**3. Results and discussions**

### **3.1 Socio-economic description of sampled population**

This section presents and discusses the socio-economic characteristics of the sample. The discussions are done by comparing results from the Sudano-Sahelian region with those from the Western Highlands. It is worth mentioning that the distribution of respondents across geo-ecological zones indicates that 60% of the from the Sudano-Sahelian zone while 40% was from the Western Highlands. In addition, the sample comprises of victims of both droughts and flood events (45.2% drought victims, 40.7% flood victims and 14.1% both drought and flood victims). More so, while all the respondents in the Western Highlands were flood victims, in the Sudano-Sahelian region, only 0.7% of the respondents witnessed floods alone. 75.7% of the respondents were drought victims, 23.6% had witnessed both droughts and floods.

#### **3.2 Education**

In general, most of the respondents had attained only primary level of education (65%), seconded by those with secondary level education (21.9%), third by those with no formal education (7.2%) and lastly by those with High school level of education (5.9%). The results are presented in **Table 2**.

Most respondents had attained only primary school education, irrespective of geo ecological zone. This amounted to 69.8% of droughts victims, 55.6% of flood victims and 81% of both flood and drought victims in the Sudano-Sahelian region (*P* < 0.001); and 54% of the flood victims in the Western highlands.

### **3.3 Sex**

Over 60% of the entire sample are male, while <40% are female. The distribution in the different geo-ecological zones is presented in **Figure 1**. In the Sudano-Sahelian region, the males also had the higher proportion as compared to the females among those who witnessed droughts (69.1 and 30.9% respectively, *P* = 0.085) and those who witness both floods and droughts (63.9 and 36.1% respectively, *P* = 0.085). The Sudano-Sahelian region is in the northern part of Cameroon and most of the people here a Muslims living in a closed society. Access to women is generally more challenging than is the case for men. Interestingly, the majority of those who witnessed floods in the Sudano-Sahelian region were females (55.2 and 44.8% respectively, *P* > 0.05). This stems from the fact that women are the ones mostly involved in farming activities and fetching of water thereby exposing them to the daily realities of the environment. In the Western Highlands, majority of the respondents were males (55.2%) as compared to 44.8% who were females.

#### **3.4 Marital status**

The distribution in the entire sample according to the marital status of the respondents showed that majority of them were married (76.1%) while 17.7% were still single. In addition, while 4.8% of the respondents were widow(ers), a very small proportion of the respondents (1.3%) had divorced their spouses. Results from the geo-ecological zones are presented in **Table 3**. These are traditional societies where both boys and girls marry very young and divorce is almost viewed as a taboo. Since it is considered that a woman is married to a family, she is generally considered stilled married to the successor of her husband even after the dead of her real husband. Moreover, men generally remarry upon the dead of their wives because the wives facilitate their household chores which men are essentially not familiar with.


**169**

*Determinants of Coping Strategies to Floods and Droughts in Multiple Geo-Ecological Zones*

The results indicate that majority of the respondents in both geo-ecological zones as well as for the different disasters were married (66.4% in the Western Highlands and 81.7% for drought, 77.8% for flood and 86.7% for both flood and

**Married (%)**

Sudano-Sahelian Drought 0.8 81.9 15.3 2.2 4.6841, *P* = 0.585 Floods 0.7 77.8 22.2 0.0 Both 0.4 86.7 11.2 1.8

**Single (%)**

Floods 1.8 66.4 0.2 22.7 10.308, *P* > 0.05

**Widow(er) (%)**

**Chi-square**

As a livelihood source, most of the respondents were involved in farming activities to sustain their families (60%). However, while 32.1% were business persons, 8.8% of the respondents had salaried jobs. The comparative analysis as presented in **Figure 2** also show that most of the respondents rely on farming for their household livelihoods (56.7% in the Western Highlands and 67.9% for drought and 77.8% for

For those who witness both floods and droughts, the majority of them were found to rely on their respective businesses for their livelihoods (52.4%) as

In our sample, only a slight difference was observed between Christians and Muslims (48.1 and 48.4% respectively). However, a small proportion of the respondents (3.5%) were African Traditionalists. **Figure 3** presents the distribution in the

drought victims in the Sudano-Sahelian region, *P* > 0.05).

flood victims in the Sudano-Sahelian region, *P* = 0.001).

compared to 43.7% who rely on farming.

**3.6 Religious affiliations**

two geo-ecological zones.

**3.5 Main occupation**

*Distribution according to marital status.*

**Figure 1.**

**zone**

Western Highlands

**Table 3.**

*Sex distribution of respondents.*

**Disaster type**

**Divorced (%)**

**Geo-ecological** 

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84571*

#### **Table 2.** *Educational attainment of respondents.*

*Determinants of Coping Strategies to Floods and Droughts in Multiple Geo-Ecological Zones DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84571*

**Figure 1.** *Sex distribution of respondents.*


#### **Table 3.**

*Natural Hazards - Risk, Exposure, Response, and Resilience*

education (5.9%). The results are presented in **Table 2**.

(55.2%) as compared to 44.8% who were females.

**Disaster type**

**Primary (%)**

(*P* < 0.001); and 54% of the flood victims in the Western highlands.

