as landing points for laying eggs. Furthermore, some people who are members of nongovernmental organizations carry out turtle conservation by saving and hatching to be released into the sea after

Bantul beach also has a natural attraction with the presence of mangrove forest conservation areas in the village of Baros. Administratively, the mangrove forest located in Baros village, Kretek sub-district, Bantul regency. The Baros Mangrove Conservation Area situated between Depok beach and Samas Beach in Yogyakarta. The mangrove forest is a conservation area that was initiated by the family of Baros young women (KP2B) since 2003. The Baros coastal area is planted with several types of mangroves, *namely Avicennia lanata, Avicennia officinalis, Nypa fruticans, Rhizophora mucronata, Rhizophora stylosa*, and *Sonneratia caseolaris*. The plants are used for area conservation due to natural disasters, such as coastal abrasion, crop failure, drought, intrusion, tsunami threats, and high salt levels that make crops wither. Natural hazards that routinely hit Baros beach have made people aware of cheap and durable natural protection. The position of Baros beach, which is at the mouth of the Opak river, causes various types of waste to be stranded on the beach, for example, wood debris. The community processes wood debris waste into highvalue decoration. Besides, the Baros youth family collaborated with NGOs of Relung initiatives to carried out mangrove planting and various other coastal plants. With the existence of environmental conservation activities in Baros Beach, Baros's youth family has increasingly gained the community's trust in managing the environment

Baros mangrove conservation ecosystem is a dynamic area that has biotic and abiotic resources. Biodiversity consists of birds, land animals, terrestrial plants, mangroves, aquatic biota, while abiotic natural source includes lagoons, sandy beaches, river mouths. The area behind the mangrove is for agriculture, animal husbandry, and fisheries. Various components interact and are interdependent with each other, which has great potential in supporting the community's economy, so it must be managed optimally and sustainably [3]. The Baros mangrove

engraved with its people, and the friendliness of its citizens [1].

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#### *Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration*

unproductive dune. Furthermore, starting in 2003, some university students in Yogyakarta, NGOs, and the local community planted several species of mangrove trees. Since then, the mangrove area has slowly increased. Mangrove tree seedlings transported from the city of Cilacap, which was 170 km from Bantul. The Species of mangrove seedlings planted were *Rhizophora* sp., *Bruguera* sp., *Nypa* sp., *Soneratia* sp.

The Regent of Bantul in 2014 issued Decree No. 284 of 2014 concerning the Reserve of Conservation Areas for Coastal Parks in Bantul Regency [5]. The Baros mangrove forest area is designated as a conservation area with a total area of 132 hectares divided into three zones, namely the core zone (10 ha), transition zone (94 ha), and buffer zone (28 ha). The Baros mangrove forest's current area is still less than 10 hectares, so a gradual expansion is needed. The development of the mangrove forest area is carried out by planting mangrove seedlings that are propagated in locations or transported from other cities (**Figure 1**).

#### **2.1 The physical existence benefits**

The existence of mangroves on the Baros beach will provide many benefits to the surrounding ecosystem directly or indirectly. The direct benefits of the mangrove

#### **Figure 1.**

*The map shows the reserving area of coastal garden conservation area in Bantul regency. The zone consists of a 10-ha core zone, a 28-ha buffer zone, and transition 94-ha zone.*

**157**

year [4].

*Conservation Management of Planted Mangroves through Evaluating Ecosystem Services…*

ecosystem as a habitat, as a protection, and source of raw materials. Indirect benefits provide a fresh ecosystem, provide food, absorb carbon, and provide nutrients

Baros mangrove ecosystem becomes a habitat for various species of native or migratory birds, living temporarily or permanently. Mangroves provide space for birds to breed and maintain their chicks. Species of birds found before mangroves are only a few species, for example, Blekog Sawah (*Ardeola speciosa*), rice field finches (*Lonchura punctulata*), finches (*Pycnonotus aurigaster*), etc. Blekog sawah comes during the growing season, while rice field finches come just before the rice harvest. After the mangrove area planted, various types of birds stopped by permanently or in-migration. Every rice planting season, several species of birds will

The presence of birds in the Baros mangrove area can be an indicator of functional space. The number of bird species increases due to the availability of material to make nests, and there is no disruption to birds. Water birds are the dominant bird species in the mangrove area because mangroves provide habitat for feeding, breeding, and growing chicks. The species of birds that found are Java bondol (*Lonchura leucogastroides*), Peking bondol (*Lonchura punctulata*), and beach trinil (*Trunga hypoleucos*). The bird is active in mangrove trees of *Avicennia alba* and *Rhizophora apiculata*. The number of bird species in the Baros mangrove found as many as 21

The existence of mangroves can protect the coastline, crops, and groundwater. (1) A robust mangrove root system helps to form a natural barrier against storm surges and floods [6], trapping river and terrestrial sediments [7], thus protecting coastline areas and slowing erosion. (2) The presence of mangrove plants can reduce and affect airflow. The sea breeze that blows hard will decrease its speed after passing mangrove plants. Strong winds that blow directly can break the branches and leaves of vegetable crops. Also, high salt levels contained in the sea breeze will be absorbed by mangrove leaves so that the salt content also reduced [8]. Mangrove plants are resistant to salt, while crops are very vulnerable. Sea breeze with high salt content can kill crops. Salt carried by the sea breeze will stick to vegetables. Salt is absorbing water so that salt attached to plants will absorb plant water, which can cause plants to wither. (3) The existence of mangroves can withstand the flow of seawater through a healthy root system so that saltwater does not intrude on agricultural land. The farm area behind the mangrove is protected and can be used for farming. Farmers can plant crops only once per year before there are mangroves, but now thanks to mangroves, agriculture can be done 2–3 times per

Coastal communities use plants in mangrove ecosystems for various purposes, namely as medicinal materials, firewood, animal feed, building materials, decoration materials. (1) Daruju or Mountain Thistle (*Acanthus montanus*) is a bush that grows in the Baros mangrove ecosystem (**Figure 2**). This plant has a unique shape, large-toothed leaf edges, and sharp edges. The leaves are shiny green and slightly yellowish. People use daruju seeds for stomach worming and cough

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93780*

for aquatic organisms.

migrate alternately [5].

families consisting of 48 species [5].

*2.1.2 Mangroves as coastal protection*

*2.1.3 Mangrove as source of raw materials*

*2.1.1 Mangrove as a habitat*

ecosystem as a habitat, as a protection, and source of raw materials. Indirect benefits provide a fresh ecosystem, provide food, absorb carbon, and provide nutrients for aquatic organisms.

#### *2.1.1 Mangrove as a habitat*

*Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration*

unproductive dune. Furthermore, starting in 2003, some university students in Yogyakarta, NGOs, and the local community planted several species of mangrove trees. Since then, the mangrove area has slowly increased. Mangrove tree seedlings transported from the city of Cilacap, which was 170 km from Bantul. The Species of mangrove seedlings planted were *Rhizophora* sp., *Bruguera* sp., *Nypa* sp., *Soneratia* sp. The Regent of Bantul in 2014 issued Decree No. 284 of 2014 concerning the Reserve of Conservation Areas for Coastal Parks in Bantul Regency [5]. The Baros mangrove forest area is designated as a conservation area with a total area of 132 hectares divided into three zones, namely the core zone (10 ha), transition zone (94 ha), and buffer zone (28 ha). The Baros mangrove forest's current area is still less than 10 hectares, so a gradual expansion is needed. The development of the mangrove forest area is carried out by planting mangrove seedlings that are propa-

The existence of mangroves on the Baros beach will provide many benefits to the surrounding ecosystem directly or indirectly. The direct benefits of the mangrove

*The map shows the reserving area of coastal garden conservation area in Bantul regency. The zone consists of a* 

*10-ha core zone, a 28-ha buffer zone, and transition 94-ha zone.*

gated in locations or transported from other cities (**Figure 1**).

**2.1 The physical existence benefits**

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**Figure 1.**

Baros mangrove ecosystem becomes a habitat for various species of native or migratory birds, living temporarily or permanently. Mangroves provide space for birds to breed and maintain their chicks. Species of birds found before mangroves are only a few species, for example, Blekog Sawah (*Ardeola speciosa*), rice field finches (*Lonchura punctulata*), finches (*Pycnonotus aurigaster*), etc. Blekog sawah comes during the growing season, while rice field finches come just before the rice harvest. After the mangrove area planted, various types of birds stopped by permanently or in-migration. Every rice planting season, several species of birds will migrate alternately [5].

