**4. Animal health behaviours: the communication signals for farmers' attention**

One of the managerial goals of livestock keepers is the maintenance of good health of their animals as this is crucial to achieving profitable and sustainable animal production. On this note, livestock farmers try as much as possible to keep the animals free of infestation and infections, through hygienic practice and possibly vaccination of the animals against certain disruptive or deadly diseases. However, the ubiquity of pathogenic microbes (protozoa, bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites) and other external parasites in a production environment of farm animals ultimately prone the animals to infections or infestation of pests and diseases which on gestation may turn out to be chronic or deadly [16]. Consequences of this are poor productivity by animals, increased cost of animal production arising from treatment or veterinary services, economic loss of animals, hindrance of production and/or productivity of animal food source industries, and possibly impairment of human health by infections from the animals [15]. In light of the economic implication of animal diseases, conscious actions need to be taken by farmers to prevent or promptly control any emerging disease of animals in their stock. However, before an infectious disease in farm animals begin to manifest its symptoms or get to the threshold of economic losses, the infected or physiologically disturbed animals ordinarily communicate their health status for the attention of their keepers.

By nature, animals ordinarily communicate with conspecifics or fellow animals in four basic ways, namely pheromones, auditory, visual and tactile cues [38–40]; they however indirectly communicate their social and health statuses to their keepers particularly using the auditory and visual cues. This is based on the fact that both animals and man could make and receive sounds, which are an essential stimulus to effecting responses between the two Animalia. In this wise, farm animals use their vocal sounds to express their health or social conditions to the farmers. For instance, a distressed animal makes distressing vocalisation as a way to call its owner for needed attention. Empirical studies on emotional vocalisations of farm animals [41–45] revealed that environmental stimulus and/or hormone concentrations affecting the mood, thirst, and hunger, and appetitive behaviour of an animal stimulate specific behaviours that may be accompanied vocalisation in the animals [41]. Thus, a dam in parturition distress might make a very high pitch sound to attract an attendant to give needed help for safe delivery; or where its kid is hooked and needed help to have it rescued. In the same vein, ewes or nannies on heat give constant high pitch sound as a way to indicate readiness for a reception which a breeder needs to take advantage of either by the introduction of ram/ billy or artificial insemination. Pig is known for screaming when put under stress, particularly when being forcefully pulled in an attempt to move it from one place to the other. This cry may constitute a security call to the owner when the animal is to be forcefully taken out of the herds by an intruder.

The visual cues, on the other hand, are displayed actions that could be visually perceived by the farmers in their animals. Farm animals thus express their social and health situations by visual communication signals which a farm attendant needs to understand for an appropriate response. For instance, healthy farm animals are ordinarily active and ever ready to feed, and will be on the rise when they are approached. Where a farm animal sluggishly or refuses to move, or is reluctant to get up when approached (**Figure 1**) suggests that something is wrong with the animal and as such will need to be attended to for detection a laden health issue. Although, varying diseases have different physiological effects on specific farm animals, infected animals react on whatever kind of disease that might impair their physiological status

**31**

*Farm Animals' Health Behaviours: An Essential Communicative Signal for Farmers' Veterinary…*

. Common communica-

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89738*

tures is the blackhead disease.

**4.1 Inactive socialisation**

**Figure 1.**

detect what is wrong with it.

by livestock farmers for prompt veterinarian actions.

by the display of signals that serve as health communication1

tive signals by a disease-laden animal could thus take the following forms:

**a.Poor appearance of animals:** ordinarily, a healthy animal will generally have a good look with a characteristic good body structure and posture. Related body indicators of animals with good health include robust outlook and/or roundness of the stomach, smooth and well-laid hair or wool with uniform coverage over the body, bright eyes, and dry nose and mouth. On the other hand, a sick animal will put up a poor appearance that may be characterised by leanness, caved-in stomach, falling air or wool, nasal discharge, dripping salivation and/or continuous coughing. The caved-in stomach may have to do with poor feeding or poor feed conversion efficiency by the animal, while the falling hair or wool may be due to ectoparasite infestation of the animal. For instance, piglets severely affected by *coccidia* produce a rough-haired coat, become dehydrated and remain continually dirtied with faeces [46]. In the case of poultry, appearance of a bird with ruffled feathers instead of smooth and glossy ones or the wattle looks dull with lesions instead of being bright suggests impairment of the bird's physiological functions and as such will need veterinary care. A common disease of poultry with these characteristic fea-

*Healthy lambs on their feet with the physiological lamb siting isolated and unable to move. Source: Photo by author.*

A healthy animal is socially active and ever alert to its environment by having its head raised in an attempt to keep watch of its surroundings, and usually in close groups with one another. In ruminants, the animals are constantly chewing due to regurgitation of consumed pasture. *Babesiosis* disease, which is common to cattle, is known to cause cessation of rumination or constipation in the animal [47, 48]. Poultry birds in cages, deep litters, and free-range will equally have their heads up clucking or gobbling (respectively to chicken and turkeys) which increases on sighting someone or something strange in their environment. Where an animal is in isolation of the other animals or has its head lowered or drooped down and becomes dulled, unable to stand up or move sluggishly when being approached imply that the animal is physiologically disturbed and as such will need an examination to

<sup>1</sup> There abound diseases of farm animals with specific causative agents, symptoms, treatment, methods of control and prevention which is beyond the scope of this chapter. This chapter has only highlighted possible signs that an animal might display as an indicator of ill health which could be readily perceived

*Farm Animals' Health Behaviours: An Essential Communicative Signal for Farmers' Veterinary… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89738*

**Figure 1.** *Healthy lambs on their feet with the physiological lamb siting isolated and unable to move. Source: Photo by author.*

by the display of signals that serve as health communication1 . Common communicative signals by a disease-laden animal could thus take the following forms:

**a.Poor appearance of animals:** ordinarily, a healthy animal will generally have a good look with a characteristic good body structure and posture. Related body indicators of animals with good health include robust outlook and/or roundness of the stomach, smooth and well-laid hair or wool with uniform coverage over the body, bright eyes, and dry nose and mouth. On the other hand, a sick animal will put up a poor appearance that may be characterised by leanness, caved-in stomach, falling air or wool, nasal discharge, dripping salivation and/or continuous coughing. The caved-in stomach may have to do with poor feeding or poor feed conversion efficiency by the animal, while the falling hair or wool may be due to ectoparasite infestation of the animal. For instance, piglets severely affected by *coccidia* produce a rough-haired coat, become dehydrated and remain continually dirtied with faeces [46]. In the case of poultry, appearance of a bird with ruffled feathers instead of smooth and glossy ones or the wattle looks dull with lesions instead of being bright suggests impairment of the bird's physiological functions and as such will need veterinary care. A common disease of poultry with these characteristic features is the blackhead disease.

#### **4.1 Inactive socialisation**

A healthy animal is socially active and ever alert to its environment by having its head raised in an attempt to keep watch of its surroundings, and usually in close groups with one another. In ruminants, the animals are constantly chewing due to regurgitation of consumed pasture. *Babesiosis* disease, which is common to cattle, is known to cause cessation of rumination or constipation in the animal [47, 48]. Poultry birds in cages, deep litters, and free-range will equally have their heads up clucking or gobbling (respectively to chicken and turkeys) which increases on sighting someone or something strange in their environment. Where an animal is in isolation of the other animals or has its head lowered or drooped down and becomes dulled, unable to stand up or move sluggishly when being approached imply that the animal is physiologically disturbed and as such will need an examination to detect what is wrong with it.

*Livestock Health and Farming*

**attention**

tion of their keepers.

be forcefully taken out of the herds by an intruder.

