**2.3 Elements of integrated STEM education**

*Theorizing STEM Education in the 21st Century*

**2.1 Why STEM education?**

als' comprehensive abilities.

**2.2 Various standpoints of integration**

**2. Redefining the integrated STEM education in K-12**

The initial intent of STEM education was to build strengths in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics as a response to the declining number of students undertaking those relevant courses in high school or at university. This intent is underpinned by a perceived decline in STEM teaching quality and a high demand for STEM talents [4]. Thus, one major reason for advocating STEM education in school is to prepare the STEM workforce for the future. Nowadays, the STEM education has actually been evolving from a set of overlapping disciplines into a more integrated and interdisciplinary approach to learning and skill development [5]. This new approach enables and encourages a wider way of integration in STEM education, which includes teaching in a real-world context and combining learning in formal and informal sites. Therefore, it can be concluded that the advocation of STEM education will be beneficial to ameliorate the nation's economy and individu-

People hold broad but different stances on the relationship between STEM integration and education. At the national macro level, policymakers regard STEM integration as a correlation between school education and the development of the social economy. That is, positive STEM education is perceived to contribute to staying economically competitive on a global level. At the individual micro level, educators view STEM integration as an educational approach which might help students become critically literate citizens and procure financially secure employment in their adult lives [1]. Despite different understandings of integration at the macro- and micro-levels, both policymakers and educators point to the interconnection between STEM integration and education. Actually, the literal meaning of integration is combining two or more things together. STEM integration naturally has this meaning; nonetheless, it is not equal to integration of four disciplines as the acronym of this term indicates. Thus, examining the integration on the STEM field should take a holistic and coherent view, that is, not only it comes to educational fields, but it also links to areas like society and

The diversity of viewpoints of STEM integration is mainly due to different emphases on what to integrate into STEM. Some people narrowly defined STEM integration as interdisciplinary integration, with the characteristics of the blurry disciplinary boundary. Others, however, emphasize it on other facets like curriculum integration or workforce integration. Among all the views of STEM integration, the majority of its definitions are limited in curriculum integration, for example, see [6–9]. Until recent years, some scholars like Honey, Pearson, and Schweingruber have proposed a descriptive framework on STEM integration in K-12 education [10]. This framework focuses on discussing STEM integration under the background of K-12 education in a broad view, which involves a range of experiences with some degree of connection, and these experiences can be concluded into four features: goals, outcomes, nature and scope of integration, and implementation [10]. Under this circumstance, STEM integration is equivalent to integrated STEM education. In this chapter, we take this most extensive view of integration to analyze definitions or viewpoints of integrated STEM education in the mainstream

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literature.

economy.

Based on our literature review on various viewpoints of the integrated STEM education, four outstanding characteristics have been identified and they are counted as constituent elements of the integrated STEM education. In this section, we will discuss these elements one by one.

The first and foremost element is discipline knowledge, which involves scope and intensity. Scope refers to the range of disciplines involved in the integration, whereas intensity is the degree to which the integration has reached. As Drake and Burns pointed out, the most integrated curriculum refers to the alignment of content and context from different disciplines, considering both two main factors: the depth of knowledge within the discipline and the relationship across or beyond disciplines [11]. As it builds on the continuum ranging from within a discipline to across disciplines, it especially cares about the boundary between the disciplines. Two ends of this continuum are segregated disciplines at the beginning of the continuum and integrated disciplines at the end of the continuum. Between them is a gradual mixture of STEM education on the basis of disciplinary knowledge [12]. Some researchers conclude four increasing levels of integration: disciplinary, multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary, and transdisciplinary [13–16]. Similarly, others propose three gradually complexed forms of integration: correlated, shared, and reconstructed, for example, see [17]. In the most advanced integration level, two or more disciplines are merged into real-world problems or ill-structured problems, which help students shape their learning experience. However, most teachers feel that it is the hardest one in class practice because it takes teachers' careful planning and enough time to execute [3]. Due to this consideration, other lower forms of integration in disciplines are also adopted in practice as they are more friendly to contemporary school settings, especially introducing STEM education in the schools' already packed curriculum.

