**7. The strategies of open spatial data alliances in the context of marine spatial planning**

Studies conducted by scholars in the management of geospatial information show that open spatial data alliances are closely related to transparent and open institutional governance and organizational behavior [17–20]. Specifically, Budhathoki and Nedovic-Budic argue that the main factor in creating an atmosphere of spatial data

and information sharing within and between institutions is the existence of collaboration-cooperation-coordination (3C) [21]. To examine in more detail about this 3C, in this section a broader concept of 3C will explore relevant open spatial data.

• Collaboration

In the 3C concept, collaboration is the first step toward creating transparency and openness between institutions to share in realizing shared goals, which in general is an improvement in the quality of institutions. Colleagues involved in collaboration must trust and respect each other in correspondence and open readiness to acknowledge the information provided [22, 23]. (Characteristics of collaboration and relations with cooperation and coordination can be seen in **Figure 3**).

As the first step toward creating openness conditions, collaboration has not guaranteed any commitment or responsibility for an individual, association, or foundation. In general, this collaboration does not yet have full legal force if disputes/problems occur in the future. Relevant to the context of this research, collaboration between organizations that produce and manage spatial data and information initiates the creation of willingness for each institution to share their knowledge and assets in order to achieve the common goal of achieving national welfare.

• Cooperation

Cooperation is the second stage in the 3C concept in order to create mutually beneficial relationships between the institutions involved. At this stage, the formed partnership already has a legal basis, in the form of a memorandum of understanding (MoU), to share capabilities, skills, knowledge, and assets to achieve common goals [24].

**Figure 3.**

*Characteristics of collaboration-cooperation-coordination (3C) and the relationship of 3C elements.*

The relevance of the concept of cooperation in this research is the collaboration between institutions in producing and managing spatial data and information on the coastal areas in order to create a commitment to safeguard the unity and sovereignty of the state through coherent marine governance in various levels. (Characteristics of collaboration and relations with cooperation and coordination can be seen in **Figure 3**).
