**7.3 Biosecurity checks**

This is an aspect of farm hygiene but goes beyond the physical cleaning of farm facilities and equipment. The focus is basically on the cleanness of the animals concerning freedom from diseases of any kind. Scrutiny of animals to be introduced into farm sites is essential to maintaining farm hygiene and preventing the introduction of diseases into the farmyard. In the same vein, non-farm workers or visitors should be prevented from gaining access to the stock, be it in stalls or farm sites; and where necessary, all should have their feet and booths washed when going into the farm. Quarantining of new animals is essential to allow time for the manifestation of hidden disease in the animal(s) and such restriction may be for at least 3 weeks and/or possibly conduct a clinical test on the animal for the potential disease of concern. Other biosecurity measures to be taken include culturing milk from individual animals for contagious organisms, selection of healthy animals and use of semen, embryos or bulls from suppliers with control programs for the infectious disease [83].

## **7.4 Exploration of animals' behavioural communication cues**

With a cognition of communication cues of farm animals, a keen observation of postures of the animals is crucial to ensuring quick response to the health needs of the animals. Farmers should know that a healthy animal is alert and aware of its surroundings by standing and actively holding its head up watching what is happening around it, be in close groups, moves easily and steadily with regular steps. Deviation from these postures implies impairments. Also, the eyes of the animals must be bright, ears must be erect and move swiftly in the direction of sounds and to get rid of flies, mouth, and nose must be free of dripping saliva and nasal discharge. Where discharges are observed in these body parts, it would imply health issues that need to be attended to. Examination of bodies of the animals should reflect smooth and shiny hair or coat if healthy, breathing should be normal, urine must be clear and faeces must not be watery [84]. Vigil on these cues is essential to initiate a quick response to the health needs of farm animals.

### **7.5 Disease diagnosis**

While it may be possible to see visual communication cues of farm animals means of monitoring or detecting health issues in the animals, internally developed diseases may not be so easy until the animal reaches a critical stage of illness.

**41**

*Farm Animals' Health Behaviours: An Essential Communicative Signal for Farmers' Veterinary…*

However, intermittent collection of animals' faeces for an examination of wormeggs and examination of urine for blood and yellow colouration that could signify jaundice in the animals. The use of faecal egg counts has proven to be a valuable tool for detecting worm infestation in animals and the basis for designing appropriate deworming routine and determination of the right deworming medication. For instance, faecal analysis of cattle in Malawi reveals infestation of bacteria—coliforms and *Clostridium perfringens* spores; pathogenic protozoa—*Cryptosporidium* and *Giardia;* and enteric viruses—adenovirus, enterovirus, and reovirus in the farm animals. Examination of watery stool suggests diarrhoea in the animals and as such, necessary medication could be administered for treatment of the animals before their health situation result in economic losses [85]. Other diagnostic tests for detection of animals diseases include parasitological tests for detection of parasites in animals, microbiological and virological test for identification of the presence of micro-organisms and viruses in the animals, and serological or blood test for anlysis of blood serum of sampled farm animals. Other tests may include necropsies, abor-

This is an essential way to prevent or strengthen the immunity of farm animals

Treatment becomes essential and inevitable where farm animals have become

or infections by boosting the immunity of kept animals, treatment is meant to eradicate or halt the debilitating effects of diseases in farm animals (**Figure 5**). Treatment, however, takes different forms, depending on the nature of the illhealth affecting an animal(s). It could be by prophylaxis, intravenous injection, dipping, isolation or culling [88, 89]. For instance, treatment of bacterial diseases such as Salmonellosis could be by the use of antibiotics such as ampicillin, chemotherapeutics and fluid therapy, isolation and general nursing [89] while worm such as liver-fluke is treated with medication such as oxyclozanide, nitroxynil,

<sup>4</sup> Vaccination, especially when it involves an injection, is delicate medical care and as such could not be undertaken by just anybody but by well-trained animal health attendants or veterinary doctors. Vaccination is most cases are based on the pre-knowledge of certain diseases in certain farm animals and as such consultation of well-trained animal health officers for an appropriate recommendation of