In general, most of the respondents had attained only primary level of education (65%), seconded by those with secondary level education (21.9%), third by those with no formal education (7.2%) and lastly by those with High school level of

Most respondents had attained only primary school education, irrespective of geo ecological zone. This amounted to 69.8% of droughts victims, 55.6% of flood victims and 81% of both flood and drought victims in the Sudano-Sahelian region

Over 60% of the entire sample are male, while <40% are female. The distribution in the different geo-ecological zones is presented in **Figure 1**. In the Sudano-Sahelian region, the males also had the higher proportion as compared to the females among those who witnessed droughts (69.1 and 30.9% respectively, *P* = 0.085) and those who witness both floods and droughts (63.9 and 36.1% respectively, *P* = 0.085). The Sudano-Sahelian region is in the northern part of Cameroon and most of the people here a Muslims living in a closed society. Access to women is generally more challenging than is the case for men. Interestingly, the majority of those who witnessed floods in the Sudano-Sahelian region were females (55.2 and 44.8% respectively, *P* > 0.05). This stems from the fact that women are the ones mostly involved in farming activities and fetching of water thereby exposing them to the daily realities of the environment. In the Western Highlands, majority of the respondents were males

The distribution in the entire sample according to the marital status of the respondents showed that majority of them were married (76.1%) while 17.7% were still single. In addition, while 4.8% of the respondents were widow(ers), a very small proportion of the respondents (1.3%) had divorced their spouses. Results from the geo-ecological zones are presented in **Table 3**. These are traditional societies where both boys and girls marry very young and divorce is almost viewed as a taboo. Since it is considered that a woman is married to a family, she is generally considered stilled married to the successor of her husband even after the dead of her real husband. Moreover, men generally remarry upon the dead of their wives because the wives facilitate their household chores which men are essentially not

> **Secondary (%)**

Both 81 6 2.1 10.9

**High school (%)**

Drought 69.8 18.8 3.4 8 32.423 (*P* < 0.001) Floods 55.6 22.2 <sup>0</sup> 22.2

Floods 54 31.1 10.1 4.8 11.547

**No formal education (%)**

**X2**

 **(***P***-value)**

(*P* < 0.001)

**3.2 Education**

**3.3 Sex**

**3.4 Marital status**

familiar with.

**Geoecological zone**

Sudano-Sahelian

Western Highlands

*Educational attainment of respondents.*

**168**

**Table 2.**

*Distribution according to marital status.*

The results indicate that majority of the respondents in both geo-ecological zones as well as for the different disasters were married (66.4% in the Western Highlands and 81.7% for drought, 77.8% for flood and 86.7% for both flood and drought victims in the Sudano-Sahelian region, *P* > 0.05).

#### **3.5 Main occupation**

As a livelihood source, most of the respondents were involved in farming activities to sustain their families (60%). However, while 32.1% were business persons, 8.8% of the respondents had salaried jobs. The comparative analysis as presented in **Figure 2** also show that most of the respondents rely on farming for their household livelihoods (56.7% in the Western Highlands and 67.9% for drought and 77.8% for flood victims in the Sudano-Sahelian region, *P* = 0.001).

For those who witness both floods and droughts, the majority of them were found to rely on their respective businesses for their livelihoods (52.4%) as compared to 43.7% who rely on farming.

#### **3.6 Religious affiliations**

In our sample, only a slight difference was observed between Christians and Muslims (48.1 and 48.4% respectively). However, a small proportion of the respondents (3.5%) were African Traditionalists. **Figure 3** presents the distribution in the two geo-ecological zones.

**Figure 2.** *Main occupation of respondents.*

**Figure 3.** *Religious affiliation of respondents.*

From **Figure 3**, we can infer that most of the victims in the Western Highland region are Christians (91.5%). On the contrary, majority of the respondents in the Sudano-Sahelian region for all disaster types were Muslims (85.2% for both drought and flood victims, 66.7% for flood victims and 76.9% for drought victims, *P* = 0.02). This is logical as the Western highlands and the Sudano-Sahelian Zones are both Christian and Muslim communities respectively. More description of the sample population has been presented in **Table 4**.

It can be inferred from **Table 3** that the age of the respondents was significantly higher among respondents in the Sudano-Sahelian zone than those in the Western Highlands (45.41 ± 16.617 years and 43.4 ± 13.739 years respectively, *P* = 0.004). Similar result was also observed with respect to the number of years the respondents have been living in their communities, as it was significantly higher among

**171**

*\**

**Table 4.**

*Significant at 10% level. \*\*Significant at 5% level. \*\*\*Significant at 1% level.*

been provided in **Table 3**.

*Determinants of Coping Strategies to Floods and Droughts in Multiple Geo-Ecological Zones*

**mean**

I Age/years 45.41\*\* Floods 43.22\* 22.532 7.511

II Age/years 43.40\*\* Floods 43.40\* 13.739 0.481

Household size 7.62 Floods 7.62 3.024 0.106

**Disaster type**

**Mean Std.** 

Droughts 44.13\* 16.757 0.554 Both 49.59\* 15.284 0.905

Droughts 25.16 11.99 0.396 Both 30.14 8.922 0.529

Droughts 7.6 2.933 0.097 Both 6.77 2.444 0.145

Droughts 66,950 72,440 2390 Both 57,975 46,650 2760

Droughts 32,290 48,220 1590 Both 26,480 23,930 1420

26.35\*\*\* Floods 28 8.139 2.713

7.41 Floods 8.33 3.122 1.041

64,990\*\*\* Floods 87,780 125,300 41,770

34,050\*\*\* Floods 46,330 75,290 25,090

24.5\*\*\* Floods 24.5 11.575 0.405

113,390\*\*\* Floods 113,390 173,040 6060

63,670\*\*\* Floods 63,670 95,555 3350

**dev**

**Std. error**

**Variable Sample** 

respondents in the Sudano-Sahelian zone than those in the Western Highlands (26.35 ± 11.507 years and 24.5 ± 11.575 years respectively, *P* = 0.001). On the other hand, the estimated household income before and after the disasters were significantly higher among the respondents in the Western Highlands over those from the Sudano-Sahelian zone (FCFA113, 390 and FCFA64, 990 respectively before, *P* = 0.001 and FCFA63, 670 and FCFA34, 050 respectively after, *P* = 0.001). Only the total household size was found not to differ significantly between the two geoecological zones (7 ± 3 persons for the Sudano-Sahelian and 8 ± 3 persons for the Western Highlands, *P* = 0.105). Details across the different disaster types have also

