Phytotoxicity of *Plantago major* Extracts on Germination and Seedling Growth of Purslane (*Portulaca oleracea*)

*Ahmed F. Al-obaidi*

### **Abstract**

*Plantago major* L. (Plantaginaceae family) has been used as herbal remedies for centuries in almost all over the world and in the treatment of a number of diseases. This study aims to assess the allelopathic potential of *Plantago major* extracts on the germination and early seedling growth of purslane. Total phenols, tannins, saponins, flavonoids, and alkaloids were determined in *P. major*. Furthermore, concentrations of 2.5, 5, 10, 20, and 40 mg.ml<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> of both alcoholic and aqueous extracts were prepared to study their phytotoxic effect on the germination and seedling growth of *Portulaca oleracea* weed. In our study, showing the germination of *P. oleracea* was completely inhibited (96.30 mg.ml<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> ) under treatment of *P. major* methanolic extracts at 40 mg ml<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> . Moreover, both radicle and plumule were strongly inhibited (87.20 and 74.29 mg.ml<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> , respectively) under the same treatment. This could be attributed to the high content of bioactive constituents. Therefore, this species can be used in the method of biological control of weeds. In addition, further studies are required to identify and characterize the proper allelochemicals and demonstrate their modes of action.

**Keywords:** allelopathy, *Plantago major*, *Portulaca oleracea*, phytochemical

#### **1. Introduction**

At present there is a lot of emphasis on finding new methods to fight weeds, and concept of competition between plant species has been improved with that of plant allelopathy [1, 2]. Allelopathy involves the effects of one plant on another because of the chemicals it releases or the breakdown products of their metabolites [3]. There are some examples of plant toxins among the plant secondary compound classes of alkaloids, terpenes, and especially phenolics [4]. Phytotoxicity assays have been reported to be an important approach for identifying plants that are likely to be a source of vital herbivorous compounds [5, 6].

The allelopathic effects of crop plants or crop residues on weeds benefit farmers, which can cause significant economic losses [7]. There is competition for weed crops for moisture, nutrients, space, and light, which negatively affects crop yield [8]. It has been reported that the predominant species of weed allelochemicals stop crop production but sometimes also stimulate seed growth, germination, and crop production [9, 10].

Management methods that reduce the requirement for herbicides are needed to reduce adverse environmental impacts. Herbicides can cause crop injury [11]. Moreover, there is a keen interest in developing alternative methods of natural weed control in organically grown crops [12], as weed control remains one of the most significant agronomic challenges in the production of organic crops. Weed management is often the most troublesome technical problem to be solved in organic farming, especially in poorly competitive crops like vegetables [6, 13]. Cultivation and hand hoeing are common practices used in organically grown leek crops.

*Portulaca oleracea* L. (purslane) is a common troublesome weed worldwide. Despite being considered a poor competitor, it can quickly establish and easily regenerate by vegetative reproduction method [14]. *Plantago* is the largest genus within the Plantaginaceae family comprising approximately 275 annual and perennial species distributed all over the world [9]. *Plantago major* L. (*Plantago major ssp. major* L.) is a perennial plant that belongs to the Plantaginaceae family and is found in fields, lawns, and on the roadsides. It can become about 10–60 cm high, but the size varies a lot depending on the growth habitats. The leaves grow in rosettes, and they are ovate to elliptical with parallel venation (5–9) [15]. In Asia and Europe, the aerial parts of *P. major* is often used as herbal remedies in the treatment of a number of diseases related to the skin, respiratory and digestive organs, reproduction, and against infections [16].

Phytochemical investigation of the genus revealed the presence of polysaccharides, phenylpropanoid glycosides, alkaloids, triterpenes, flavonoids, and phenolic acids as the main bioactive compounds present in the aerial parts [17–20]. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the allelopathic potential of *Plantago major* extracts on the germination and early seedling growth of purslane.

#### **2. Materials and methods**

#### **2.1 Plant material**

*Plantago major* L. was collected from canal banks in Al Anbar city (Iraq) during their vegetative stage (February 2018). The identification of species was done according to Boulos [15]. The plant material was handily cleaned, washed several times with distilled water to remove dust and other residues, dried in room temperature in shaded place for several days till complete dryness and ground into powder, and then preserved in well-stopped bottles [21].

