Meet the editor

Alexandre Bosco de Oliveira has a BS in Agronomic Engineering (2006) and Secondary Education in Biological Sciences (2009). He obtained his MS (2008) and PhD (2010) in Plant Science at the Federal University of Ceará-UFC, Brazil, and worked as a visiting researcher at the University of Florida (2017), USA. His academic background involves research activities with biotic and abiotic stresses in plants, agriculture, and crop physiology.

In 2012, he started his current position as Professor of Agriculture at UFC. Since then, he has become the Head of the Crop Physiology Laboratory and coordinates the Ecophysiology of Semiarid Agroecosystems Research Group, advising undergraduate and graduate students. To date, he has published six books, 21 chapters, 66 articles in peer-reviewed journals, and contributes as a reviewer and associate editor to scientific journals worldwide.

Contents

**Section 1**

**Section 2**

**Section 3**

*and Namessan Nicholas*

*by Aparajita Das and Bimal Das*

Biotic and Abiotic Stresses in Plants

*by Audil Gull, Ajaz Ahmad Lone and Noor Ul Islam Wani*

Fungal Biotic Stresses in Plants and Its Control Strategy

The Effect of Climate Change on Abiotic Plant Stress: A Review

*by Faisal Hussain and Farzana Usman*

*by Puran Bridgemohan and Majeed Mohammed*

**Preface III**

Multiple Stresses **1**

**Chapter 1 3**

**Chapter 2 9**

**Chapter 3 29**

Biotic Stress **59**

**Chapter 4 61**

Abiotic Stress **69**

**Chapter 5 71**

**Chapter 6 85**

*by Okoro Gideon Onyekachi, Onu Ogbonnaya Boniface, Ngasoh Felix Gemlack* 

Nanotechnology a Potential Tool to Mitigate Abiotic Stress in Crop Plants

The Ecophysiology of Abiotic and Biotic Stress on the Pollination and Fertilization of Cacao (*Theobroma cacao* L.; formerly Sterculiaceae family)

Leaf Cuticular Wax, a Trait for Multiple Stress Resistance in Crop Plants *by Kunhikrishnan H. Dhanyalakshmi, Raju Y. Soolanayakanahally, Tawhidur Rahman, Karen K. Tanino and Karaba N. Nataraja*

## Contents



Preface

Plants are subjected to numerous environmental stresses, which can be classified into two broad areas: abiotic and biotic stresses. While the first is considered the damage done to an organism by other living organisms, the latter occurs as a result of a negative impact of non-living factors on the organisms. In this scenario, the current most accepted opinion of scientists is that both biotic and abiotic factors in nature and agroecosystems are affected by climate change, which may lead to significant crop yield decreases worldwide. We should take into consideration not only this environmental concern but also the fact that 20 years from now the earth's population will need 55% more food than it can produce now. Therefore, it is crucial to address such concerns and bring about possible solutions to future plant stress-

Facing the increasing population, and consequently higher demand for food, fiber, and biofuels, the demand for agricultural products is set to increase in the next few years. Thus, plant science research to improve sustainable production worldwide is the vital task of the scientific community to address the increasing demands and needs for such products. In the last few decades, the results of wide-scale research have been applied, field mechanization improved, technical and agricultural methods developed, research and training extended, and new methods established

This book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of both biotic and abiotic stresses through 10 chapters that include case studies and literature reviews about these topics. Hence, this volume presents outstanding chapters involving theoretical and practical research work carried out by experienced researchers. There will be a particular focus on understanding the physiological, biochemical, and molecular changes observed in stressed plants as well as the

Taking into consideration the fact that environmental vulnerabilities are the significant constraints for growth, development, and productivity of crops, this book is a must-read work for academic students, scientists, and enthusiasts about this theme. The methods and technologies recommended here have resulted in essential highlights about how to tackle abiotic/biotic stress in plants, achieve higher yields, and maximize the use of inputs under harmful environmental conditions. In other words, this is a valuable resource about biotic and biotic factors that affect crops' yields, particularly for those who work in research organizations and higher academic institutions. This textbook is a precise and complete work that will benefit graduates, postgraduates, and researchers who work with environmental stressors

As editor, I am grateful to all the authors who have written their chapters meticulously and contributed their valuable work to this book. I would also like to thank the editorial staff of IntechOpen Publisher and its team for all the kind support provided throughout the whole editorship process, enabling this book to be produced on time and in an excellent manner. I express my special thanks to my mother

related outcomes that might affect global agriculture.

mechanisms underlying stress tolerance in plants.

worldwide.

in plants.