The presence of birds in the Baros mangrove area can be an indicator of functional space. The number of bird species increases due to the availability of material to make nests, and there is no disruption to birds. Water birds are the dominant bird species in the mangrove area because mangroves provide habitat for feeding, breeding, and growing chicks. The species of birds that found are Java bondol (*Lonchura leucogastroides*), Peking bondol (*Lonchura punctulata*), and beach trinil (*Trunga hypoleucos*). The bird is active in mangrove trees of *Avicennia alba* and *Rhizophora apiculata*. The number of bird species in the Baros mangrove found as many as 21 families consisting of 48 species [5].

#### *2.1.2 Mangroves as coastal protection*

The existence of mangroves can protect the coastline, crops, and groundwater. (1) A robust mangrove root system helps to form a natural barrier against storm surges and floods [6], trapping river and terrestrial sediments [7], thus protecting coastline areas and slowing erosion. (2) The presence of mangrove plants can reduce and affect airflow. The sea breeze that blows hard will decrease its speed after passing mangrove plants. Strong winds that blow directly can break the branches and leaves of vegetable crops. Also, high salt levels contained in the sea breeze will be absorbed by mangrove leaves so that the salt content also reduced [8]. Mangrove plants are resistant to salt, while crops are very vulnerable. Sea breeze with high salt content can kill crops. Salt carried by the sea breeze will stick to vegetables. Salt is absorbing water so that salt attached to plants will absorb plant water, which can cause plants to wither. (3) The existence of mangroves can withstand the flow of seawater through a healthy root system so that saltwater does not intrude on agricultural land. The farm area behind the mangrove is protected and can be used for farming. Farmers can plant crops only once per year before there are mangroves, but now thanks to mangroves, agriculture can be done 2–3 times per year [4].

#### *2.1.3 Mangrove as source of raw materials*

Coastal communities use plants in mangrove ecosystems for various purposes, namely as medicinal materials, firewood, animal feed, building materials, decoration materials. (1) Daruju or Mountain Thistle (*Acanthus montanus*) is a bush that grows in the Baros mangrove ecosystem (**Figure 2**). This plant has a unique shape, large-toothed leaf edges, and sharp edges. The leaves are shiny green and slightly yellowish. People use daruju seeds for stomach worming and cough

#### **Figure 2.**

*(A) The community uses the leaves and seeds of daruju (Acanthus montanus) as a traditional and herbal medicine for several types of diseases. (B) The daruju that grows on the edge of the lagoon to form thickets as a hiding place for fish larvae.*

medicines. Also, shrimp farmers use daruju leaves to treat white disease in their shrimp. (2) Baros residents easily find a lot of dry wood scattered on the beach. The wood comes from the headwaters or the sea carried by the waves. Timber from the headwaters of the river is for firewood, while wood from the sea becomes driftwood. Driftwood is wood that has long been adrift in the sea. Driftwood has a definite, dry, lightweight, and unique shape, so it is suitable for decoration raw materials. They separate wood into driftwood and firewood. Good quality driftwood is used as raw material for handicrafts, while low quality is used as firewood. Conservation area managers forbid anyone from collecting mangroves for firewood. Firewood and driftwood are sold to collectors, making it a household income. (3) Mangrove leaves and grass contain a lot of protein so that it can be used as animal feed ingredients. *Avicennia* sp. can be used for animal feed. In addition, grass that grows around mangroves is also collected as animal feed. Cattle farmers often have difficulty in getting forage feed, especially in the dry season. The presence of grass in the Baros mangrove ecosystem can be an alternative source of animal feed. In Baros, there is a group of breeders with around 35 cows, some of which have green grasslands in the form of grass from the Baros mangrove area. (4) Mangrove wood has a waterproof and robust character, so it is suitable for building materials or ship materials. Large mangrove stems can be used as household building materials. Mangroves that are already high enough can be used as blocks for housing construction [9].

#### *2.1.4 Providing fresh air*

Mangrove in Baros is in excellent condition with the color of fresh green leaves, and no damaged mangroves are found. The distance between trees is less than two meters, which is classified as dense and has a high enough biomass potential. A healthy tree has healthy chlorophyll so that during photosynthesis, it can produce a lot of oxygen. Mangrove forests can produce oxygen (O2), which is essential for life. The existence of mangrove forests in Baros becomes so important and attracts people to visit [9]. Every month there are around 700–1000 people visit the Baros mangrove forest to feel healthy ecosystems and fresh air.

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*Conservation Management of Planted Mangroves through Evaluating Ecosystem Services…*

Mangrove ecosystems can support food security by providing food that is an aquatic biota that lives in the mangrove ecosystem, and food that is processed using mangrove plant parts. Mangroves can produce substantial amounts of organic material as food. The use of mangroves as a food source can improve family nutrition. The existence of mangroves becomes very important in the life cycle of various types of fish, shrimp, shellfish, mollusks, and other aquatic organisms. Many kinds of shrimps and crabs that have economic value utilize mangroves as nurseries. Many species live in mangroves or visit temporarily in young stadia using mangroves to find food. The existence of good mangrove forests will support the life and production of marine biota that can be used as a source of food for the community [5].

During photosynthesis, mangroves absorb CO2 gas from the atmosphere and convert it into organic carbon, then stored as carbon biomass in roots, stems, and leaves. The amount of CO2 used by mangroves has a positive relationship with the total amount of biomass. CO2 gas that is absorbed is getting more significant when the mangrove plants are getting denser. The results of photosynthesis are used for horizontal and vertical growth. The larger the diameter of the tree, the higher the CO2 gas absorbed by the tree to be converted into organic material. Mangrove

Mangrove provides organic material and nutrients through the production of litter. Litter production is an important part of the transfer of organic matter from vegetation to the soil. The nutrients produced from litter are essential in the growth of mangroves and as a source of detritus for estuary ecosystems in supporting the lives of various aquatic organisms. Mangrove litter productivity is a source for fishery's productivity in estuaries and contributors of nutrients to the surrounding waters. It makes mangroves play an important role as a nutrient cycle chain for aquatic organisms. Mangrove plants are a potential food source, in various forms, for all the biota that live in the mangrove ecosystem. The basic component of the food chain in the mangrove ecosystem comes from mangrove plants that fall into the litter. Mangrove leaves provide many benefits to the surrounding organisms. Mangrove leaves contribute 81% of the total litter production, while the rest comes from twigs and plant reproductive organs [11]. As much as 5% of the total leaf production is consumed directly by herbivorous organisms, while 95% enters the aquatic environment as detritus. Mangrove dominated by Rhizophora sp. with a high density can

One of the essential functions of mangrove forests is biological functions, namely, their ability to support life around them. The biological function that is carried out by the Baros mangrove forest is as a spawning ground, nursery ground, and feeding ground for aquatic biota, as a natural habitat and to provide food. Some fish species that migrate or settle in the mangrove ecosystem may spawn, care for

/day. Nutrient potential production from

/day [12].

forests store more carbon than most tropical rain forests [10].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93780*

*2.1.5 Providing food*

*2.1.6 Absorption carbon*

*2.1.7 Providing nutrients*

produce an average of a litter of 4.05 g/m2

their offspring, take refuge, or find prey [13].

**2.2 Biological function**

litter produced is C = 0.35, N = 0.009 and P = 0.0008 g/m2

*Conservation Management of Planted Mangroves through Evaluating Ecosystem Services… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93780*

#### *2.1.5 Providing food*

*Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration*

**Figure 2.**

*hiding place for fish larvae.*

medicines. Also, shrimp farmers use daruju leaves to treat white disease in their shrimp. (2) Baros residents easily find a lot of dry wood scattered on the beach. The wood comes from the headwaters or the sea carried by the waves. Timber from the headwaters of the river is for firewood, while wood from the sea becomes driftwood. Driftwood is wood that has long been adrift in the sea. Driftwood has a definite, dry, lightweight, and unique shape, so it is suitable for decoration raw materials. They separate wood into driftwood and firewood. Good quality driftwood is used as raw material for handicrafts, while low quality is used as firewood. Conservation area managers forbid anyone from collecting mangroves for firewood. Firewood and driftwood are sold to collectors, making it a household income. (3) Mangrove leaves and grass contain a lot of protein so that it can be used as animal feed ingredients. *Avicennia* sp. can be used for animal feed. In addition, grass that grows around mangroves is also collected as animal feed. Cattle farmers often have difficulty in getting forage feed, especially in the dry season. The presence of grass in the Baros mangrove ecosystem can be an alternative source of animal feed. In Baros, there is a group of breeders with around 35 cows, some of which have green grasslands in the form of grass from the Baros mangrove area. (4) Mangrove wood has a waterproof and robust character, so it is suitable for building materials or ship materials. Large mangrove stems can be used as household building materials. Mangroves that are already high enough can be used as

*(A) The community uses the leaves and seeds of daruju (Acanthus montanus) as a traditional and herbal medicine for several types of diseases. (B) The daruju that grows on the edge of the lagoon to form thickets as a* 

Mangrove in Baros is in excellent condition with the color of fresh green leaves, and no damaged mangroves are found. The distance between trees is less than two meters, which is classified as dense and has a high enough biomass potential. A healthy tree has healthy chlorophyll so that during photosynthesis, it can produce a lot of oxygen. Mangrove forests can produce oxygen (O2), which is essential for life. The existence of mangrove forests in Baros becomes so important and attracts people to visit [9]. Every month there are around 700–1000 people visit the Baros

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blocks for housing construction [9].

mangrove forest to feel healthy ecosystems and fresh air.