This sections first of all looks at the number of times the respondents have witness disaster events in the last decade, before exploring their perceptions with respect to

**3.7 Characteristics of floods and droughts in the study areas**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84571*

Number of years living in the village

Total household size

Income before disaster/FCFA

Income after disaster/FCFA

Number of years living in the village

> Income before disaster/FCFA

Income after disaster/FCFA

*Age, household size, years in the community and income of respondents.*

*I = Sudano-Sahelian; II = Western Highlands.*

**Geoecological zone**


*Determinants of Coping Strategies to Floods and Droughts in Multiple Geo-Ecological Zones DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84571*

#### **Table 4.**

*Natural Hazards - Risk, Exposure, Response, and Resilience*

From **Figure 3**, we can infer that most of the victims in the Western Highland region are Christians (91.5%). On the contrary, majority of the respondents in the Sudano-Sahelian region for all disaster types were Muslims (85.2% for both drought and flood victims, 66.7% for flood victims and 76.9% for drought victims, *P* = 0.02). This is logical as the Western highlands and the Sudano-Sahelian Zones are both Christian and Muslim communities respectively. More description of the

It can be inferred from **Table 3** that the age of the respondents was significantly higher among respondents in the Sudano-Sahelian zone than those in the Western Highlands (45.41 ± 16.617 years and 43.4 ± 13.739 years respectively, *P* = 0.004). Similar result was also observed with respect to the number of years the respondents have been living in their communities, as it was significantly higher among

sample population has been presented in **Table 4**.

**170**

**Figure 3.**

*Religious affiliation of respondents.*

**Figure 2.**

*Main occupation of respondents.*

*Age, household size, years in the community and income of respondents.*

*I = Sudano-Sahelian; II = Western Highlands.*

respondents in the Sudano-Sahelian zone than those in the Western Highlands (26.35 ± 11.507 years and 24.5 ± 11.575 years respectively, *P* = 0.001). On the other hand, the estimated household income before and after the disasters were significantly higher among the respondents in the Western Highlands over those from the Sudano-Sahelian zone (FCFA113, 390 and FCFA64, 990 respectively before, *P* = 0.001 and FCFA63, 670 and FCFA34, 050 respectively after, *P* = 0.001). Only the total household size was found not to differ significantly between the two geoecological zones (7 ± 3 persons for the Sudano-Sahelian and 8 ± 3 persons for the Western Highlands, *P* = 0.105). Details across the different disaster types have also been provided in **Table 3**.

#### **3.7 Characteristics of floods and droughts in the study areas**

This sections first of all looks at the number of times the respondents have witness disaster events in the last decade, before exploring their perceptions with respect to

damage of the disasters as well as the severity of the damage. From **Table 5**, we can infer that more floods have been witnessed in the last decade in the Sudano-Sahelian Zone than in the Western Highlands (5 and 3 respectively, *P* < 0.001).

These disasters are known to bring about damages to the asset portfolio of their victims. Presented in **Table 6** are some of the negative impacts of the disasters faced by the victims both at household and community levels. The results show mix impacts. For instance while damage to natural environment and livestock at the household level was higher in the Sudano-Sahel region than in the Western Highlands (reported by 91 and 43.8% respectively) loss of property was higher in the Western Highlands than in the Sadano-Sahel region (reported 72.6 and 59.9% respectively).

For the Sudano-Sahel region, the highest three damages are incurred through increase in sickness and diseases (reported by 96.9%), destruction of crops (reported by 93.4%) and damage to natural environment and livestock (reported by 91%). For the Western Highlands, the highest three damages are incurred through the destruction of crops (reported by 97.3%) increase in sickness and diseases (reported by 93.7%) and damage to ancestral links (reported by 89.1%). Details of these as well as the perceptions with respect to damages at the community level can be obtained from **Table 5**.

#### **3.8 Severity of disaster damage**

Base on the level of damage experienced by each household, the respondents provided information on the severity of the damages caused by the disasters both at household and community levels. The results have been summarized in **Figures 4** and **5**.

At the household level, a significantly higher proportion of the victims from the Sudano-Sahel region acknowledged the severity of the damage from the disasters to be very high than those from the Western Highlands (74.2 and 30.2% respectively, *P* < 0.001). On the other hand those who said the severity of the damage was high was significantly higher in the Western Highlands than in the Sudano-Sahelian region (36.4 and 13.4% respectively, *P* < 0.001).

The results at the community level with respect to the severity of the damages caused by the disasters are similar with those at the household level. For instance just as was the case at the household level, at the community level a significantly higher proportion of the victims from the Sudano-Sahelian region acknowledged the severity of the damage from the disasters to be very high than those from the Western Highlands (71.8 and 28.6% respectively, *P* < 0.001). Similarly, a significantly higher proportion of those who said the severity of the damage was high was from the Western Highlands than in the Sudano-Sahelian region (39.8 and 13.5% respectively, *P* < 0.001).