#### **2.2 Phytochemical analysis**

*Plantago major* was collected and prepared as previously mentioned. Total phenolics, flavonoids, and alkaloids were estimated using spectrophotometric techniques adapted by Harborne [22], Sadasivam and Manickam [23], and Boham and Kocipai-Abyazan [24], respectively. Tannins were determined according to Van-Buren and Robinson [25], while saponin content was estimated by the method adopted by Obadoni and Ochuko [26].

#### **2.3 Allelopathy bioassay weed seed source**

The seeds of *Portulaca oleracea* were collected from cultivated land from Al Anbar, Iraq. Seeds were sterilized by 0.3% sodium hypochlorite for 3 minutes, washed several times by distilled water, dried at room temperature for 7 days, and reserved in paper bag until further use [27, 28].

**139**

**Table 1.**

*Plantago major*

*Phytotoxicity of* Plantago major *Extracts on Germination and Seedling Growth of Purslane…*

For bioassay tests, aqueous and methanol extracts were prepared to obtain

filtered through double layers of muslin cloth followed by Whatman No. 1 filter paper. The pH of the mixtures was adjusted to 7 with 1 M HCl, and then mixtures

For germination experiment, 25 seeds were placed in each filter paper in addition to 10 ml of tested extract for each Petri dish (90 mm diameter). The control treatment was designed with distilled water. Germinated seeds were counted daily starting from the first day of treatment. The design of the experiment was randomized complete block with three replicates. The experiment was repeated three times,

The seeds of *Portulaca oleracea* were germinated in the dark at room temperature

) were added. Moreover, a control treatment was designed

 **dry weight)**

**Phenolics Tannins Alkaloids Flavonoids Saponins**

132.2 ± 2.35 28.7 ± 0.89 10.6 ± 0.05 14.8 ± 0.21 15.8 ± 0.06

for 2 days. Twenty-five germinated seeds were placed in Petri dishes lined with two layers of filter paper (Whatman No. 1), and 10 ml of different extracts (2.5, 5,

with distilled water. The design of the experiment was randomized complete block with three replicates. The experiment was repeated twice, the radicle and plumule lengths of seedlings were measured on the tenth day, and growth inhibition for

Several phytotoxic substances causing germination and/or growth inhibitions have been isolated from plant tissues [30, 31]. The phytochemical constituents of *Plantago major* are presented in **Table 1**. *Plantago major* contained high contents of phenolics (132.2 mg/g dry weight) and tannins (28.7 mg/g dry weight), while it contained relatively alkaloids (10.6 mg/g dry weight), saponins (15.8 mg/g dry weight),

These results are supported with the study of Kolak et al. [32] and Miser-Salihoglu et al. [33]. In addition, this results relatively comparable to those reported in *Senecio glaucus* as described by El-Amier et al. [34] with the exception of phenols less, but higher than those reported by Kobeasy et al. [35] on same species and

**Plant species Active organic compounds (mg.g<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>**

*Concentrations of the active organic compounds estimated in* Plantago major*.*

(w/v). The solutions were

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88129*

various concentrations of 2.5, 5, 10, 20, and 40 mg.ml<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

were stored in a refrigerator at 4°C until further use [29].

and the inhibition percentage was calculated.

radicle and plumule lengths were calculated.

**2.4 Preparation of extracts**

**2.5 Germination bioassay**

**2.6 Seedling growth bioassay**

10, 20, and 40 mg.ml<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

**3. Results and discussion**

**3.1 Phytochemical constituents**

and flavonoids (14.8 mg/g dry weight).

*Phytotoxicity of* Plantago major *Extracts on Germination and Seedling Growth of Purslane… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88129*

#### **2.4 Preparation of extracts**

*Seed Dormancy and Germination*

against infections [16].

**2. Materials and methods**

**2.2 Phytochemical analysis**

adopted by Obadoni and Ochuko [26].

**2.3 Allelopathy bioassay weed seed source**

reserved in paper bag until further use [27, 28].

and then preserved in well-stopped bottles [21].