The teaching strategies are the second element to be considered. As we have known, in regular schooling circumstance, the implementation of STEM education relies mostly on how to rearrange the existing curriculum. Teaching strategies may make great contributions to facilitating integrated STEM education in practice. Teaching strategies can be described in many ways. From the epistemological perspective, there are three broad categories: traditional, constructivist, and transformative; while from the perspective of the dominant role, there are two types: teacher-centered and student-centered. Among them, constructivist and transformative approach are common in integrated STEM education, and these teaching strategies are most students centered, including problem-based learning, project-based learning, science fairs, robotics clubs, invention challenges, or gaming workshops. Some of them are mature and widely used in educational fields because they have systematic methods, procedures, and even evaluation criteria. In practice, these teaching strategies can be seen as catalysts or lubricants in integrated STEM education as they have potentials to provide or construct an authentic experience for students to scaffold learning and develop skills or competencies. The project-based learning is one of these types of teaching strategies. It is an approach for students to construct knowledge through teamwork and problem-solving with scientific methods [18]. It has been used for years and involves a wide range of scientific areas where learners concentrate on group learning and presenting various outcomes [19]. Some scholars have attempted to introduce this approach to integrated STEM education to enhance students' attitudes and career aspirations in STEM, and their results are often positive [19–21].

The expectations are the third element, which is usually presented as a series of requirements (like skills and practices) for students to be future democratic

citizens and become competent in their adult lives [22, 23]. The element contains several similar terms like literacies, skills, abilities, and competencies. In most cases, literacy is referred to the most fundamental skills or abilities to read and write using paper or technologies such as computers or iPads; skills are transferable knowledge about how, why, and when to apply content knowledge; and the twentyfirst century skills are viewed as those that can be transferred or applied in new situation; competencies, however, refer to the blending of content knowledge and related skills, owning the most robust and broad concept [24]. We prefer to focus on skills and competencies as they can be used to describe expectations in large extent: they are more situational, more dependent on learning, and represent the product of training tasks or individual attributes related to the quality of work performance [25]. Moreover, they can be measured by the quality of relevant jobs at work, and an individual's possession of relevant underlying abilities is related to the improvement of a skill [25]. Some frameworks or criteria proposed across the world such as "Key competency," "Core literacy," and "twenty-first century skills" are closely correlated to this element [26]. Although the expectations of STEM education are correlated to these, they are more likely to focus on what competencies those STEM jobs demand. In other words, these frameworks or criteria are developed by experts based on literature review or data collected from employers and educational leaders; whereas the expectations of STEM education tend to find relevant competencies from present data collection of STEM employees [25]. These demands of competencies are desperately needed in workplaces, which prompt schools to cultivate students with these competencies through STEM education.

The learning system is the last element to be integrated. It affords to provide a systematic and appropriate learning environment for STEM education. For decades, efforts to improve STEM education have focused largely on the formal education system, which means that most of STEM-related activities are carried out in school. But integrated STEM education prefers to teach in a more true-to-live learning environment, inevitably, it might be limited by traditional school settings. In recent years, more and more STEM activities have occurred out of school—in organized activities such as after school and summer programs, in institutions such as museums and zoos, from the things students watch or read on television and online, and during interactions with peers, parents, mentors, and role models [27]. The advent of this element was earlier than the popularity of STEM education. It has several origins, for example, cross-setting learning and community of practice. For cross-setting learning, or learning across settings, which means learning by cross-sector collaborations among formal K-12 education, afterschool or summer programs, and/or some type of science-expert organization [28]. For a community of practice, it initially refers to members who have a common interest in a domain or area, or with the goal of gaining knowledge related to a specific field, learn from each other, and develop their personally and professionally [29]. Later on, it has become an integral part of the organization structure [30], which can be used in traditional classrooms, workplaces, or internets. Due to these origins, this kind of learning system is much more comprehensive in that it integrates formal, informal, and after-school education.