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*Determinants of Coping Strategies to Floods and Droughts in Multiple Geo-Ecological Zones*

**Household level Community level No (%) Yes (%) No (%) Yes (%)**

56.2 43.8\*\*\* 19.4 80.6\*\*\*

97.5\* 2.5 92.3 7.7

27.4 72.6\*\*\* 21.1 78.9\*\*

2.7 97.3\*\*\* 0 100

33.5 66.5\* 0 100

36.6 63.4\*\*\* 7.9 92.1\*\*\*

10.9 89.1\*\*\* 36.8 63.2

79\*\*\* 21 17.8 82.2

6.3 93.7\*\* 14.4 85.6\*\*\*

Sudano-Sahelian 9 91\*\*\* 8.1 91.9\*\*\*

Sudano-Sahelian 31 69\* 0 100

Sudano-Sahelian 50.8 49.2 39.5 60.5\*\*\*

Sudano-Sahelian 3.1 96.9\*\* 8 92\*\*\*

**zone**

Western Highlands

Western Highlands

Western Highlands

Western Highlands

Western Highlands

Western Highlands

Western Highlands

Western Highlands

Western Highlands

Loss of human life Sudano-Sahelian 98.2\*\* 1.8 90.9 9.1

Loss of property Sudano-Sahelian 40.1 59.9\*\*\* 17.7 82.3\*\*

Destruction of crops Sudano-Sahelian 6.6 93.4\*\*\* 0 100

Damage to ancestral links Sudano-Sahelian 39.7 60.3\*\*\* 71.1\*\*\* 28.8

Physical injury Sudano-Sahelian 61.2 38.8\*\*\* 19.9 80.1

**3.9 Disaster management strategies adopted by respondents**

*Analysis of perceptions of damages caused by disasters.*

This section presents the different strategies explained to be used by the respondents following disasters and especially the last event. As presented in **Table 6**, there were some similarities as well as differences in the disaster management strategies employed by the respondents in the Sudano-Sahelian and Western Highlands regions both at household and community levels. For instance it can be inferred that the respondents in both geo-ecological zones did not rely very much on insurance (0% all round) and borrowing from the Bank (1.6% for Sudan-Sahel and 1.3% for Western Highlands at household level and 0% for Sudan-Sahel and 1% for Western Highlands at community level). On the other hand, they reduced their household savings (94.5% for Sudano-Sahelian and 99.1% for Western Highlands at household

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84571*

Damage to natural environment and livestock

Destruction of public infrastructure

Destruction of worship

Increase in sickness and

*Significant at 10% level. \*\*Significant at 5% level. \*\*\*Significant at 1% level.*

grounds

diseases

*\**

**Table 6.**

**Asset Geo-ecological** 

#### **Table 5.**

*Number disasters faced in the last 10 years.*


*Determinants of Coping Strategies to Floods and Droughts in Multiple Geo-Ecological Zones DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84571*

#### **Table 6.**

*Natural Hazards - Risk, Exposure, Response, and Resilience*

and 59.9% respectively).

be obtained from **Table 5**.

**Figures 4** and **5**.

respectively, *P* < 0.001).

*Number disasters faced in the last 10 years.*

**3.8 Severity of disaster damage**

region (36.4 and 13.4% respectively, *P* < 0.001).

**Disaster Geo-ecological zone Mean Std.** 

damage of the disasters as well as the severity of the damage. From **Table 5**, we can infer that more floods have been witnessed in the last decade in the Sudano-Sahelian

These disasters are known to bring about damages to the asset portfolio of their victims. Presented in **Table 6** are some of the negative impacts of the disasters faced by the victims both at household and community levels. The results show mix impacts. For instance while damage to natural environment and livestock at the household level was higher in the Sudano-Sahel region than in the Western Highlands (reported by 91 and 43.8% respectively) loss of property was higher in the Western Highlands than in the Sadano-Sahel region (reported 72.6

For the Sudano-Sahel region, the highest three damages are incurred through

(reported by 93.4%) and damage to natural environment and livestock (reported by 91%). For the Western Highlands, the highest three damages are incurred through the destruction of crops (reported by 97.3%) increase in sickness and diseases (reported by 93.7%) and damage to ancestral links (reported by 89.1%). Details of these as well as the perceptions with respect to damages at the community level can

Base on the level of damage experienced by each household, the respondents provided information on the severity of the damages caused by the disasters both at household and community levels. The results have been summarized in

At the household level, a significantly higher proportion of the victims from the Sudano-Sahel region acknowledged the severity of the damage from the disasters to be very high than those from the Western Highlands (74.2 and 30.2% respectively, *P* < 0.001). On the other hand those who said the severity of the damage was high was significantly higher in the Western Highlands than in the Sudano-Sahelian

The results at the community level with respect to the severity of the damages caused by the disasters are similar with those at the household level. For instance just as was the case at the household level, at the community level a significantly higher proportion of the victims from the Sudano-Sahelian region acknowledged the severity of the damage from the disasters to be very high than those from the Western Highlands (71.8 and 28.6% respectively, *P* < 0.001). Similarly, a significantly higher proportion of those who said the severity of the damage was high was from the Western Highlands than in the Sudano-Sahelian region (39.8 and 13.5%

**deviation**

Both Sudano-Sahelian 6.68 1.300 .077 Not applicable Drought Sudano-Sahelian 5.99 2.917 .096 Not applicable Flood Sudano-Sahelian 4.89 3.060 1.020 0.000 Western Highlands 3.43 1.615 .057

**Std. error mean**

**F-test**

increase in sickness and diseases (reported by 96.9%), destruction of crops

Zone than in the Western Highlands (5 and 3 respectively, *P* < 0.001).