**2.1 Plant material**

Management methods that reduce the requirement for herbicides are needed to reduce adverse environmental impacts. Herbicides can cause crop injury [11]. Moreover, there is a keen interest in developing alternative methods of natural weed control in organically grown crops [12], as weed control remains one of the most significant agronomic challenges in the production of organic crops. Weed management is often the most troublesome technical problem to be solved in organic farming, especially in poorly competitive crops like vegetables [6, 13]. Cultivation and hand hoeing are common practices used in organically grown leek crops. *Portulaca oleracea* L. (purslane) is a common troublesome weed worldwide. Despite being considered a poor competitor, it can quickly establish and easily regenerate by vegetative reproduction method [14]. *Plantago* is the largest genus within the Plantaginaceae family comprising approximately 275 annual and perennial species distributed all over the world [9]. *Plantago major* L. (*Plantago major ssp. major* L.) is a perennial plant that belongs to the Plantaginaceae family and is found in fields, lawns, and on the roadsides. It can become about 10–60 cm high, but the size varies a lot depending on the growth habitats. The leaves grow in rosettes, and they are ovate to elliptical with parallel venation (5–9) [15]. In Asia and Europe, the aerial parts of *P. major* is often used as herbal remedies in the treatment of a number of diseases related to the skin, respiratory and digestive organs, reproduction, and

Phytochemical investigation of the genus revealed the presence of polysaccharides, phenylpropanoid glycosides, alkaloids, triterpenes, flavonoids, and phenolic acids as the main bioactive compounds present in the aerial parts [17–20]. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the allelopathic potential of *Plantago major*

*Plantago major* L. was collected from canal banks in Al Anbar city (Iraq) during their vegetative stage (February 2018). The identification of species was done according to Boulos [15]. The plant material was handily cleaned, washed several times with distilled water to remove dust and other residues, dried in room temperature in shaded place for several days till complete dryness and ground into powder,

*Plantago major* was collected and prepared as previously mentioned. Total phenolics, flavonoids, and alkaloids were estimated using spectrophotometric techniques adapted by Harborne [22], Sadasivam and Manickam [23], and Boham and Kocipai-Abyazan [24], respectively. Tannins were determined according to Van-Buren and Robinson [25], while saponin content was estimated by the method

The seeds of *Portulaca oleracea* were collected from cultivated land from Al Anbar, Iraq. Seeds were sterilized by 0.3% sodium hypochlorite for 3 minutes, washed several times by distilled water, dried at room temperature for 7 days, and

extracts on the germination and early seedling growth of purslane.

**138**

For bioassay tests, aqueous and methanol extracts were prepared to obtain various concentrations of 2.5, 5, 10, 20, and 40 mg.ml<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> (w/v). The solutions were filtered through double layers of muslin cloth followed by Whatman No. 1 filter paper. The pH of the mixtures was adjusted to 7 with 1 M HCl, and then mixtures were stored in a refrigerator at 4°C until further use [29].

#### **2.5 Germination bioassay**

For germination experiment, 25 seeds were placed in each filter paper in addition to 10 ml of tested extract for each Petri dish (90 mm diameter). The control treatment was designed with distilled water. Germinated seeds were counted daily starting from the first day of treatment. The design of the experiment was randomized complete block with three replicates. The experiment was repeated three times, and the inhibition percentage was calculated.

#### **2.6 Seedling growth bioassay**

The seeds of *Portulaca oleracea* were germinated in the dark at room temperature for 2 days. Twenty-five germinated seeds were placed in Petri dishes lined with two layers of filter paper (Whatman No. 1), and 10 ml of different extracts (2.5, 5, 10, 20, and 40 mg.ml<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> ) were added. Moreover, a control treatment was designed with distilled water. The design of the experiment was randomized complete block with three replicates. The experiment was repeated twice, the radicle and plumule lengths of seedlings were measured on the tenth day, and growth inhibition for radicle and plumule lengths were calculated.

#### **3. Results and discussion**

#### **3.1 Phytochemical constituents**

Several phytotoxic substances causing germination and/or growth inhibitions have been isolated from plant tissues [30, 31]. The phytochemical constituents of *Plantago major* are presented in **Table 1**. *Plantago major* contained high contents of phenolics (132.2 mg/g dry weight) and tannins (28.7 mg/g dry weight), while it contained relatively alkaloids (10.6 mg/g dry weight), saponins (15.8 mg/g dry weight), and flavonoids (14.8 mg/g dry weight).

These results are supported with the study of Kolak et al. [32] and Miser-Salihoglu et al. [33]. In addition, this results relatively comparable to those reported in *Senecio glaucus* as described by El-Amier et al. [34] with the exception of phenols less, but higher than those reported by Kobeasy et al. [35] on same species and


**Table 1.**

*Concentrations of the active organic compounds estimated in* Plantago major*.*

El-Amier et al. [36] on *Euphorbia terracina* as well as El-Amier and Abdullah [37] on some wild plants (*Calligonum polygonoides*, *Cakile maritima*, and *Senecio glaucus*).