*2.1.4 Providing fresh air*

Mangrove ecosystems can support food security by providing food that is an aquatic biota that lives in the mangrove ecosystem, and food that is processed using mangrove plant parts. Mangroves can produce substantial amounts of organic material as food. The use of mangroves as a food source can improve family nutrition.

The existence of mangroves becomes very important in the life cycle of various types of fish, shrimp, shellfish, mollusks, and other aquatic organisms. Many kinds of shrimps and crabs that have economic value utilize mangroves as nurseries. Many species live in mangroves or visit temporarily in young stadia using mangroves to find food. The existence of good mangrove forests will support the life and production of marine biota that can be used as a source of food for the community [5].

#### *2.1.6 Absorption carbon*

During photosynthesis, mangroves absorb CO2 gas from the atmosphere and convert it into organic carbon, then stored as carbon biomass in roots, stems, and leaves. The amount of CO2 used by mangroves has a positive relationship with the total amount of biomass. CO2 gas that is absorbed is getting more significant when the mangrove plants are getting denser. The results of photosynthesis are used for horizontal and vertical growth. The larger the diameter of the tree, the higher the CO2 gas absorbed by the tree to be converted into organic material. Mangrove forests store more carbon than most tropical rain forests [10].

#### *2.1.7 Providing nutrients*

Mangrove provides organic material and nutrients through the production of litter. Litter production is an important part of the transfer of organic matter from vegetation to the soil. The nutrients produced from litter are essential in the growth of mangroves and as a source of detritus for estuary ecosystems in supporting the lives of various aquatic organisms. Mangrove litter productivity is a source for fishery's productivity in estuaries and contributors of nutrients to the surrounding waters. It makes mangroves play an important role as a nutrient cycle chain for aquatic organisms. Mangrove plants are a potential food source, in various forms, for all the biota that live in the mangrove ecosystem. The basic component of the food chain in the mangrove ecosystem comes from mangrove plants that fall into the litter. Mangrove leaves provide many benefits to the surrounding organisms. Mangrove leaves contribute 81% of the total litter production, while the rest comes from twigs and plant reproductive organs [11]. As much as 5% of the total leaf production is consumed directly by herbivorous organisms, while 95% enters the aquatic environment as detritus. Mangrove dominated by Rhizophora sp. with a high density can produce an average of a litter of 4.05 g/m2 /day. Nutrient potential production from litter produced is C = 0.35, N = 0.009 and P = 0.0008 g/m2 /day [12].

#### **2.2 Biological function**

One of the essential functions of mangrove forests is biological functions, namely, their ability to support life around them. The biological function that is carried out by the Baros mangrove forest is as a spawning ground, nursery ground, and feeding ground for aquatic biota, as a natural habitat and to provide food. Some fish species that migrate or settle in the mangrove ecosystem may spawn, care for their offspring, take refuge, or find prey [13].

Species of fish inhabitants of the Baros mangrove ecosystem based on their ability to adapt to salinity are grouped into three, namely the original inhabitants of freshwater, brackish water, and marine species. The number of fish species found in the mangrove ecosystem is 36 species consisting of 3 brackish water species, 11 freshwater species, and 22 marine species [12].

#### *2.2.1 Spawning ground*

The Baros mangrove ecosystem experiences changes in salinity that occur every day. Extreme changes in physical parameters affect the number of fish species that can adapt to brackish water. Brackish water species are species that all stages of life exist in brackish waters. Brackish water species are the least amount compared to seawater or freshwater species. This species uses brackish or mangrove water ecosystems to breed, care for, and raise their offspring [3]. This species is most vulnerable to extreme physical and chemical changes in brackish waters. Efforts to improve mangrove ecosystems can save the survival of brackish water species. Brackish water species found in the Baros ecosystem are *Acentrogobius caninus*, *Ambassis interrupta* and *Glossogobius giuris*.

#### *2.2.2 Nursery ground*

Freshwater and marine fish species found in the mangrove ecosystem are mostly in the larval stage. Eggs that hatch into larvae spawned in the sea or upstream of the river are carried by currents to reach the mangrove ecosystem by utilizing tidal or river flow. The waters of the mangrove ecosystem provide habitat for larvae protection. Besides, the mangrove ecosystem is very fertile so that it can provide food for aquatic biota larvae stage. The proportion of larvae of marine species is more than that of freshwater species. The Baros mangrove ecosystem is essential as a nursery ground for most economically important marine fish, such as snapper, mugil, and sardine [3].

#### *2.2.3 Feeding ground*

The number of species and individual fish in the juvenile stage is higher than in the young fish stage. Omnivorous and detritivores groups dominate fish in the immature stage. Mangroves, as first-rate producers, can produce large amounts of detritus from leaves and twigs. Mangrove ecosystems can provide organic nutrients that fertilize brackish water, the more mangrove trees, the higher leaf litter production. The number of leaves that fall will produce more detritus. The more leaf waste is produced, the more food is available. Mangrove ecosystems and health conditions affect the capacity of young fish to feed in mangroves. The healthier mangrove ecosystems, the more able to accommodate fish biomass [3].

Season and water conditions affect the abundance of juveniles in mangrove ecosystems. The number of biomass and young fish species is found more in the rainy season. The amount of available nutrients is more abundant in the rainy season. Likewise, most fish species spawn in the rainy season. The abundance of juvenile fish is also affected by the lunar cycle. In the full moon and new moon, the juvenile number is less.

#### **2.3 Economic function**

Baros mangrove ecosystem has an economic function or economic value. The commercial service is the role value of mangrove forests in creating employment for

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*Conservation Management of Planted Mangroves through Evaluating Ecosystem Services…*

the value of choice. Nonutilization value includes the value of existence.

the community, so they have income. Economic value shows the role of conservation of mangrove resources in producing activities that can be valued. Economic value includes the amount of utilization and nonvalue utilization of resources. Utilization value consists of the direct amount of use, the indirect cost of use, and

Direct use value is the value obtained from the production of goods that is resulting from the direct utilization of resources. The direct use value includes the use of wood and the capture of fishery commodities in the mangrove area. Indirect use-value is the value assigned to the benefit of resources in the environment. Indirect use values, for example, the cost of mangrove areas as a barrier to seawater intrusion, and the amount of a wall as waves, or other environmental benefits felt by the local community. The choice value is the benefit value of a resource that is stored or maintained for future use. The choice value is the value of the biodiversity of mangrove flora and fauna. The existence value is the value given by the commu-

The total economic benefit value of the Baros mangrove area is \$ 14,846 US ha/ year. The direct economic benefits value of \$ 1738 US ha/year, and the indirect economic benefits value of \$ 11,615 US ha/year. The optional benefits value about \$ 15 ha/year. The existence value for \$ 1478 US ha/year. The highest percentage of economic benefit value is the indirect benefit of the mangrove area at 78.2% [4].

Social service is the role of mangrove forests to improve the welfare of life or improve the social welfare problems of local communities. The social function of the Baros mangrove is closely related to the formation of the family of Baros young women (KP2B) in the 80s. KP2B members are all Baros villagers who are in first grade of high school. KP2B, in collaboration with NGO Relung in 2003, initiated the planting of mangrove trees in Baros Village. The purpose of planting mangrove trees is to protect the village from the threat of abrasion, intrusion, and tsunami and to protect plants from blowing sea breezes high in salt, which causes crops

The family of Baros young women empowers citizens to play an active role in improving their welfare by forming five working groups. Workgroup activities are related to mangrove conservation. The working groups formed are Avicennia working group, Mino Tirtohargo, Andini Lestari-Karya Manunggal, Mangrove Farmer Group Association—Women Farmer Group, and Processing and

Each working group conducts a business that supports mangrove sustainability. They are namely (1) Avicennia working group does business in the field of processing marine driftwood waste. (2) The Mino Tirtohargo working group conducts fishing activities. (3) Andini Lestari-Karya Manunggal working group conducts business in cattle and duck farming. (4) A joint working group of farmers—women farmer groups carrying out agricultural activities. (5) The processing and marketing working group carries out learning activities and consumption services in the form of traditional food. The actions of each working group are as follows.