**172**

**Table 5.**

*Analysis of perceptions of damages caused by disasters.*

#### **3.9 Disaster management strategies adopted by respondents**

This section presents the different strategies explained to be used by the respondents following disasters and especially the last event. As presented in **Table 6**, there were some similarities as well as differences in the disaster management strategies employed by the respondents in the Sudano-Sahelian and Western Highlands regions both at household and community levels. For instance it can be inferred that the respondents in both geo-ecological zones did not rely very much on insurance (0% all round) and borrowing from the Bank (1.6% for Sudan-Sahel and 1.3% for Western Highlands at household level and 0% for Sudan-Sahel and 1% for Western Highlands at community level). On the other hand, they reduced their household savings (94.5% for Sudano-Sahelian and 99.1% for Western Highlands at household

**Figure 4.** *Severity of damage at household level.*

#### **Figure 5.**

*Severity of damage at community level.*

level and 98.1% for Sudano-Sahelian and 98.5% for Western Highlands at community level), rely on stored food (80.3% for Sudano-Sahelian and 87.2% for Western Highlands at household level), and also rely heavily from help from friends and relatives (77.6% for Sudano-Sahelian and 83.6% for Western Highlands at household level and 62.3% for Sudano-Sahelian and 61.6% for Western Highlands at community level). Details of these and more are presented in **Table 7**. It is worth mentioning that of all the strategies captured, only insurance premiums was not used by any of the respondents in the study area.

Presented in **Figure 6** is a summary of the above captured strategies. It can be observed from **Figure 6** that the respondents in both the Sudano-Sahelian Region and the Western Highlands adopted and implemented mainly informal disaster management strategies in order to cope with the negative effects of the disasters (95.6 and 98.9% respectively, *P* < 0.001).

**175**

Receive help from friends and

Receive help from Central

relatives\*\*

government\*\*\*

*Determinants of Coping Strategies to Floods and Droughts in Multiple Geo-Ecological Zones*

**zone**

Borrow money from Bank\*\*\* Sudano-Sahelian 1.6 0 Western Highlands

Borrow from neighbors\*\*\* Sudano-Sahelian 48.2 0.1 Western Highlands

Relocation\*\*\* Sudano-Sahelian 40.3 41.9 Western Highlands

Assembled at central location\*\*\* Sudano-Sahelian 30.8 33.2 Western Highlands

Evacuated by the government\*\*\* Sudano-Sahelian 11.8 24.9 Western Highlands

Got help from NGOs\*\*\* Sudano-Sahelian 44.2 63.9 Western Highlands

Reduce household savings\*\*\* Sudano-Sahelian 94.5 98.1 Western Highlands

Receive help from social groups\*\*\* Sudano-Sahelian 39 19.4 Western Highlands

Receive help from Church\* Sudano-Sahelian 8 53.2 Western Highlands

> Western Highlands

> Western Highlands

Receive help from individuals\*\*\* Sudano-Sahelian 12 0.2 Western Highlands

Insurance support Sudano-Sahelian 0 0 Western Highlands

Received free medication\*\*\* Sudano-Sahelian 67 51.8 Western Highlands

Sold family labor\*\*\* Sudano-Sahelian 10.1 69.4 Western Highlands

**At household level (%)**

1.3 1

68.7 19.4

56.6 52

3.6 0

11.4 3.6

31.2 44.9

99.1 98.5

80.9 49.9

10.1 49.9

83.3 61.6

17.5 0.2

64.7 21.1

0 0

12.1 25.3

27.3 92.4

Sudano-Sahelian 77.6 62.3

Sudano-Sahelian 66.5 0

**At community level (%)**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84571*

**Strategy Geo-ecological** 


*Determinants of Coping Strategies to Floods and Droughts in Multiple Geo-Ecological Zones DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84571*

*Natural Hazards - Risk, Exposure, Response, and Resilience*

level and 98.1% for Sudano-Sahelian and 98.5% for Western Highlands at community level), rely on stored food (80.3% for Sudano-Sahelian and 87.2% for Western Highlands at household level), and also rely heavily from help from friends and relatives (77.6% for Sudano-Sahelian and 83.6% for Western Highlands at household level and 62.3% for Sudano-Sahelian and 61.6% for Western Highlands at community level). Details of these and more are presented in **Table 7**. It is worth mentioning that of all the strategies captured, only insurance premiums was not used by any of

Presented in **Figure 6** is a summary of the above captured strategies. It can be observed from **Figure 6** that the respondents in both the Sudano-Sahelian Region and the Western Highlands adopted and implemented mainly informal disaster management strategies in order to cope with the negative effects of the disasters

**174**

**Figure 4.**

**Figure 5.**

*Severity of damage at household level.*

the respondents in the study area.

*Severity of damage at community level.*

(95.6 and 98.9% respectively, *P* < 0.001).


*\*\*Significant at 5% level.*

*\*\*\*Significant at 1% level.*

#### **Figure 6.**

*Main disaster management strategy used by respondents.*

We also analysed to identify trends in similarities and differences in the disaster management strategies employed by the respondents from the different disasters faced. The results have been presented in **Table 7**. Mixed results were also observed here at the household and community levels. For instance the distribution according to insurance (0% all round) show that the respondents did not rely very much on it irrespective of the disaster faced. On the other hand, the distribution in terms of reduced household savings indicate strong reliance among the victims of the different disasters (98.9% for flood victims, and 97.5% for drought victims and 100% for both floods and drought victims at the household level, 99.2% for flood victims, and 93.9% for drought victims and 96.5% for both floods and drought victims at community level). Another important strategy used by the disaster victims is to rely heavily on help from friends and relatives (83.3% for flood victims, and 71.8% for drought victims and 96.1% for both floods and drought victims at the household level, 61.4% for

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*Determinants of Coping Strategies to Floods and Droughts in Multiple Geo-Ecological Zones*