#### **3.2 Allelopathic effect of** *P. major* **extracts on** *P. oleracea* **germination**

Allelopathy is a phenomenon by which some plants affect the others, either positively or negatively, by exuding chemicals [38]. In the present study, the allelopathic effect of shoot extracts (aqueous and methanol) on the germination percentage of *Portulaca oleracea* at 4 DAT was shown in **Figure 1**. It is observed from the figure that the methanolic extract of *Plantago major* exhibited higher germination inhibition of *Portulaca oleracea* than the aqueous extract. This could be attributed to the methanol polarity that has the ability to extract a wide variety of active components compared to water [39]. The degree of inhibition was significantly increased in a concentration-dependent manner. The aqueous extract of *P. major* at 40 mg ml<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> inhibited the germination of *P. oleracea* by about 30.24%, while the lowest concentration (2.5 mg ml<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> ) inhibited the germination by 4.60%. On the other hand, *P. major* methanolic extract showed a highest inhibition of germination at 40 mg ml<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> , while at 2.5 mg ml<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> , it exhibited lowest inhibition percentage (20.37%).

Many plant species showed inhibitory effects on *P. oleracea* germination such as *Medicago sativa* and *Vicia cracca* [40], *Salvia macrochlamys* [41], wheat, and rye straw [42]. Aqueous extract of some plant species may contain some toxic substances [43]. These substances probably inhibit the germination and seedling growth of other plant species [44], which was due to their interference with indole acetic acid metabolism, or synthesis of protein and ion uptake by the plants [45].

#### **3.3 Allelopathic effect of** *P. major* **extracts on** *P. oleracea* **seedling growth**

Allelopathy offers potential for biorational weed control through the production and release of allelochemics from leaves, flowers, seeds, stems, and roots of living or decomposing plant materials. Under appropriate conditions, allelochemics often exhibit selectivity, similar to synthetic herbicides [46].

The allelopathic effect of both aqueous and methanolic extracts on *Portulaca oleracea* radicle growth after 10 days of treatment revealed that there was significant variation between different extracts. However, the degree of inhibition significantly

#### **Figure 1.**

*The allelopathic effect of both aqueous and methanolic Plantago major extracts on the germination inhibition percentage (mean value) with the error bars of Portulaca oleracea 10 days after treatment.*

**141**

**Figure 3.**

*Phytotoxicity of* Plantago major *Extracts on Germination and Seedling Growth of Purslane…*

increased in a dose-dependent manner (**Figure 2**). The aqueous extract of *P. major*

showed the lowest inhibition percentage (19.21%) of radicle growth (**Figure 2**).

The phytotoxic effect of both methanolic and aqueous extracts from the studied *Plantago* species on *Portulaca oleracea* plumule growth revealed slight significant variation between two extracts. However, there was a very large difference between different concentrations (**Figure 3**). The aqueous extract from *P. major* showed the highest inhibition percentage of *Portulaca oleracea* plumule growth (48.69%) at

4.11%. On the other hand, the methanolic extract of *P. major* exhibited high inhibi-

(**Figure 3**). Phytochemical investigation of the genus revealed the presence of

*The allelopathic effect of both aqueous and methanolic Plantago major extracts on the radicle growth inhibition percentage (mean value) with the error bars of Portulaca oleracea 10 days after treatment.*

*The allelopathic effect of both aqueous and methanolic Plantago major extracts on the plumule growth inhibition percentage (mean value) with the error bars of Portulaca oleracea 10 days after treatment.*

) of *P. major* extract inhibited the plumule growth by 60.95%

*oleracea* by 87.20%, while at the lowest concentration (2.5 mg ml<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

, while it showed the lowest inhibition percentage of

inhibited the radicle growth of *Portulaca* 

, *P. major* extract inhibited the plumule growth by

(**Figure 2**). On the other side, the methanolic

), *P. major* extract

. The lowest concentra-

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88129*

showed 52.34% at 40 mg ml<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

40 mg ml<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

**Figure 2.**

tion (2.5 mg ml<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

radicle growth (3.5%) at 2.5 mg ml<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

extracts from *P. major* at 40 mg ml<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