Essentially, these four elements make up a wide-ranging view of integrated STEM education, provided that they are put in context-specific landscapes. Many facts show that different contexts could encourage or inhibit these four elements to integrate into a desired STEM education. That is, one successful integrated STEM education means that these four elements interconnect together nimbly according to existing contexts. On the contrary, enacting without focusing on specific contexts may cause failure to STEM integration. In general, these contexts refer to various cultural, physical settings, and social environments. In a specific sense,

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**Figure 1.**

*An ideal model of integrated STEM education.*

*Integrated STEM Education in K-12: Theory Development, Status, and Prospects*

be adjusted on the condition that they are connected stably.

they can be considered in a small context as well, such as school context, which includes some factors like principals, existing curriculum, and colleagues. The effects of these contexts have inextricably linked to each other but are emphasized differently by stakeholders. Hence, based on a combination of previous analysis and appropriate conjectures, an ideal model of integrated STEM education is suggested

In **Figure 1**, there is a regular tetrahedron with four equal-volume spheres in its four vertexes, which is circumscribed with a big sphere. These four spheres represent four elements, with the lines representing interconnections between them. Moreover, the interspace between circumscribed spheres and the regular tetrahedron is filled with contexts. Within this ideal model, all the components can

Contexts are an indispensable matter which contributes to the solid connection of the model. Generally, in a philosophical view, there is no doubt that integrated STEM education should be embedded in historical, political, and economic contexts, as philosophers of science like Thomas Kuhn and Paul Feyerbend reject the objectivity of scientific knowledge and instead favor the ways that science functions within and for societal goals [1]. In this ideal model, the proportion of each element, as well as the connection of these four elements, are situated in social systems and cultural settings to vary degree. At present, the paradigm of global integrated STEM education is mostly dominant by western countries, and their major contexts are in a STEM workforce deficit situation and the competitiveness crisis worldwide. Those countries who have quite different situations from western countries, however, should take a critical but appropriate view to make a suitable integrated STEM education, rather than embracing them without thinking. Apart from this, some specific contexts should be taken into consideration, such as curriculum development mechanism, teaching, and learning traditions. These contexts may overlap but they all have their own focus, and they can affect the cooperation of these four elements to some extent. Discipline knowledge is the most essential and fundamental element in this model, which can be found in almost all the studies on integrated STEM education. It is also a quite stable element that almost free

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88141*

in **Figure 1**.

they can be considered in a small context as well, such as school context, which includes some factors like principals, existing curriculum, and colleagues. The effects of these contexts have inextricably linked to each other but are emphasized differently by stakeholders. Hence, based on a combination of previous analysis and appropriate conjectures, an ideal model of integrated STEM education is suggested in **Figure 1**.

In **Figure 1**, there is a regular tetrahedron with four equal-volume spheres in its four vertexes, which is circumscribed with a big sphere. These four spheres represent four elements, with the lines representing interconnections between them. Moreover, the interspace between circumscribed spheres and the regular tetrahedron is filled with contexts. Within this ideal model, all the components can be adjusted on the condition that they are connected stably.

Contexts are an indispensable matter which contributes to the solid connection of the model. Generally, in a philosophical view, there is no doubt that integrated STEM education should be embedded in historical, political, and economic contexts, as philosophers of science like Thomas Kuhn and Paul Feyerbend reject the objectivity of scientific knowledge and instead favor the ways that science functions within and for societal goals [1]. In this ideal model, the proportion of each element, as well as the connection of these four elements, are situated in social systems and cultural settings to vary degree. At present, the paradigm of global integrated STEM education is mostly dominant by western countries, and their major contexts are in a STEM workforce deficit situation and the competitiveness crisis worldwide. Those countries who have quite different situations from western countries, however, should take a critical but appropriate view to make a suitable integrated STEM education, rather than embracing them without thinking. Apart from this, some specific contexts should be taken into consideration, such as curriculum development mechanism, teaching, and learning traditions. These contexts may overlap but they all have their own focus, and they can affect the cooperation of these four elements to some extent. Discipline knowledge is the most essential and fundamental element in this model, which can be found in almost all the studies on integrated STEM education. It is also a quite stable element that almost free