**type**

Borrow money from Bank\*\* Floods 1.3 1

Borrow from neighbors\*\*\* Floods 68.8 19.2

Relocation\*\*\* Floods 51.6 47.9

Evacuated by the government\*\*\* Floods 11.5 4

Got help from NGOs\*\*\* Floods 31.3 45.3

Reduce household savings\*\* Floods 98.9 99.2

Receive help from social groups\*\*\* Floods 80.6 49.8

Receive help from Church Floods 10.1 50

Receive help from friends and relatives\*\*\* Floods 83.3 61.4

Receive help from Central government\*\*\* Floods 17.8 0.2

Receive help from individuals\*\*\* Floods 64.2 21.1

Insurance support Floods 0 0

Received free medication\*\*\* Floods 12.6 25.7

**At household level (%)**

Droughts 2.1 0 Both 0 0

Droughts 62.6 0 Both 1.1 0.4

Droughts 25 43.4 Both 96.8 0

Droughts 15.2 32.5 Both 0.7 0

Droughts 38.3 57.7 Both 63.2 83.9

Droughts 97.5 93.9 Both 100 96.5

Droughts 44.8 24.5 Both 20 2.8

Droughts 10.2 52.9 Both 1.1 54.7

Droughts 71.8 62.4 Both 96.1 62.5

Droughts 57.6 0 Both 95.8 0

Droughts 14.9 0.2 Both 2.5 0

Droughts 0 0 Both 0 0

Droughts 58.1 47.4 Both 95.8 65.3

**At community level (%)**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84571*

**Strategy Disaster** 


*Determinants of Coping Strategies to Floods and Droughts in Multiple Geo-Ecological Zones DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84571*

*Natural Hazards - Risk, Exposure, Response, and Resilience*

**Strategy Geo-ecological** 

**zone**

Sold household assets\*\*\* Sudano-Sahelian 66 0.1 Western Highlands

Sold household livestock\*\*\* Sudano-Sahelian 82.2 0.1 Western Highlands

Rely on stored food\*\*\* Sudano-Sahelian 80.3 0.1 Western Highlands

Building of embankment\*\*\* Sudano-Sahelian 62.4 0.4 Western Highlands

**At household level (%)**

74.2 18.7

36 21.5

87.2 17.1

6.1 48.7

**At community level (%)**

We also analysed to identify trends in similarities and differences in the disaster management strategies employed by the respondents from the different disasters faced. The results have been presented in **Table 7**. Mixed results were also observed here at the household and community levels. For instance the distribution according to insurance (0% all round) show that the respondents did not rely very much on it irrespective of the disaster faced. On the other hand, the distribution in terms of reduced household savings indicate strong reliance among the victims of the different disasters (98.9% for flood victims, and 97.5% for drought victims and 100% for both floods and drought victims at the household level, 99.2% for flood victims, and 93.9% for drought victims and 96.5% for both floods and drought victims at community level). Another important strategy used by the disaster victims is to rely heavily on help from friends and relatives (83.3% for flood victims, and 71.8% for drought victims and 96.1% for both floods and drought victims at the household level, 61.4% for

**176**

**Figure 6.**

*\**

**Table 7.**

*Significant at 10% level. \*\*Significant at 5% level. \*\*\*Significant at 1% level.*

*Disaster coping strategies.*

*Main disaster management strategy used by respondents.*


#### **Table 8.**

*Disaster management strategies adopted by disaster type.*

flood victims, and 62.4% for drought victims and 62.5% for both floods and drought victims at community level). Details of these and more are presented in **Table 8**.

The Binary Logistic Regression was adopted for this analysis. In this analysis, the dependent variable (Disaster coping strategies) took 1 for Mainly Informal Strategies and 0 for Mainly Formal strategies. 16 explanatory variables were used in the analysis. The attributes of our models as presented in **Table 9** and show strong relationships between the dependent and independent variables in the analysis (X2 = 109.423, *P* < 0.001).

In addition, the attributes of **Table 10** show that our model explains 23.3% of the factors that affect coping strategies among the drought and flood victims in the two geo-ecological zones.

The factors that affect the coping strategies among the drought and flood victims in the two geo-ecological zones are presented in **Table 11**. The results show that the type of disasters faced, belonging to a social group or network, number of disaster faced, the main occupation of the household head and the number of years living in the community (residence time) positively affected the decisions of the disaster victims to adopt mainly informal disaster coping strategies. On the other


**179**

*\**

**Table 11.**

*Significant at 10% level*

*Regression determinants.*

(B = 0.044, *P* = 0.002).

*Determinants of Coping Strategies to Floods and Droughts in Multiple Geo-Ecological Zones*

**Step −2 Log likelihood Cox & Snell R square Nagelkerke R square** 1 416.685a 0.053 0.233

Age\* −.058 .012 22.708 15 .000 0.943 Type of disaster 0.190 0.325 0.341 15 0.559 1.209 Educational level\* −1.523 0.602 6.401 15 0.011 0.218 Geo-ecological Zone −2.114 1.147 3.394 15 0.065 0.121 Household size −0.040 0.055 0.539 15 0.463 0.961 Marital status −0.046 0.333 0.019 15 0.890 0.955 Belong to a group or network 18.098 7067.871 0.000 15 0.998 23.64 Number of disasters faced\* 0.210 0.064 10.835 15 0.001 1.234 Main occupation of household head 0.116 0.274 0.181 15 0.671 1.123 Religious affiliations 0.675 0.406 2.767 15 0.096 1.965 Residence time\* 0.044 0.014 9.708 15 0.002 1.045 Sex −0.536 0.319 2.831 15 0.092 0.585 Household income before disaster .000 .000 0.894 15 0.344 1.000 Household income after disaster .000 .000 1.701 15 0.192 1.000 Per capita income before disaster .000 .000 2.851 15 0.091 1.000 Per capita income before disaster .000 .000 1.544 15 0.214 1.000 Constant −18.243 7067.872 .000 15 0.998 .000