, while at 2.5 mg ml<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

tion (74.29%) of *P. oleracea* plumule growth at 40 mg ml<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

*Phytotoxicity of* Plantago major *Extracts on Germination and Seedling Growth of Purslane… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88129*

increased in a dose-dependent manner (**Figure 2**). The aqueous extract of *P. major* showed 52.34% at 40 mg ml<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> , while it showed the lowest inhibition percentage of radicle growth (3.5%) at 2.5 mg ml<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> (**Figure 2**). On the other side, the methanolic extracts from *P. major* at 40 mg ml<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> inhibited the radicle growth of *Portulaca oleracea* by 87.20%, while at the lowest concentration (2.5 mg ml<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> ), *P. major* extract showed the lowest inhibition percentage (19.21%) of radicle growth (**Figure 2**).

The phytotoxic effect of both methanolic and aqueous extracts from the studied *Plantago* species on *Portulaca oleracea* plumule growth revealed slight significant variation between two extracts. However, there was a very large difference between different concentrations (**Figure 3**). The aqueous extract from *P. major* showed the highest inhibition percentage of *Portulaca oleracea* plumule growth (48.69%) at 40 mg ml<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> , while at 2.5 mg ml<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> , *P. major* extract inhibited the plumule growth by 4.11%. On the other hand, the methanolic extract of *P. major* exhibited high inhibition (74.29%) of *P. oleracea* plumule growth at 40 mg ml<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> . The lowest concentration (2.5 mg ml<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> ) of *P. major* extract inhibited the plumule growth by 60.95% (**Figure 3**). Phytochemical investigation of the genus revealed the presence of

**Figure 2.**

*Seed Dormancy and Germination*

tration (2.5 mg ml<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

while at 2.5 mg ml<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

El-Amier et al. [36] on *Euphorbia terracina* as well as El-Amier and Abdullah [37] on some wild plants (*Calligonum polygonoides*, *Cakile maritima*, and *Senecio glaucus*).

Allelopathy is a phenomenon by which some plants affect the others, either positively or negatively, by exuding chemicals [38]. In the present study, the allelopathic effect of shoot extracts (aqueous and methanol) on the germination percentage of *Portulaca oleracea* at 4 DAT was shown in **Figure 1**. It is observed from the figure that the methanolic extract of *Plantago major* exhibited higher germination inhibition of *Portulaca oleracea* than the aqueous extract. This could be attributed to the methanol polarity that has the ability to extract a wide variety of active components compared to water [39]. The degree of inhibition was significantly increased in a concentration-dependent manner. The aqueous extract of *P. major* at 40 mg ml<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> inhibited the germination of *P. oleracea* by about 30.24%, while the lowest concen-

*major* methanolic extract showed a highest inhibition of germination at 40 mg ml<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

Many plant species showed inhibitory effects on *P. oleracea* germination such as *Medicago sativa* and *Vicia cracca* [40], *Salvia macrochlamys* [41], wheat, and rye straw [42]. Aqueous extract of some plant species may contain some toxic substances [43]. These substances probably inhibit the germination and seedling growth of other plant species [44], which was due to their interference with indole acetic acid metabolism, or synthesis of protein and ion uptake by the plants [45].

Allelopathy offers potential for biorational weed control through the production and release of allelochemics from leaves, flowers, seeds, stems, and roots of living or decomposing plant materials. Under appropriate conditions, allelochemics often

The allelopathic effect of both aqueous and methanolic extracts on *Portulaca oleracea* radicle growth after 10 days of treatment revealed that there was significant variation between different extracts. However, the degree of inhibition significantly

*The allelopathic effect of both aqueous and methanolic Plantago major extracts on the germination inhibition* 

*percentage (mean value) with the error bars of Portulaca oleracea 10 days after treatment.*

**3.3 Allelopathic effect of** *P. major* **extracts on** *P. oleracea* **seedling growth**

exhibit selectivity, similar to synthetic herbicides [46].

) inhibited the germination by 4.60%. On the other hand, *P.* 

, it exhibited lowest inhibition percentage (20.37%).