**Figure 1.** *An ideal model of integrated STEM education.*

*Theorizing STEM Education in the 21st Century*

these competencies through STEM education.

citizens and become competent in their adult lives [22, 23]. The element contains several similar terms like literacies, skills, abilities, and competencies. In most cases, literacy is referred to the most fundamental skills or abilities to read and write using paper or technologies such as computers or iPads; skills are transferable knowledge about how, why, and when to apply content knowledge; and the twentyfirst century skills are viewed as those that can be transferred or applied in new situation; competencies, however, refer to the blending of content knowledge and related skills, owning the most robust and broad concept [24]. We prefer to focus on skills and competencies as they can be used to describe expectations in large extent: they are more situational, more dependent on learning, and represent the product of training tasks or individual attributes related to the quality of work performance [25]. Moreover, they can be measured by the quality of relevant jobs at work, and an individual's possession of relevant underlying abilities is related to the improvement of a skill [25]. Some frameworks or criteria proposed across the world such as "Key competency," "Core literacy," and "twenty-first century skills" are closely correlated to this element [26]. Although the expectations of STEM education are correlated to these, they are more likely to focus on what competencies those STEM jobs demand. In other words, these frameworks or criteria are developed by experts based on literature review or data collected from employers and educational leaders; whereas the expectations of STEM education tend to find relevant competencies from present data collection of STEM employees [25]. These demands of competencies are desperately needed in workplaces, which prompt schools to cultivate students with

The learning system is the last element to be integrated. It affords to provide a systematic and appropriate learning environment for STEM education. For decades, efforts to improve STEM education have focused largely on the formal education system, which means that most of STEM-related activities are carried out in school. But integrated STEM education prefers to teach in a more true-to-live learning environment, inevitably, it might be limited by traditional school settings. In recent years, more and more STEM activities have occurred out of school—in organized activities such as after school and summer programs, in institutions such as museums and zoos, from the things students watch or read on television and online, and during interactions with peers, parents, mentors, and role models [27]. The advent of this element was earlier than the popularity of STEM education. It has several origins, for example, cross-setting learning and community of practice. For cross-setting learning, or learning across settings, which means learning by cross-sector collaborations among formal K-12 education, afterschool or summer programs, and/or some type of science-expert organization [28]. For a community of practice, it initially refers to members who have a common interest in a domain or area, or with the goal of gaining knowledge related to a specific field, learn from each other, and develop their personally and professionally [29]. Later on, it has become an integral part of the organization structure [30], which can be used in traditional classrooms, workplaces, or internets. Due to these origins, this kind of learning system is much more comprehensive in that it integrates formal, informal,

Essentially, these four elements make up a wide-ranging view of integrated STEM education, provided that they are put in context-specific landscapes. Many facts show that different contexts could encourage or inhibit these four elements to integrate into a desired STEM education. That is, one successful integrated STEM education means that these four elements interconnect together nimbly according to existing contexts. On the contrary, enacting without focusing on specific contexts may cause failure to STEM integration. In general, these contexts refer to various cultural, physical settings, and social environments. In a specific sense,

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and after-school education.

from the limitation of contexts, except the different emphasis on disciplines that are driven by the needs of the economy and society. At present, the most common view is that STEM disciplines start with science and mathematics with technology and engineering included as an add-on to science. This is reflected in the latest K-12 science curriculum in American [31].

The other three are peripheral supports, playing different but important roles in creating a more integrated STEM education in context-specific landscapes. Teaching strategies, in this model, are mainly used to assist the instruction of discipline knowledge in a given context. Thus, it is natural and necessary to associate discipline knowledge and expectations through context-matched teaching strategies. Besides, the expectations required in K-12 schools should correspond with the needs of future society. In other words, integrated STEM education can provide a possible way to translate social expectations into individuals' real abilities, as long as discipline knowledge and teaching strategies constructing in a good combination. Moreover, the last element, learning systems, is to construct a systematic and appropriate learning environment and to break the limitation of school context in some instances. In short, this ideal model is significant because it can guide the exploration of elements and of the connections between them. Following this ideal model, perspectives on integrated STEM education in action can be further explained and analyzed.