<sup>5</sup> Treatment of animal diseases is generalised in this section and as such, farm animal attendants will need to know that specific disease condition requires specific treatment and will be subject to appropri-

vaccines and dosage is crucial good health management of farm animals.

ate diagnosis by well-trained animal health officers or veterinary doctors.

vaccination becomes the means to prevent the outbreak of the diseases in farm animals. Vaccination protects the welfare of farm animals by preventing or reducing disease, which in turn reduces the pain and suffering often associated with illness [86]. Further insight into the value of vaccination shows that the drug mimics infections to provide immunity such that the animals could not be overreached by the disease but healthier [87]. However, the vaccine must be disease-specific and appropriately administered as recommended by the veterinarian and by checking the recommended dosage, dilution rate, route of administration and all precautions. Animals must be injected on the recommended parts of the animal's body and

. With the understanding that viral diseases cannot be treated

. Unlike vaccination that is meant to prevent disease

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89738*

tions and stillborn, and milk tests.

ensure that the injected sites are clean and dry.

**7.6 Vaccination**

to infectious diseases4

**7.7 Treatment of diseases**

infected by pests and diseases5

*Farm Animals' Health Behaviours: An Essential Communicative Signal for Farmers' Veterinary… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89738*

However, intermittent collection of animals' faeces for an examination of wormeggs and examination of urine for blood and yellow colouration that could signify jaundice in the animals. The use of faecal egg counts has proven to be a valuable tool for detecting worm infestation in animals and the basis for designing appropriate deworming routine and determination of the right deworming medication. For instance, faecal analysis of cattle in Malawi reveals infestation of bacteria—coliforms and *Clostridium perfringens* spores; pathogenic protozoa—*Cryptosporidium* and *Giardia;* and enteric viruses—adenovirus, enterovirus, and reovirus in the farm animals. Examination of watery stool suggests diarrhoea in the animals and as such, necessary medication could be administered for treatment of the animals before their health situation result in economic losses [85]. Other diagnostic tests for detection of animals diseases include parasitological tests for detection of parasites in animals, microbiological and virological test for identification of the presence of micro-organisms and viruses in the animals, and serological or blood test for anlysis of blood serum of sampled farm animals. Other tests may include necropsies, abortions and stillborn, and milk tests.

#### **7.6 Vaccination**

*Livestock Health and Farming*

of emerging diseases of stock [16].

**7.3 Biosecurity checks**

infectious disease [83].

**7.5 Disease diagnosis**

ensuring that farmhouses and animal beddings are dry and regularly cleaned, and as well as the equipment and all facilities used for movement and care of farm animals. Cleaning may include scraping, sweeping, washing, possibly with the use of disinfectants. This action is underscored by the understanding that pathogenic micro-organisms and eggs of external and internal parasites could survive under any condition, particularly in a wet and filthy environment. With hygiene practices, no favourable condition is created for the micro-organisms to be active or survive to cause infections in the animals. Disinfection may though be essential, most disinfectants are not particularly effective in combating viruses *thereby* emphasising the need for physical cleaning and burning of bedding [81]. Droppings or faeces by animals, feathers and dead animals need to be promptly removed pens and ranches as these are sources of pathogens [82]. Also, too many animals on-site and overcrowding within building and cages should be avoided to prevent the rapid spread

This is an aspect of farm hygiene but goes beyond the physical cleaning of farm

With a cognition of communication cues of farm animals, a keen observation of postures of the animals is crucial to ensuring quick response to the health needs of the animals. Farmers should know that a healthy animal is alert and aware of its surroundings by standing and actively holding its head up watching what is happening around it, be in close groups, moves easily and steadily with regular steps. Deviation from these postures implies impairments. Also, the eyes of the animals must be bright, ears must be erect and move swiftly in the direction of sounds and to get rid of flies, mouth, and nose must be free of dripping saliva and nasal discharge. Where discharges are observed in these body parts, it would imply health issues that need to be attended to. Examination of bodies of the animals should reflect smooth and shiny hair or coat if healthy, breathing should be normal, urine must be clear and faeces must not be watery [84]. Vigil on these cues is essential to