**B S.E. Wald df Sig. Exp(B)**

hand, the age, educational level, household size, marital status and the sex of the respondents showed negative relationships with adopting mainly informal disaster coping strategies. In addition, both incomes before and after the disasters as well as the per capita income before and after the disasters seem not to be important variables that could be used to differentiate households in terms of disaster coping strategies (B = 0.000 for all four variables). These therefore indicate that the financial/economic status had no influence on the decisions of the disaster victims to adopt one form of disaster coping mechanisms over the other [16, 20, 26, 27]. Of significance to this study is the number of disasters faced (B = 0.210, *P* < 0.001), religious affiliations (B = 0.675, *P* = 0.096) and the residence time

The number of disasters experienced by households (B = 0.210, *P* < 0.001) is therefore seen to be an important variable influencing household decisions to adopt mainly informal disaster management strategies. This is normal, considering that experiencing too many disasters often affect the ability of households to bounce back. Consequently, these households tend to lean on community based informal response mechanisms to deal with aftermaths of disasters [28, 29]. This is probably why [30] explained that if people are made aware of any potential disasters they might face and their collective responsibility in preventing or minimizing the

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84571*

**Table 10.** *Model summary.*

**Table 9.** *Omnibus tests of model coefficients.* *Determinants of Coping Strategies to Floods and Droughts in Multiple Geo-Ecological Zones DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84571*


#### **Table 10.**

*Natural Hazards - Risk, Exposure, Response, and Resilience*

**Strategy Disaster** 

flood victims, and 62.4% for drought victims and 62.5% for both floods and drought victims at community level). Details of these and more are presented in **Table 8**. The Binary Logistic Regression was adopted for this analysis. In this analysis, the dependent variable (Disaster coping strategies) took 1 for Mainly Informal Strategies and 0 for Mainly Formal strategies. 16 explanatory variables were used in the analysis. The attributes of our models as presented in **Table 9** and show strong relationships between the dependent and independent variables in the analysis

**type**

Sold family labor\*\*\* Floods 26.9 92

Sold household assets\*\*\* Floods 74 18.4

Sold household livestock\*\*\* Floods 36.3 21.2

Rely on stored food\*\*\* Floods 80.3 17.1

Building of embankment\*\*\* Floods 6.7 48.2

**At household level (%)**

Droughts 13.1 75 Both 0.7 51.9

Droughts 56.4 0 Both 97.2 0.4

Droughts 77.5 0 Both 97.9 0.4

Droughts 0 Both 87.2 0.4

Droughts 53.6 0.5 Both 91.2 0

**Chi-square df Sig.**

Block 110.948 15 .000 Model 110.948 15 .000

**At community level (%)**

In addition, the attributes of **Table 10** show that our model explains 23.3% of the factors that affect coping strategies among the drought and flood victims in the two

The factors that affect the coping strategies among the drought and flood victims in the two geo-ecological zones are presented in **Table 11**. The results show that the type of disasters faced, belonging to a social group or network, number of disaster faced, the main occupation of the household head and the number of years living in the community (residence time) positively affected the decisions of the disaster victims to adopt mainly informal disaster coping strategies. On the other

Step 1 Step 110.948 15 .000

**178**

**Table 9.**

*Omnibus tests of model coefficients.*

(X2 = 109.423, *P* < 0.001).

*Disaster management strategies adopted by disaster type.*

geo-ecological zones.

*\*\*Significant at 5% level. \*\*\*Significant at 1% level*

**Table 8.**

*Model summary.*


#### **Table 11.**

*Regression determinants.*

hand, the age, educational level, household size, marital status and the sex of the respondents showed negative relationships with adopting mainly informal disaster coping strategies. In addition, both incomes before and after the disasters as well as the per capita income before and after the disasters seem not to be important variables that could be used to differentiate households in terms of disaster coping strategies (B = 0.000 for all four variables). These therefore indicate that the financial/economic status had no influence on the decisions of the disaster victims to adopt one form of disaster coping mechanisms over the other [16, 20, 26, 27].

Of significance to this study is the number of disasters faced (B = 0.210, *P* < 0.001), religious affiliations (B = 0.675, *P* = 0.096) and the residence time (B = 0.044, *P* = 0.002).

The number of disasters experienced by households (B = 0.210, *P* < 0.001) is therefore seen to be an important variable influencing household decisions to adopt mainly informal disaster management strategies. This is normal, considering that experiencing too many disasters often affect the ability of households to bounce back. Consequently, these households tend to lean on community based informal response mechanisms to deal with aftermaths of disasters [28, 29]. This is probably why [30] explained that if people are made aware of any potential disasters they might face and their collective responsibility in preventing or minimizing the

effects of the disasters, it will help them to make preparedness part of their lives according to the disaster management options available to them. Over time, experience in managing (especially long term) shocks becomes an asset, as victims plough back these experiences into strategies aimed at preventing, mitigating, coping or resisting similar (and even dissimilar) shocks in the future. Similar contentions have been raised in the topical literature by [31, 32]. One can therefore conclude that experience with disasters can be quite robust in determining the management practices that victims (especially in developing countries) adopt to deal with natural hazards.