,

**3.2 Allelopathic effect of** *P. major* **extracts on** *P. oleracea* **germination**

**140**

**Figure 1.**

*The allelopathic effect of both aqueous and methanolic Plantago major extracts on the radicle growth inhibition percentage (mean value) with the error bars of Portulaca oleracea 10 days after treatment.*

**Figure 3.**

*The allelopathic effect of both aqueous and methanolic Plantago major extracts on the plumule growth inhibition percentage (mean value) with the error bars of Portulaca oleracea 10 days after treatment.*

phenylpropanoid glycosides, alkaloids, triterpenes, flavonoids, and phenolic acids as the main bioactive compounds present in the aerial parts [17, 19, 20].

The allelopathic effect of *P. major* could be attributed to several bioactive compounds that act in a synergistic manner or to compounds which regulate one another such as flavonoid, phenolic acids, saponin, alkaloids and tannins. *Plantago* species was reported to contain several bioactive secondary metabolites such as vanillic acid, iridoid glycoside (aucubin), caffeic acid derivatives, chlorogenic acid, ferulic acid, *p*-coumaric acid, and triterpenes (oleanolic acid, ursolic acid) [16, 47, 48]. Many of these compounds were reported as allelochemicals [49]. Generally, the reduction in the seedling growth of *P. oleracea* in this study may be attributed to reduction in cell division of the seedlings, altering the ultrastructure of the cells as well as leading to the alteration of the ion uptake, water balance, phytohormone balance, photosynthesis, respiration, and inactivate several enzymes [50, 51].

### **4. Conclusion**

In conclusion, the aim of this study was to assess the allelopathic potential of *Plantago major* extracts on the germination and early seedling growth of purslane. In our study, showing the germination of *Portulaca oleracea* was completely inhibited under treatment of *P. major* methanolic extracts at 40 mg ml<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> . Moreover, both radicle and plumule were strongly inhibited under the same treatment. This could be attributed to the high content of bioactive constituents. Therefore, this species can be used in the method of biological control of weeds. In addition, further studies are required to identify and characterize the proper allelochemicals and demonstrate their modes of action.

#### **Author details**

Ahmed F. Al-obaidi Horticulture Science Department, Collage of Basic Education, Anbar University, Haditha, Iraq

\*Address all correspondence to: drahmed628@gmail.com

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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*Phytotoxicity of* Plantago major *Extracts on Germination and Seedling Growth of Purslane… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88129*

#### **References**

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**4. Conclusion**

**Author details**

Haditha, Iraq

Ahmed F. Al-obaidi

demonstrate their modes of action.

phenylpropanoid glycosides, alkaloids, triterpenes, flavonoids, and phenolic acids

The allelopathic effect of *P. major* could be attributed to several bioactive compounds that act in a synergistic manner or to compounds which regulate one another such as flavonoid, phenolic acids, saponin, alkaloids and tannins. *Plantago* species was reported to contain several bioactive secondary metabolites such as vanillic acid, iridoid glycoside (aucubin), caffeic acid derivatives, chlorogenic acid, ferulic acid, *p*-coumaric acid, and triterpenes (oleanolic acid, ursolic acid) [16, 47, 48]. Many of these compounds were reported as allelochemicals [49]. Generally, the reduction in the seedling growth of *P. oleracea* in this study may be attributed to reduction in cell division of the seedlings, altering the ultrastructure of the cells as well as leading to the alteration of the ion uptake, water balance, phytohormone balance, photosyn-

In conclusion, the aim of this study was to assess the allelopathic potential of *Plantago major* extracts on the germination and early seedling growth of purslane. In our study, showing the germination of *Portulaca oleracea* was completely inhib-

radicle and plumule were strongly inhibited under the same treatment. This could be attributed to the high content of bioactive constituents. Therefore, this species can be used in the method of biological control of weeds. In addition, further studies are required to identify and characterize the proper allelochemicals and

Horticulture Science Department, Collage of Basic Education, Anbar University,

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

\*Address all correspondence to: drahmed628@gmail.com

provided the original work is properly cited.

. Moreover, both

as the main bioactive compounds present in the aerial parts [17, 19, 20].

thesis, respiration, and inactivate several enzymes [50, 51].

ited under treatment of *P. major* methanolic extracts at 40 mg ml<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

**142**

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*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88129*

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[38] Chon SU, Kin Y, Kee JC. Herbicidal

[39] Oskoueian E, Abdullah N, Ahmad S, Saad WZ, Omar AR, Ho YW. Bioactive compounds and biological activities of *Jatropha curcas* L. kernel meal extract. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2011;**12**(9):5955-5970

[40] Koloren O. Allelopathic effects of *Medicago sativa* L. and *Vicia cracca* L. leaf and root extracts on weeds. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences.