Avicennia's working group activity is an effort to process driftwood waste into handicrafts with artistic value. This effort is motivated by concerns about the amount of garbage in the Baros mangrove area. Garbage often covers or breaks young mangroves, thus disrupting mangrove conservation efforts. Driftwood is wood waste that has long been oscillated in the sea and then stranded in mangroves or beaches. Processing driftwood waste is an effort to reduce garbage and to increase income. Driftwood waste processed into handicrafts with high

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93780*

nity to resources for the various benefits [4].

**2.4 Social function**

to wither.

Marketing Group.

*Conservation Management of Planted Mangroves through Evaluating Ecosystem Services… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93780*

the community, so they have income. Economic value shows the role of conservation of mangrove resources in producing activities that can be valued. Economic value includes the amount of utilization and nonvalue utilization of resources. Utilization value consists of the direct amount of use, the indirect cost of use, and the value of choice. Nonutilization value includes the value of existence.

Direct use value is the value obtained from the production of goods that is resulting from the direct utilization of resources. The direct use value includes the use of wood and the capture of fishery commodities in the mangrove area. Indirect use-value is the value assigned to the benefit of resources in the environment. Indirect use values, for example, the cost of mangrove areas as a barrier to seawater intrusion, and the amount of a wall as waves, or other environmental benefits felt by the local community. The choice value is the benefit value of a resource that is stored or maintained for future use. The choice value is the value of the biodiversity of mangrove flora and fauna. The existence value is the value given by the community to resources for the various benefits [4].

The total economic benefit value of the Baros mangrove area is \$ 14,846 US ha/ year. The direct economic benefits value of \$ 1738 US ha/year, and the indirect economic benefits value of \$ 11,615 US ha/year. The optional benefits value about \$ 15 ha/year. The existence value for \$ 1478 US ha/year. The highest percentage of economic benefit value is the indirect benefit of the mangrove area at 78.2% [4].

#### **2.4 Social function**

*Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration*

*2.2.1 Spawning ground*

*2.2.2 Nursery ground*

sardine [3].

*2.2.3 Feeding ground*

freshwater species, and 22 marine species [12].

*Ambassis interrupta* and *Glossogobius giuris*.

Species of fish inhabitants of the Baros mangrove ecosystem based on their ability to adapt to salinity are grouped into three, namely the original inhabitants of freshwater, brackish water, and marine species. The number of fish species found in the mangrove ecosystem is 36 species consisting of 3 brackish water species, 11

The Baros mangrove ecosystem experiences changes in salinity that occur every day. Extreme changes in physical parameters affect the number of fish species that can adapt to brackish water. Brackish water species are species that all stages of life exist in brackish waters. Brackish water species are the least amount compared to seawater or freshwater species. This species uses brackish or mangrove water ecosystems to breed, care for, and raise their offspring [3]. This species is most vulnerable to extreme physical and chemical changes in brackish waters. Efforts to improve mangrove ecosystems can save the survival of brackish water species. Brackish water species found in the Baros ecosystem are *Acentrogobius caninus*,

Freshwater and marine fish species found in the mangrove ecosystem are mostly in the larval stage. Eggs that hatch into larvae spawned in the sea or upstream of the river are carried by currents to reach the mangrove ecosystem by utilizing tidal or river flow. The waters of the mangrove ecosystem provide habitat for larvae protection. Besides, the mangrove ecosystem is very fertile so that it can provide food for aquatic biota larvae stage. The proportion of larvae of marine species is more than that of freshwater species. The Baros mangrove ecosystem is essential as a nursery ground for most economically important marine fish, such as snapper, mugil, and

The number of species and individual fish in the juvenile stage is higher than in the young fish stage. Omnivorous and detritivores groups dominate fish in the immature stage. Mangroves, as first-rate producers, can produce large amounts of detritus from leaves and twigs. Mangrove ecosystems can provide organic nutrients that fertilize brackish water, the more mangrove trees, the higher leaf litter production. The number of leaves that fall will produce more detritus. The more leaf waste is produced, the more food is available. Mangrove ecosystems and health conditions affect the capacity of young fish to feed in mangroves. The healthier mangrove

Season and water conditions affect the abundance of juveniles in mangrove ecosystems. The number of biomass and young fish species is found more in the rainy season. The amount of available nutrients is more abundant in the rainy season. Likewise, most fish species spawn in the rainy season. The abundance of juvenile fish is also affected by the lunar cycle. In the full moon and new moon, the juvenile

Baros mangrove ecosystem has an economic function or economic value. The commercial service is the role value of mangrove forests in creating employment for

ecosystems, the more able to accommodate fish biomass [3].

**160**

number is less.

**2.3 Economic function**

Social service is the role of mangrove forests to improve the welfare of life or improve the social welfare problems of local communities. The social function of the Baros mangrove is closely related to the formation of the family of Baros young women (KP2B) in the 80s. KP2B members are all Baros villagers who are in first grade of high school. KP2B, in collaboration with NGO Relung in 2003, initiated the planting of mangrove trees in Baros Village. The purpose of planting mangrove trees is to protect the village from the threat of abrasion, intrusion, and tsunami and to protect plants from blowing sea breezes high in salt, which causes crops to wither.

The family of Baros young women empowers citizens to play an active role in improving their welfare by forming five working groups. Workgroup activities are related to mangrove conservation. The working groups formed are Avicennia working group, Mino Tirtohargo, Andini Lestari-Karya Manunggal, Mangrove Farmer Group Association—Women Farmer Group, and Processing and Marketing Group.

Each working group conducts a business that supports mangrove sustainability. They are namely (1) Avicennia working group does business in the field of processing marine driftwood waste. (2) The Mino Tirtohargo working group conducts fishing activities. (3) Andini Lestari-Karya Manunggal working group conducts business in cattle and duck farming. (4) A joint working group of farmers—women farmer groups carrying out agricultural activities. (5) The processing and marketing working group carries out learning activities and consumption services in the form of traditional food. The actions of each working group are as follows.

Avicennia's working group activity is an effort to process driftwood waste into handicrafts with artistic value. This effort is motivated by concerns about the amount of garbage in the Baros mangrove area. Garbage often covers or breaks young mangroves, thus disrupting mangrove conservation efforts. Driftwood is wood waste that has long been oscillated in the sea and then stranded in mangroves or beaches. Processing driftwood waste is an effort to reduce garbage and to increase income. Driftwood waste processed into handicrafts with high

artistic value. The final product processed driftwood is a type of craft items in the form of wall displays, wall clocks, decorative lamps, tissue boxes, miniature Christmas trees.

The Mino Tirtohargo working group carried restocking of mangrove crab and fishing. The crabs find food, grow and breed in the mangrove area. Mangrove crabs can grow well and reproduce in areas with mangrove areas. Stocking crabs can increase the stock and catch of fishermen. Before doing restocking, fishermen get small crabs in the dry season only. After restocking and mangrove have grown well, fishermen can get crab catch every day. Restocking is also carried out by universities to increase fish stocks and fishermen's catches. The fish stocked is milkfish (*Chanos chanos*) in the year of 2014 at the amount of 20,000 individuals. Milkfish restocking aims to increase fish stocks as fish consumption catch and fishermen income. Milkfish restocking is done by considering that the Baros mangrove area is a suitable habitat for milkfish. Milkfish restocking can balance the population structure of the mangrove ecosystem.

The Andini Lestari working group conducts a cattle breeding business using group cages. The location of cattle farms is in an integrated livestock utilization zone adjacent to the agricultural land and the Baros mangrove area. Andini Lestari's working group has 35 units of cages with three types of cows, namely Simetal, Lemusin, and Java, which are managed in an integrated manner. Cattle are fed grass obtained in the Baros mangrove conservation area, to increase household income.

Manunggal working group works in the field of raising ducks using a cage. It is located in the ranch area to the north of the Baros mangrove forest. Breeders herd ducks during the day in the mangroves, so the ducks get natural food and nutrients. Ducks are herded into cages in the afternoon, so ducks lay eggs at night in pet cages. The eggs are then processed into high-quality salted eggs.