In an area where people roughly share the same way of life, occupation and are subjected to similar shocks, they are likely to employ similar coping strategies when hazards strike as response opportunities and available coping mechanisms are relatively homogeneous [27]. This probably explains why in the research area, the main occupation of the household head affected their household coping strategies. Improving agricultural techniques can therefore enhance the coping capacities of our sampled households to future floods. Improving education to enhance access to off-farm income activities should also be contemplated.

Though not significant, belonging to a social group or network showed the strongest contribution to the use of mainly informal disaster coping strategies in this study (B = 18.098, *P* > 0.05). Therefore, the more networks a household head belongs to, the more the household is going to rely mainly on disaster coping strategies to handle disaster effects. This therefore suggests that households who belong to groups or networks are likely to dissipate risks through livelihood diversification. This aligns with the findings of [31] who explained appropriate forms of social capital especially belonging to networks usually appear to have the potential to aid rural income generation as well as reduce vulnerability to livelihood shocks of poor households. Thus for any additional group that the household head joins, the probability that the household will employ mainly informal disaster coping strategies increases by 23.64 times.

The probability of the Wald statistics for the variables age and educational level for instance (22.708 and 6.401 respectively) suggests that the disaster victims who are older and more educated are likely to move away from using mainly informal risk management mechanisms to both informal and formal mechanisms. The negative coefficient on education leads us to hypothesize that the more educated a household head is, the more he/she is likely to use formal than informal instruments in managing disasters. These results however contradict the findings in the topical case studies [26, 27, 32]. About 34 for instance in his work in India found education to be a very cost-effective strategy for influencing and implementing schooling decisions in poor households in India. A probable explanation for this is the generally low levels of education observed in the Cameroon case study.

## **4. Conclusion**

Our research demonstrates that Cameroon has diverse geo-ecological zones with climate-related hazards and disasters that are specific to some while others cut across. Through a comparative analysis, we differentiate that the Sudano-Sahelian zone is characterized by severe droughts and very deadly floods in both the urban and rural settings while the Western highlands are typified by floods in both the urban and rural settings as well. Further, we gained insights into the different drivers of household determinants of coping with droughts and floods in both geo-ecological zones. Respondents identified Informal coping mechanisms as their major fallback positions and include amongst others; reducing their household

**181**

**Author details**

Theobald Mue Nji1

provided the original work is properly cited.

Sciences, University of Buea, Cameroon

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

\*Address all correspondence to: balgahroland@gmail.com, balgazib@yahoo.com

1 Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Faculty of Social and Management

\*

*Determinants of Coping Strategies to Floods and Droughts in Multiple Geo-Ecological Zones*

savings, relying on stored food and heavy reliance on assistance from friends and relatives. Formal coping strategies were not identified as major drivers at both household and community levels in any of the zones. This explains that building social networks is a very important component in building policies that aim at mak-

We also observed that socio-cultural factors and experience with previous disasters influenced the type of strategies people would adopt in subsequent events. The nomadic nature of the Muslim households in the Sudano-Sahelian area elucidates why temporal or permanent migrations will easily be an option in coping with droughts and/or floods. This was not the case with most of the sedentary population of the Western Highlands where most people reported the wish to maintain their residence even after experiencing the floods except in the neighborhoods that have

In addition, this was the first of a kind to have witnessed a positive change in income levels of some household members, especially in the Western Highlands where the huge floods have given the opportunity for change in socio-economic activities. Most have now engaged in lumbering and illicit sale of fuel which are considered more economically rewarding than the farming activities they formerly practiced. The presence of water routes now facilitates the transportation of timber from the hinterland to the coast as well as the transportation of fuel from neighboring Nigeria to Cameroon. The energetic male about the ages of 35 and 45 are

Above all, this study is a first step in developing a robust methodology for comparing household determinants for coping with climate-related vagaries within and across multiple geo-ecological zones and within and across hazards/disasters. It serves as a platform for broad-based policy making and implementation not only

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84571*

ing households more resilient in these zones.

been completely and permanently inundated.

gainfully employed in this new found economic sector.

within Cameroon but across SSA where similar realities abound.

and Roland Azibo Balgah<sup>2</sup>

2 College of Technology, The University of Bamenda, Cameroon

#### *Determinants of Coping Strategies to Floods and Droughts in Multiple Geo-Ecological Zones DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84571*

savings, relying on stored food and heavy reliance on assistance from friends and relatives. Formal coping strategies were not identified as major drivers at both household and community levels in any of the zones. This explains that building social networks is a very important component in building policies that aim at making households more resilient in these zones.

We also observed that socio-cultural factors and experience with previous disasters influenced the type of strategies people would adopt in subsequent events. The nomadic nature of the Muslim households in the Sudano-Sahelian area elucidates why temporal or permanent migrations will easily be an option in coping with droughts and/or floods. This was not the case with most of the sedentary population of the Western Highlands where most people reported the wish to maintain their residence even after experiencing the floods except in the neighborhoods that have been completely and permanently inundated.

In addition, this was the first of a kind to have witnessed a positive change in income levels of some household members, especially in the Western Highlands where the huge floods have given the opportunity for change in socio-economic activities. Most have now engaged in lumbering and illicit sale of fuel which are considered more economically rewarding than the farming activities they formerly practiced. The presence of water routes now facilitates the transportation of timber from the hinterland to the coast as well as the transportation of fuel from neighboring Nigeria to Cameroon. The energetic male about the ages of 35 and 45 are gainfully employed in this new found economic sector.

Above all, this study is a first step in developing a robust methodology for comparing household determinants for coping with climate-related vagaries within and across multiple geo-ecological zones and within and across hazards/disasters. It serves as a platform for broad-based policy making and implementation not only within Cameroon but across SSA where similar realities abound.