While it may be possible to see visual communication cues of farm animals means of monitoring or detecting health issues in the animals, internally developed diseases may not be so easy until the animal reaches a critical stage of illness.

facilities and equipment. The focus is basically on the cleanness of the animals concerning freedom from diseases of any kind. Scrutiny of animals to be introduced into farm sites is essential to maintaining farm hygiene and preventing the introduction of diseases into the farmyard. In the same vein, non-farm workers or visitors should be prevented from gaining access to the stock, be it in stalls or farm sites; and where necessary, all should have their feet and booths washed when going into the farm. Quarantining of new animals is essential to allow time for the manifestation of hidden disease in the animal(s) and such restriction may be for at least 3 weeks and/or possibly conduct a clinical test on the animal for the potential disease of concern. Other biosecurity measures to be taken include culturing milk from individual animals for contagious organisms, selection of healthy animals and use of semen, embryos or bulls from suppliers with control programs for the

**7.4 Exploration of animals' behavioural communication cues**

initiate a quick response to the health needs of farm animals.

**40**

This is an essential way to prevent or strengthen the immunity of farm animals to infectious diseases<sup>4</sup> . With the understanding that viral diseases cannot be treated vaccination becomes the means to prevent the outbreak of the diseases in farm animals. Vaccination protects the welfare of farm animals by preventing or reducing disease, which in turn reduces the pain and suffering often associated with illness [86]. Further insight into the value of vaccination shows that the drug mimics infections to provide immunity such that the animals could not be overreached by the disease but healthier [87]. However, the vaccine must be disease-specific and appropriately administered as recommended by the veterinarian and by checking the recommended dosage, dilution rate, route of administration and all precautions. Animals must be injected on the recommended parts of the animal's body and ensure that the injected sites are clean and dry.

#### **7.7 Treatment of diseases**

Treatment becomes essential and inevitable where farm animals have become infected by pests and diseases5 . Unlike vaccination that is meant to prevent disease or infections by boosting the immunity of kept animals, treatment is meant to eradicate or halt the debilitating effects of diseases in farm animals (**Figure 5**). Treatment, however, takes different forms, depending on the nature of the illhealth affecting an animal(s). It could be by prophylaxis, intravenous injection, dipping, isolation or culling [88, 89]. For instance, treatment of bacterial diseases such as Salmonellosis could be by the use of antibiotics such as ampicillin, chemotherapeutics and fluid therapy, isolation and general nursing [89] while worm such as liver-fluke is treated with medication such as oxyclozanide, nitroxynil,

<sup>4</sup> Vaccination, especially when it involves an injection, is delicate medical care and as such could not be undertaken by just anybody but by well-trained animal health attendants or veterinary doctors. Vaccination is most cases are based on the pre-knowledge of certain diseases in certain farm animals and as such consultation of well-trained animal health officers for an appropriate recommendation of vaccines and dosage is crucial good health management of farm animals.

<sup>5</sup> Treatment of animal diseases is generalised in this section and as such, farm animal attendants will need to know that specific disease condition requires specific treatment and will be subject to appropriate diagnosis by well-trained animal health officers or veterinary doctors.

**Figure 5.** *A lamb being treated of infection by an experienced animal health attendant. Source: Photo by author.*

albendazole [88], etc. In addition, treatment of bloat disease—gas build up in rumen, requires the service of a veterinary surgeon who might need to insert stomach tube into the rumen to have the built-up gas released and in extreme cases, the rumen will have to be punctured on the left flank with surgical apparatus such as trocar and cannula [16]. This suggests that a farmer cannot handle all treatment of emerging diseases in their farm animals.