Working groups of Farmers and Women Farmers are active in agriculture. They grow agricultural commodities, which include vegetables, shallots, and rice. Each type of agrarian product has a different treatment and planting period, for example, vegetables 40–50 days, onions 50–60 days, and rice 90–110 days. Rice farming activities are carried out in groups such as plowing soil, planting rice seeds, cleaning weeds, and harvesting rice. The location of agricultural land is in an integrated agrarian zone. This location is behind the mangrove, so it is protected from the sea breeze [3]. The existence of mangroves can protect integrated agricultural areas from exposure to sea breezes and tidal floods.

The Processing and Marketing working group consists of mothers who provide lessons on traditional cooking and guest consumption services. The types of traditional cuisine taught are typical village dishes, namely Cucur, Adrem, Rempeyek Udang, Nasi Wiwit. Baros traditional food is served to support mangrove ecotourism activities. The process of making traditional food is part of the mangrove ecotourism material. Traditional cuisine guides are mothers of traditional cake craft craftsmen.

#### **3. Problems encountered**

Baros mangrove forest managers face several obstacles to maintain environmental and forest health. The management of the KP2B organization often faces many obstacles in managing conservation areas, but the most prominent is the management of waste and the quality of human resources. Constraints or problems in managing mangrove conservation areas are mostly from outside, and a small portion is from local locations. Some limitations and solutions are explained below.

**163**

*Conservation Management of Planted Mangroves through Evaluating Ecosystem Services…*

The Baros Mangrove Conservation Area is in the lagoon of the Opak river and south of the village of Baros. The headwaters of the Opak river are located on the slopes of Mount Merapi, stretching from north to south. This river has a flow length

from settlements and agriculture, consisting of various types and shapes. The volume of waste that has accumulated in the Opak river estuary is increasing, making

bage accumulation in the river mouth is expected to reach 2800 kg/day or 280 m3

day. Types of waste consist of plastic, rubber, Styrofoam, cans, wood, glass, cloth. The most dominant type of waste is plastic, then timber, and the least is cloth [15]. Garbage scattered along the coast of Baros originates from upstream rivers and debris carried by seawater. The volume of waste increases when river water overflows during high rainfall. Every rainy season arrives, household rubbish that settles at the bottom of the river then flows with the river flows toward the beach. Waste that flows directly into the sea will eventually be pushed by the waves back to the beach so that, in the end, the beach is full of rubbish. Every high rainfall and abundant river flow, the waste carried from the river to the sea will increase.

The main problem in dealing with garbage is to change the paradigm, behavior, and public awareness. The community views waste as something that is useless and has no value. Society considers waste as everything that is thrown away, rejected, ignored, unwanted material, or worthless. This mindset must be straightened out so that it considers garbage as a valuable object. Those who are involved in the work of utilizing waste are slogan "in your opinion, the things you have disposed of are rubbish, but for us, these items are a blessing for life." We must see waste as raw material or material that has economic value. Abundant waste can be processed into objects that have artistic value or sale value. Communities must be able to manage

Garbage that scattered along the coast of Baros consisting of organic and inorganic materials. Types of organic waste, such as used wood for household furniture, can be recycled into valuable items. It is improving by changing used materials into useful new articles and of economic value. Recycling can reduce the volume of waste, minimize the use of new materials, reduce the cost of producing goods, increase household income, and create new jobs. Recycling begins with the activity of sorting waste, grouping similar goods, processing into new products. The rest of the recycled material can be used for firewood so that all organic waste is used up. Production goods can be sold to tourists as souvenirs, furniture stores, or exported. The most inorganic waste is plastic used food envelopes, beverages, and household needs. Plastic has many advantages compared to other materials, for example, cheap, durable, lightweight, resilient, strong, so that dependence on plastic is very high. Each person, on average, discards plastic as waste as much as 0.45 kg/day, while waste production is as much as 0.9 kg/day. Plastic waste reaches 20–25% of all

Garbage piles at the Opak river mouth come from residents along the riverbank and residents in the village of Baros. Garbage contribution from residents along the

. The river flows through

/day, whereas the contribution of

, carrying garbage

/day. Total gar-

/

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93780*

of about 65 km and an area of flow of about ±1398.18 km2

the city with a population density of around 1194 people/km2

it a scourge for mangrove conservation area managers [14].

waste by recycling, reusing, purifying, or purifying [16].

rubbish from Baros villagers is estimated at 1000 kg/day or 100 m3

riverbanks is estimated at 1800 kg/day or 180 m3

**3.1 Garbage disturbance**

*3.1.1 Rubbish characteristics*

*3.1.2 Garbage management*

*Conservation Management of Planted Mangroves through Evaluating Ecosystem Services… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93780*

#### **3.1 Garbage disturbance**

*Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration*

Christmas trees.

mangrove ecosystem.

household income.

artistic value. The final product processed driftwood is a type of craft items in the form of wall displays, wall clocks, decorative lamps, tissue boxes, miniature

The Mino Tirtohargo working group carried restocking of mangrove crab and fishing. The crabs find food, grow and breed in the mangrove area. Mangrove crabs can grow well and reproduce in areas with mangrove areas. Stocking crabs can increase the stock and catch of fishermen. Before doing restocking, fishermen get small crabs in the dry season only. After restocking and mangrove have grown well, fishermen can get crab catch every day. Restocking is also carried out by universities to increase fish stocks and fishermen's catches. The fish stocked is milkfish (*Chanos chanos*) in the year of 2014 at the amount of 20,000 individuals. Milkfish restocking aims to increase fish stocks as fish consumption catch and fishermen income. Milkfish restocking is done by considering that the Baros mangrove area is a suitable habitat for milkfish. Milkfish restocking can balance the population structure of the

The Andini Lestari working group conducts a cattle breeding business using group cages. The location of cattle farms is in an integrated livestock utilization zone adjacent to the agricultural land and the Baros mangrove area. Andini Lestari's working group has 35 units of cages with three types of cows, namely Simetal, Lemusin, and Java, which are managed in an integrated manner. Cattle are fed grass obtained in the Baros mangrove conservation area, to increase

Manunggal working group works in the field of raising ducks using a cage. It is located in the ranch area to the north of the Baros mangrove forest. Breeders herd ducks during the day in the mangroves, so the ducks get natural food and nutrients. Ducks are herded into cages in the afternoon, so ducks lay eggs at night in pet cages.

Working groups of Farmers and Women Farmers are active in agriculture. They grow agricultural commodities, which include vegetables, shallots, and rice. Each type of agrarian product has a different treatment and planting period, for example, vegetables 40–50 days, onions 50–60 days, and rice 90–110 days. Rice farming activities are carried out in groups such as plowing soil, planting rice seeds, cleaning weeds, and harvesting rice. The location of agricultural land is in an integrated agrarian zone. This location is behind the mangrove, so it is protected from the sea breeze [3]. The existence of mangroves can protect integrated agricultural areas

The Processing and Marketing working group consists of mothers who provide lessons on traditional cooking and guest consumption services. The types of traditional cuisine taught are typical village dishes, namely Cucur, Adrem, Rempeyek Udang, Nasi Wiwit. Baros traditional food is served to support mangrove ecotourism activities. The process of making traditional food is part of the mangrove ecotourism material. Traditional cuisine guides are mothers of traditional cake craft

Baros mangrove forest managers face several obstacles to maintain environmental and forest health. The management of the KP2B organization often faces many obstacles in managing conservation areas, but the most prominent is the management of waste and the quality of human resources. Constraints or problems in managing mangrove conservation areas are mostly from outside, and a small portion is from local locations. Some limitations and solutions are explained below.

The eggs are then processed into high-quality salted eggs.

from exposure to sea breezes and tidal floods.

**162**

craftsmen.

**3. Problems encountered**

#### *3.1.1 Rubbish characteristics*

The Baros Mangrove Conservation Area is in the lagoon of the Opak river and south of the village of Baros. The headwaters of the Opak river are located on the slopes of Mount Merapi, stretching from north to south. This river has a flow length of about 65 km and an area of flow of about ±1398.18 km<sup>2</sup> . The river flows through the city with a population density of around 1194 people/km2 , carrying garbage from settlements and agriculture, consisting of various types and shapes. The volume of waste that has accumulated in the Opak river estuary is increasing, making it a scourge for mangrove conservation area managers [14].

Garbage piles at the Opak river mouth come from residents along the riverbank and residents in the village of Baros. Garbage contribution from residents along the riverbanks is estimated at 1800 kg/day or 180 m3 /day, whereas the contribution of rubbish from Baros villagers is estimated at 1000 kg/day or 100 m3 /day. Total garbage accumulation in the river mouth is expected to reach 2800 kg/day or 280 m3 / day. Types of waste consist of plastic, rubber, Styrofoam, cans, wood, glass, cloth. The most dominant type of waste is plastic, then timber, and the least is cloth [15].