[41] Erez ME, Fidan M. Allelopathic effects of sage (*Salvia macrochlamys*) extract on germination of *Portulaca oleracea* seeds. Allelopathy Journal.

[42] Boz Ö. Allelopathic effects of wheat and rye straw on some weeds and crops. Asian Journal of Plant Sciences.

potential and quantification of causative allelochemicals from several compositae weeds. Weed Research.

2011;**3**:83-91

2016;**2**(2):83-85

2014;**2**(9):287-294

2003;**43**:444-450

2007;**10**:1639-1642

2015;**35**(2):285-296

2003;**2**(10):772-778

*Phytotoxicity of* Plantago major *Extracts on Germination and Seedling Growth of Purslane… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88129*

[35] Kobeasy MI, Abdel-Fatah M, Abd El-Salam SM, Mohamed ZM. Biochemical studies on *Plantago major* L. International Journal of Biodiversity and Conservation. 2011;**3**:83-91

*Seed Dormancy and Germination*

methods. Chromatographia.

[20] Taskova R, Evstatieva LJ, Handjieva N, Popov S. Iridoid

[21] AOAC. Official Methods of Analysis. 15th ed. Arlington, Virginia, USA: Association of Official Analytical

[22] Harborne JB. Phytochemical Methods. London: Chapman and Hall,

[23] Sadasivam S, Manickam A. Biochemical Methods, New Age International Limited. 3rd ed. New

[24] Boham BA, Kocipai-Abyazan R. Flavonoids condensed tannin from leaves of Hawaiian *Vaccinium reticulatum* and *V. calycinum*. Pacific

[25] Van-Buren JP, Robinson WB. Formation of complexes between protein and tannic acid. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry.

Science. 1994;**48**:458-463

[26] Obadoni BO, Ochuko PO. Phytochemical studies and comparative efficacy of the crude extracts of some homeostatic plants in Edo and delta states of Nigeria. Global Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences.

1969;**17**:772-777

2001;**8**:203-208

2010;**71**:279-284

Chemists; 1990

Delhi; 2008

Ltd; 1973. pp. 49-188

[18] Ronsted N, Gobel E, Franzyk H, Rosendal JS, Olsen CE. Chemotaxonomy of *Plantago*. Iridoid glucosides and caffeoyl phenylethanoid glycosides. Phytochemistry. 2000;**55**:337-348

[27] Sampietro DA, Catalan CAN, Vattuone MA. Isolation, Identification and Characterization of Allelochemicals

Natural Products. USA Science Publishers: Enfield, NH; 2009. p. 2009

2005;**5**:661-665

1972;**59**:752-755

[28] Uremis I, Arslan M, Uludag A. Allelopathic effects of some *Brassica* species on germination and growth of cut leaf ground cherry (*Physalis angulata* L.). Journal of Biological Science.

[29] Rice EL. Allelopathic effect of *Andropogon virginicus* and its persistence in old field. American Journal of Botany.

[30] Soyler D, Canýhoþ E, Temel N, Hajyzadeh M. Determination of chemical fungicide against soil borne fungal diseases of capers (*Capparis ovata* Desf. var. *herbacea*) during early stages. Pakistan Journal of Agriculture

[31] Turk MA, Tawaha AM. Allelopathic effect of black mustard (*Brassica nigra* L.) on germination and growth of wild oat (*Avena fatua* L.). Crop Protection.

[32] Kolak U, Boga M, Akalin Urusak E, Ulubelen A. Constituents of *Plantago major* subsp. *intermedia* with antioxidant and anticholinesterase capacities. Turkish Journal of Chemistry. 2011;**35**:637-645

[33] Miser-Salihoglu E, Akaydin G, Caliskan-Can E, Yardim- Akaydin S. Evaluation of antioxidant activity of various herbal folk medicines. Journal of Nutrition and Food Sciences.