Garbage scattered along the coast of Baros originates from upstream rivers and debris carried by seawater. The volume of waste increases when river water overflows during high rainfall. Every rainy season arrives, household rubbish that settles at the bottom of the river then flows with the river flows toward the beach. Waste that flows directly into the sea will eventually be pushed by the waves back to the beach so that, in the end, the beach is full of rubbish. Every high rainfall and abundant river flow, the waste carried from the river to the sea will increase.

#### *3.1.2 Garbage management*

The main problem in dealing with garbage is to change the paradigm, behavior, and public awareness. The community views waste as something that is useless and has no value. Society considers waste as everything that is thrown away, rejected, ignored, unwanted material, or worthless. This mindset must be straightened out so that it considers garbage as a valuable object. Those who are involved in the work of utilizing waste are slogan "in your opinion, the things you have disposed of are rubbish, but for us, these items are a blessing for life." We must see waste as raw material or material that has economic value. Abundant waste can be processed into objects that have artistic value or sale value. Communities must be able to manage waste by recycling, reusing, purifying, or purifying [16].

Garbage that scattered along the coast of Baros consisting of organic and inorganic materials. Types of organic waste, such as used wood for household furniture, can be recycled into valuable items. It is improving by changing used materials into useful new articles and of economic value. Recycling can reduce the volume of waste, minimize the use of new materials, reduce the cost of producing goods, increase household income, and create new jobs. Recycling begins with the activity of sorting waste, grouping similar goods, processing into new products. The rest of the recycled material can be used for firewood so that all organic waste is used up. Production goods can be sold to tourists as souvenirs, furniture stores, or exported.

The most inorganic waste is plastic used food envelopes, beverages, and household needs. Plastic has many advantages compared to other materials, for example, cheap, durable, lightweight, resilient, strong, so that dependence on plastic is very high. Each person, on average, discards plastic as waste as much as 0.45 kg/day, while waste production is as much as 0.9 kg/day. Plastic waste reaches 20–25% of all types of inorganic waste. Plastic waste mostly causes the death of young mangroves by covering leaves or breaking stems. Also, seedling cannot grow if the space is occupied by plastic or other rubbish. Plastic waste management is done by reusing, recycling, and making other products. Reusing plastic waste, for example, used plastic bottles for sowing mangrove seeds, gallon bottles for vertical cultivation of vegetable crops. Plastic waste that is completely unused, it can be melted down to make new products, such as flower pots or other products [9].

#### **3.2 Human resources quality**

Human resources play an essential role in the successful management of the Baros mangrove conservation area. Conservation area managers need someone who has the determination and love for the environment, innovative and creative. Love of a healthy environment will make someone persistent in saving plants as the lungs of the world. The population of Baros village who completed education to graduate from high school was 42%, while those who graduated from college were 8.8% [4]. The learning average of Baros residents is junior high school graduates, so they are classified as common knowledge. Although the average learning level is moderate, they have high innovation and creativity. Skilled human resources are needed to realize the creation of an independent and sustainable mangrove conservation area. Creative human resources are required to face various challenges in managing mangrove areas.

A manager is a group of people consisting of the head of the Baros youth group, village heads, hamlet heads, and elders to manage the Baros mangrove conservation area. Compact managers can take advantage of mangrove forests optimally and sustainably. Mangrove managers need skilled human resources capable of creating healthy mangrove conservation areas. Improving the quality of HR education is very influential in the successful management of natural resources. Some ways to improve the quality of human resources can be through formal and informal learning. Also, human resource development can be achieved through skills training, certification, or competency testing. Residents can certify as managers of marine and fisheries conservation areas. National standardization professional bodies carry out certification and competency tests for those who need them for free.

#### **4. Mangrove management strategies**

The Bantul Regency Government has designated the Baros mangrove forest area as a coastal park conservation area. Conservation areas with reserve status indicate a minimum level of management. The government has not allocated funds to carry out activities and has not formed an organizational management unit following the provisions. Bantul has a mangrove forest conservation area of 132 ha, which is managed by the zoning system. The area of each zone is a 10-ha core zone, a restricted use zone of 28 ha, and the other zone is 94 ha. The next step is to make a management plan for the Coastal Park-Conservation Area in Bantul Regency [17]. The area management plan must be implemented to accommodate the interests of many parties while maintaining the minimum negative impact.

The development of conservation areas is directed to ecotourism activities based on mangrove conservation. Mangrove conservation is managed by continuing to plant mangroves until the plant covers all core zones. However, mangrove planting must consider the representation of mangrove plant species to produce high biodiversity of mangroves. High diversity and plant density can increase the heterogeneity of animals and aquatic biotics. At present, there are 25 species of mangrove

**165**

resources.

*Conservation Management of Planted Mangroves through Evaluating Ecosystem Services…*

plants, 48 species of birds, and 36 species of fish [4]. Mangroves that need to be propagated are red pedada (*Sonneratia caseolaris*) and perepat (*Sonneratia alba*). These plants quick increase, local plants, so they are adaptable, have many biological and ecological benefits. However, the local community has not been able to seed, and the success rate of plants is low. Conservation area managers as well researchers must collaborate with the government and other parties to increase the diversity of

The next step is to empower all levels of society to be actively involved in supporting the success of ecotourism. Farmers cultivate various types of plants under local conditions as an attraction. Farmers do livestock activities according to the rules, so it is interesting to be visited and carried out by visitors. Production of traditional food preparations is carried out following health standards, and produces

The next step regulates the zonation of mangrove areas so that the available land use is following its purpose. The goal is that there is harmony between the mangrove area and other designation areas, such as agricultural, livestock, and fishery areas. The existence of mangroves can protect agrarian crops from tidal flooding, seawater intrusion, and a strong sea breeze. Also, mangroves are home to various species of birds that can help farmers cope with pest attacks. Conversely, agricultural activities can support the lives of birds by providing prey hunting grounds [18]. Managers need to invite experts to provide education to local communities about the life of birdlife, fish biota, and mangrove ecology, to create harmony in the mangrove

Sustainable mangrove management strategies by carrying out ecotourism activities that integrated with other businesses under their designation. Ecological tourism activities that combine various attractions by involving different sectors, namely forestry, agriculture, fisheries, and animal husbandry. The forestry sector presents a scene of observing the diversity of mangroves, the ecological role of mangroves as a buffer for the environment, the variety of bird species. Various attractions can be carried out in the core zone, for example, observing bird behavior, planting mangroves, arranging mangroves, and researching the diversity of aquatic biota. In the field of agriculture, it can present the attraction of farming activities in the utilization zone as well as the observation and introduction of crops. The fisheries sector can show the attractiveness of raising fish in ponds, spawning, breeding, harvesting fish. Fisheries activities in the utilization zone can provide fish restocking, crab restocking, and fishing activities. Animal husbandry activities can present attractions offering livestock activities, for example, feeding,

Managers need to do promotions so that the number of tours increases. However, an increase in tourists must be followed by an increase in services. It is necessary to conduct a study of the capacity of tourist visits to achieve maximum capacity and satisfaction. Mangrove managers can collaborate with a competent institution to survey tourist carrying capacity. The results of the study can provide information on the time and number of visits, set the types of attractions, and information on facilities for tourists and tourism service managers. The results of the carrying capacity study were disseminated to stakeholders to get responses. One of the critical jobs that must be done for conservation area managers is to collaborate with stakeholders that can have a positive impact. Besides, good governance can have a positive effect on management performance and increase revenue and generate economic activity in conservation areas and people's purchasing power. Guidance to the community so that an increase in income will have an impact on raising public awareness in supporting the preservation of regional

attractive products, and is characteristic of the village of Baros [16].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93780*

mangrove species via restoration.

ecosystem with its environment.

harvesting livestock products [2].

#### *Conservation Management of Planted Mangroves through Evaluating Ecosystem Services… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93780*

plants, 48 species of birds, and 36 species of fish [4]. Mangroves that need to be propagated are red pedada (*Sonneratia caseolaris*) and perepat (*Sonneratia alba*). These plants quick increase, local plants, so they are adaptable, have many biological and ecological benefits. However, the local community has not been able to seed, and the success rate of plants is low. Conservation area managers as well researchers must collaborate with the government and other parties to increase the diversity of mangrove species via restoration.

The next step is to empower all levels of society to be actively involved in supporting the success of ecotourism. Farmers cultivate various types of plants under local conditions as an attraction. Farmers do livestock activities according to the rules, so it is interesting to be visited and carried out by visitors. Production of traditional food preparations is carried out following health standards, and produces attractive products, and is characteristic of the village of Baros [16].