[34] El-Amier YA, Abdelghan AM, Zaid AA. Green synthesis and antimicrobial activity of *Senecio glaucus*-mediated silver nanoparticles. Research Journal of Pharmaceutical, Biological and

Chemical. 2014;**5**:631-642

Science. 2012;**49**:345-348

2003;**22**:673-677

2013;**3**(5):1-9

[19] Tarvainen M, Suomela JP, Kallio H, Yang B. Triterpene acids in *Plantago major*: Identification, quantification and comparison of different extraction

patterns of genus *Plantago* L. and their systematic significance. Zeitschrift für Naturforschung. 2002;**57c**:42-50

**144**

[36] El-Amier YA, Al-Hadithy ON, Abdulhadi HL, Fayed EM. Evaluation of antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of *Euphorbia terracina* L. from deltaic Mediterranean coast, Egypt. Journal of Natural Products and Resources. 2016;**2**(2):83-85

[37] El-Amier YA, Abdullah TJ. Allelopathic effect of four wild species on germination and seedling growth of *Echinochloa crus-galli* (L.) P. Beauv. International Journal of Advanced Research. 2014;**2**(9):287-294

[38] Chon SU, Kin Y, Kee JC. Herbicidal potential and quantification of causative allelochemicals from several compositae weeds. Weed Research. 2003;**43**:444-450

[39] Oskoueian E, Abdullah N, Ahmad S, Saad WZ, Omar AR, Ho YW. Bioactive compounds and biological activities of *Jatropha curcas* L. kernel meal extract. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2011;**12**(9):5955-5970

[40] Koloren O. Allelopathic effects of *Medicago sativa* L. and *Vicia cracca* L. leaf and root extracts on weeds. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences. 2007;**10**:1639-1642

[41] Erez ME, Fidan M. Allelopathic effects of sage (*Salvia macrochlamys*) extract on germination of *Portulaca oleracea* seeds. Allelopathy Journal. 2015;**35**(2):285-296

[42] Boz Ö. Allelopathic effects of wheat and rye straw on some weeds and crops. Asian Journal of Plant Sciences. 2003;**2**(10):772-778

[43] Habib SA and Abdul- Rehman AA. Evaluation of some weed extracts against dodder on alfalfa (*Medicago sativa*). Journal of Chemical Ecology. 1988;**14**:443-452

[44] Al-Charchafchi FMR, Redha FMJ, Kamel WM. Dormancy of *Artemisia herba alba* seeds in relation to endogenous chemical constituents. Journal of Biological Sciences Research, Baghdad/Iraq. 1987;**18**:1-12

[45] Hussain F, Khan TW. Allelopathic effects of Pakistani weed *Cynodon dactylon* L. Journal of Weed Science Research. 1988;**1**:8-17

[46] Weston LA. Utilization of allelopathy for weed management in agroecosystems. Agronomy Journal. 1996;**88**:860-866

[47] Chiang LC, Chiang W, Chang MY, Ng LT, Lin CC. Antiviral activity of *Plantago major* extracts and related compounds *in vitro*. Antiviral Research. 2002;**55**:53-62

[48] Long C, Moulis C, Stanislas E, Fouraste I. L'aucuboside et le catalpol dans les feuilles de *Plantago lanceolata* L., *Plantago major* L. et *Plantago media* L. Journal de Pharmacie de Belgique. 1995;**50**:484-488

[49] Cheema ZA, Farooq M, Wahid A. Allelopathy: Current Trends and Future Applications. Berlin: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg; 2013. pp. 113-143

[50] Fahmy GM, Al-Sawaf NA, Turki H, Ali HI. Allelopathic potential of *Pluchea dioscoridis* (L.) DC. Journal of Applied Sciences Research. 2012;**8**:3129-3142

[51] Li Z, Wang Q, Ruan X, Pan C, Jiang D. Phenolics and plant allelopathy. Molecules. 2010;**15**:8933-8952

## *Edited by Jose Carlos Jimenez-Lopez*

Seed dormancy and germination are critical processes for the development of plants. Seed dormancy allows seeds to overcome harsh periods of seedling establishment, and is also important for plant agriculture and crop yield. Several processes are involved in the induction of dormancy and in the shift from the dormant to the germinating state, and hormones and regulatory genetic networks are among the critical factors driving these complex processes. Germination can be prevented by different factors leading to seed dormancy, which is highly dependent on environmental cues. During and after germination, early seedling growth is sustained by catabolism of stored reserves (proteins, lipids, or starch) accumulated during seed maturation, supporting cell morphogenesis, chloroplast development, and root growth until photo-auxotrophic growth can be resumed.

Published in London, UK © 2020 IntechOpen © paulbein / iStock

Seed Dormancy and Germination

Seed Dormancy and

Germination

*Edited by Jose Carlos Jimenez-Lopez*