The next step regulates the zonation of mangrove areas so that the available land use is following its purpose. The goal is that there is harmony between the mangrove area and other designation areas, such as agricultural, livestock, and fishery areas. The existence of mangroves can protect agrarian crops from tidal flooding, seawater intrusion, and a strong sea breeze. Also, mangroves are home to various species of birds that can help farmers cope with pest attacks. Conversely, agricultural activities can support the lives of birds by providing prey hunting grounds [18]. Managers need to invite experts to provide education to local communities about the life of birdlife, fish biota, and mangrove ecology, to create harmony in the mangrove ecosystem with its environment.

Sustainable mangrove management strategies by carrying out ecotourism activities that integrated with other businesses under their designation. Ecological tourism activities that combine various attractions by involving different sectors, namely forestry, agriculture, fisheries, and animal husbandry. The forestry sector presents a scene of observing the diversity of mangroves, the ecological role of mangroves as a buffer for the environment, the variety of bird species. Various attractions can be carried out in the core zone, for example, observing bird behavior, planting mangroves, arranging mangroves, and researching the diversity of aquatic biota. In the field of agriculture, it can present the attraction of farming activities in the utilization zone as well as the observation and introduction of crops. The fisheries sector can show the attractiveness of raising fish in ponds, spawning, breeding, harvesting fish. Fisheries activities in the utilization zone can provide fish restocking, crab restocking, and fishing activities. Animal husbandry activities can present attractions offering livestock activities, for example, feeding, harvesting livestock products [2].

Managers need to do promotions so that the number of tours increases. However, an increase in tourists must be followed by an increase in services. It is necessary to conduct a study of the capacity of tourist visits to achieve maximum capacity and satisfaction. Mangrove managers can collaborate with a competent institution to survey tourist carrying capacity. The results of the study can provide information on the time and number of visits, set the types of attractions, and information on facilities for tourists and tourism service managers. The results of the carrying capacity study were disseminated to stakeholders to get responses.

One of the critical jobs that must be done for conservation area managers is to collaborate with stakeholders that can have a positive impact. Besides, good governance can have a positive effect on management performance and increase revenue and generate economic activity in conservation areas and people's purchasing power. Guidance to the community so that an increase in income will have an impact on raising public awareness in supporting the preservation of regional resources.

*Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration*

**3.2 Human resources quality**

mangrove areas.

types of inorganic waste. Plastic waste mostly causes the death of young mangroves by covering leaves or breaking stems. Also, seedling cannot grow if the space is occupied by plastic or other rubbish. Plastic waste management is done by reusing, recycling, and making other products. Reusing plastic waste, for example, used plastic bottles for sowing mangrove seeds, gallon bottles for vertical cultivation of vegetable crops. Plastic waste that is completely unused, it can be melted down to

Human resources play an essential role in the successful management of the Baros mangrove conservation area. Conservation area managers need someone who has the determination and love for the environment, innovative and creative. Love of a healthy environment will make someone persistent in saving plants as the lungs of the world. The population of Baros village who completed education to graduate from high school was 42%, while those who graduated from college were 8.8% [4]. The learning average of Baros residents is junior high school graduates, so they are classified as common knowledge. Although the average learning level is moderate, they have high innovation and creativity. Skilled human resources are needed to realize the creation of an independent and sustainable mangrove conservation area. Creative human resources are required to face various challenges in managing

A manager is a group of people consisting of the head of the Baros youth group, village heads, hamlet heads, and elders to manage the Baros mangrove conservation area. Compact managers can take advantage of mangrove forests optimally and sustainably. Mangrove managers need skilled human resources capable of creating healthy mangrove conservation areas. Improving the quality of HR education is very influential in the successful management of natural resources. Some ways to improve the quality of human resources can be through formal and informal learning. Also, human resource development can be achieved through skills training, certification, or competency testing. Residents can certify as managers of marine and fisheries conservation areas. National standardization professional bodies carry

The Bantul Regency Government has designated the Baros mangrove forest area as a coastal park conservation area. Conservation areas with reserve status indicate a minimum level of management. The government has not allocated funds to carry out activities and has not formed an organizational management unit following the provisions. Bantul has a mangrove forest conservation area of 132 ha, which is managed by the zoning system. The area of each zone is a 10-ha core zone, a restricted use zone of 28 ha, and the other zone is 94 ha. The next step is to make a management plan for the Coastal Park-Conservation Area in Bantul Regency [17]. The area management plan must be implemented to accommodate the interests of

The development of conservation areas is directed to ecotourism activities based on mangrove conservation. Mangrove conservation is managed by continuing to plant mangroves until the plant covers all core zones. However, mangrove planting must consider the representation of mangrove plant species to produce high biodiversity of mangroves. High diversity and plant density can increase the heterogeneity of animals and aquatic biotics. At present, there are 25 species of mangrove

out certification and competency tests for those who need them for free.

many parties while maintaining the minimum negative impact.

**4. Mangrove management strategies**

make new products, such as flower pots or other products [9].

**164**

#### **5. Conclusions**

Mangrove forests can directly act as coastal protection, storm barriers, strengthen coastal areas for sea wave disturbance, and control coastal erosion. Mangrove restoration measures can build resilience in coastal communities, reduce storm disruption, tidal flooding, and high wave disturbances, and protect surrounding agricultural, livestock, and fishery areas. Mangrove conservation areas can provide welfare and provide new jobs for the surrounding community, as a source of food, food, medicinal materials, and habitat for terrestrial and aquatic animals. Healthy mangrove areas can provide ecosystem services that can generate economic activities for the community and stakeholders.

The management strategy of Mangrove Baros is by implementing ecotourism, integrated with other companies that are mutually beneficial, arrangement of the tourist area so that it can attract visitors by providing tracks to explore the mangrove area, provision of complete public facilities, transportation, health, and safety facilities, and the addition of various attractions that are interactive with visitors. The attractions are adjusted to the interests of visitors.

Conservation managers need to accommodate research and development interests related to the area to support management activities. The use of conservation area resources considers all benefits and does not harm the inhabitants. Agricultural activities, fisheries, and livestock in conservation areas are managed to the maximum to provide socioeconomic benefits to the community. Collaboration with partners is crucial to create economic activities and increase stakeholder income.

#### **Acknowledgements**

The author would like to thank Mr. Dwi Ratmanto for providing information about the management of conservation areas in the Village of Baros. This paper is part of research activity on fish communities in the mangrove conservation area of Baros Village, Yogyakarta Special Province.

#### **Conflict of interest**

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

#### **Author details**

Djumanto

Aquatic Resources Management Laboratory, Department of Fisheries, Faculty of Agriculture, Gadjah Mada University, Indonesia

\*Address all correspondence to: lely4192@yahoo.com

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**167**

*Conservation Management of Planted Mangroves through Evaluating Ecosystem Services…*

Protection in the Aftermath of the Indian Ocean Tsunami: What Role for Forests and Trees? Proceedings of the Regional Technical Workshop; 28-31 August 2006; Khao Lak, Thailand. 2006. pp. 65-80

[9] Wahyuni I. Analysis of production and potentials of mangrove little hara elements in natural reserve dua Serang, Banten. Biodidaktika. 2016;**11**(2):66-76

Murdiyarso D, et al. Mangroves among the most carbon-rich forests in the tropics. Nature Geoscience. 2011;**4**: 293-297. DOI: 10.1038/ngeo1123

[10] Donato D, Kauffman J,

[11] Rafael A, Calumpong HP. Comparison of litter production between natural and reforested mangrove areas in Central Philippines. AACL Bioflux. 2018;**11**(4):1399-1414

[12] Suryaperdana Y, Soewardi K, Mashar A. Relationship of mangrove environment to the shrimps and milkfish production in silvofishery area of Blanakan, Subang, West Java. Bonorowo Wetlands. 2012;**2**(2):74-85

[13] Mahyudin RP. Sustainable waste management strategy. Enviroscienteae.

[14] Yusfi RN, Damanhuri TP. Study of solid waste characteristics and recycle potential in Cikapundung riverbanks. Journal of Environmental Engineering.

[15] Kusumasari B, Alam Q. Bridging the gaps: The role of local government capability and the management of a natural disaster in Bantul, Indonesia. Natural Hazards. 2012;**60**:761-779. DOI:

10.1007/s11069-011-0016-1

[16] Jackson B, Sparks JLD,

Brown C, Boyd DS. Understanding the co-occurrence of tree loss and modern slavery to improve efficacy

2014;**10**(1):33-40

2012;**18**(2):155-166

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93780*

[1] Suparwoko W. Tourism development in Indonesia. In: Towards Responsible Tourism: A Community-Based Approach to Tourism Development in Indonesia. Saarbrücken, Jerman: Lambert Academic Publishing (LAP);

[2] Budiantoro A. The sustainable ecotourism potential development with special reference to Oliveridley Sea turtle (*Lepidochelys olivacea*) along Bantul beaches, Indonesia. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. 2019;**391**:1-11. DOI: 10.1088/1755-1315/391/1/0120692

[3] Purwaningrum H. Development of mangrove forest ecotourism Baros village, Titihargo village, Kretek district, Bantul regency. Journal of Tourism and

[4] Trialfhianty TI, Suadi D. Economic valuation of mangrove resource in baros coast Tirtohargo village sub-district of Kretek. Kawistara.

[5] Qiptiyah M, Broto BW, Setiawan H. Bird's diversity in mangrove area of Rawa Aopa Watumohai National Park. Wallacea Forestry Research Journal.

[6] Zhang K, Liu H, Li Y, Xu H, Shen J, Rhome J, et al. The role of mangroves

Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science.

[7] Victor S, Golbuu Y, Wolanski E, et al. Fine sediment trapping in two mangrovefringed estuaries exposed to contrasting land-use intensity, Palau, Micronesia. Wetlands Ecology and Management. 2004;**12**:277-283. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1007/s11273-005-8319-1

[8] Takle ES, Chen TC, Wu X. Protection from wind and salt spray. In: Coastal

in attenuating storm surges.

Economic. 2020;**3**(1):31-40

2014;**4**(2):111-224

2013;**2**(1):41-50

2012;**102-103**:11-23

2012. pp. 62-68

**References**

*Conservation Management of Planted Mangroves through Evaluating Ecosystem Services… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93780*

#### **References**

*Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration*

**5. Conclusions**

**166**

**Author details**

**Acknowledgements**

**Conflict of interest**

Aquatic Resources Management Laboratory, Department of Fisheries, Faculty of

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

Mangrove forests can directly act as coastal protection, storm barriers, strengthen coastal areas for sea wave disturbance, and control coastal erosion. Mangrove restoration measures can build resilience in coastal communities, reduce storm disruption, tidal flooding, and high wave disturbances, and protect surrounding agricultural, livestock, and fishery areas. Mangrove conservation areas can provide welfare and provide new jobs for the surrounding community, as a source of food, food, medicinal materials, and habitat for terrestrial and aquatic animals. Healthy mangrove areas can provide ecosystem services that can generate

The management strategy of Mangrove Baros is by implementing ecotourism, integrated with other companies that are mutually beneficial, arrangement of the tourist area so that it can attract visitors by providing tracks to explore the mangrove area, provision of complete public facilities, transportation, health, and safety facilities, and the addition of various attractions that are interactive with

Conservation managers need to accommodate research and development interests related to the area to support management activities. The use of conservation area resources considers all benefits and does not harm the inhabitants. Agricultural activities, fisheries, and livestock in conservation areas are managed to the maximum to provide socioeconomic benefits to the community. Collaboration with partners is crucial to create economic activities and increase stakeholder income.

The author would like to thank Mr. Dwi Ratmanto for providing information about the management of conservation areas in the Village of Baros. This paper is part of research activity on fish communities in the mangrove conservation area of

economic activities for the community and stakeholders.

visitors. The attractions are adjusted to the interests of visitors.

Agriculture, Gadjah Mada University, Indonesia

provided the original work is properly cited.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Baros Village, Yogyakarta Special Province.

\*Address all correspondence to: lely4192@yahoo.com

Djumanto

[1] Suparwoko W. Tourism development in Indonesia. In: Towards Responsible Tourism: A Community-Based Approach to Tourism Development in Indonesia. Saarbrücken, Jerman: Lambert Academic Publishing (LAP); 2012. pp. 62-68

[2] Budiantoro A. The sustainable ecotourism potential development with special reference to Oliveridley Sea turtle (*Lepidochelys olivacea*) along Bantul beaches, Indonesia. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. 2019;**391**:1-11. DOI: 10.1088/1755-1315/391/1/0120692

[3] Purwaningrum H. Development of mangrove forest ecotourism Baros village, Titihargo village, Kretek district, Bantul regency. Journal of Tourism and Economic. 2020;**3**(1):31-40

[4] Trialfhianty TI, Suadi D. Economic valuation of mangrove resource in baros coast Tirtohargo village sub-district of Kretek. Kawistara. 2014;**4**(2):111-224

[5] Qiptiyah M, Broto BW, Setiawan H. Bird's diversity in mangrove area of Rawa Aopa Watumohai National Park. Wallacea Forestry Research Journal. 2013;**2**(1):41-50

[6] Zhang K, Liu H, Li Y, Xu H, Shen J, Rhome J, et al. The role of mangroves in attenuating storm surges. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science. 2012;**102-103**:11-23

[7] Victor S, Golbuu Y, Wolanski E, et al. Fine sediment trapping in two mangrovefringed estuaries exposed to contrasting land-use intensity, Palau, Micronesia. Wetlands Ecology and Management. 2004;**12**:277-283. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1007/s11273-005-8319-1

[8] Takle ES, Chen TC, Wu X. Protection from wind and salt spray. In: Coastal

Protection in the Aftermath of the Indian Ocean Tsunami: What Role for Forests and Trees? Proceedings of the Regional Technical Workshop; 28-31 August 2006; Khao Lak, Thailand. 2006. pp. 65-80

[9] Wahyuni I. Analysis of production and potentials of mangrove little hara elements in natural reserve dua Serang, Banten. Biodidaktika. 2016;**11**(2):66-76

[10] Donato D, Kauffman J, Murdiyarso D, et al. Mangroves among the most carbon-rich forests in the tropics. Nature Geoscience. 2011;**4**: 293-297. DOI: 10.1038/ngeo1123

[11] Rafael A, Calumpong HP. Comparison of litter production between natural and reforested mangrove areas in Central Philippines. AACL Bioflux. 2018;**11**(4):1399-1414

[12] Suryaperdana Y, Soewardi K, Mashar A. Relationship of mangrove environment to the shrimps and milkfish production in silvofishery area of Blanakan, Subang, West Java. Bonorowo Wetlands. 2012;**2**(2):74-85

[13] Mahyudin RP. Sustainable waste management strategy. Enviroscienteae. 2014;**10**(1):33-40

[14] Yusfi RN, Damanhuri TP. Study of solid waste characteristics and recycle potential in Cikapundung riverbanks. Journal of Environmental Engineering. 2012;**18**(2):155-166

[15] Kusumasari B, Alam Q. Bridging the gaps: The role of local government capability and the management of a natural disaster in Bantul, Indonesia. Natural Hazards. 2012;**60**:761-779. DOI: 10.1007/s11069-011-0016-1

[16] Jackson B, Sparks JLD, Brown C, Boyd DS. Understanding the co-occurrence of tree loss and modern slavery to improve efficacy

#### *Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration*

of conservation actions and policies. Conservation Science and Practice. 2020;**183**:1-13. DOI: 10.1111/csp2.183

[17] Anonymous. 2014. Decree of the Regent of Bantul, Number 284 in 2014, Concerning Reserving Coastal Area Conservation Area in Bantul District.

[18] Ferichani M, Prasetya DA. System of rice intensification increases rice productivity on saline soil. Paddy and Water Environment. 2017;**15**:649-657. DOI: 10.1007/s10333-017-0584-0

*Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration*

of conservation actions and policies. Conservation Science and Practice. 2020;**183**:1-13. DOI: 10.1111/csp2.183

[17] Anonymous. 2014. Decree of the Regent of Bantul, Number 284 in 2014, Concerning Reserving Coastal Area Conservation Area in Bantul District.

[18] Ferichani M, Prasetya DA. System of rice intensification increases rice productivity on saline soil. Paddy and Water Environment. 2017;**15**:649-657. DOI: 10.1007/s10333-017-0584-0

**168**

## *Edited by Sahadev Sharma*

Mangroves serve as one of the nature-based solutions for coastal communities. We are now almost at the tipping point where we can restore mangroves ecologically to mitigate climate change and enhance other important ecosystem services under the United Nations Decade on Ecosystem Restoration. *Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration* focuses on mangrove ecosystem restoration, the ecosystem services mangroves provide, and how to manage and conserve mangroves. The three sections include eight chapters that cover such topics as evaluating mangrove degradation, forest recovery through seedling recruitment, natural regeneration of mangroves, advanced molecular biology for restoring mangroves, and more.

Published in London, UK © 2021 IntechOpen © Velvetfish / iStock

Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration

Mangrove Ecosystem

Restoration

*Edited by Sahadev Sharma*