**4. Animal health behaviours: the communication signals for farmers'** 

One of the managerial goals of livestock keepers is the maintenance of good health of their animals as this is crucial to achieving profitable and sustainable animal production. On this note, livestock farmers try as much as possible to keep the animals free of infestation and infections, through hygienic practice and possibly vaccination of the animals against certain disruptive or deadly diseases. However, the ubiquity of pathogenic microbes (protozoa, bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites) and other external parasites in a production environment of farm animals ultimately prone the animals to infections or infestation of pests and diseases which on gestation may turn out to be chronic or deadly [16]. Consequences of this are poor productivity by animals, increased cost of animal production arising from treatment or veterinary services, economic loss of animals, hindrance of production and/or productivity of animal food source industries, and possibly impairment of human health by infections from the animals [15]. In light of the economic implication of animal diseases, conscious actions need to be taken by farmers to prevent or promptly control any emerging disease of animals in their stock. However, before an infectious disease in farm animals begin to manifest its symptoms or get to the threshold of economic losses, the infected or physiologically disturbed animals ordinarily communicate their health status for the atten-

By nature, animals ordinarily communicate with conspecifics or fellow animals in four basic ways, namely pheromones, auditory, visual and tactile cues [38–40]; they however indirectly communicate their social and health statuses to their keepers particularly using the auditory and visual cues. This is based on the fact that both animals and man could make and receive sounds, which are an essential stimulus to effecting responses between the two Animalia. In this wise, farm animals use their vocal sounds to express their health or social conditions to the farmers. For instance, a distressed animal makes distressing vocalisation as a way to call its owner for needed attention. Empirical studies on emotional vocalisations of farm animals [41–45] revealed that environmental stimulus and/or hormone concentrations affecting the mood, thirst, and hunger, and appetitive behaviour of an animal stimulate specific behaviours that may be accompanied vocalisation in the animals [41]. Thus, a dam in parturition distress might make a very high pitch sound to attract an attendant to give needed help for safe delivery; or where its kid is hooked and needed help to have it rescued. In the same vein, ewes or nannies on heat give constant high pitch sound as a way to indicate readiness for a reception which a breeder needs to take advantage of either by the introduction of ram/ billy or artificial insemination. Pig is known for screaming when put under stress, particularly when being forcefully pulled in an attempt to move it from one place to the other. This cry may constitute a security call to the owner when the animal is to

The visual cues, on the other hand, are displayed actions that could be visually perceived by the farmers in their animals. Farm animals thus express their social and health situations by visual communication signals which a farm attendant needs to understand for an appropriate response. For instance, healthy farm animals are ordinarily active and ever ready to feed, and will be on the rise when they are approached. Where a farm animal sluggishly or refuses to move, or is reluctant to get up when approached (**Figure 1**) suggests that something is wrong with the animal and as such will need to be attended to for detection a laden health issue. Although, varying diseases have different physiological effects on specific farm animals, infected animals react on whatever kind of disease that might impair their physiological status

**30**

<sup>1</sup> There abound diseases of farm animals with specific causative agents, symptoms, treatment, methods of control and prevention which is beyond the scope of this chapter. This chapter has only highlighted possible signs that an animal might display as an indicator of ill health which could be readily perceived by livestock farmers for prompt veterinarian actions.

#### **4.2 Wobbled movement or gait**

Whenever there is a need for farm animals to move, they will move steadily and easily; and where there is the need to flee from threats in their environment, they move very fast and run. Where an animal moves sluggishly or could not move would imply ill health. Abnormal gait can include unusual walking patterns or uneven weight-bearing, as seen when a cow is suffering from lameness [49]. Lameness may be an indication of rot in the foot characterised by swelling and moistened skin between the claws and foul-smelling discharge. Consequently, the animal remains lying down for long periods and may not bear weight on the affected leg, and where both front legs are affected, sheep, for example, walk on their knees and severe cases and chronic infection leads to grossly misshapen and overgrown hooves [50]. In the same vein is an abnormal stance indicating pain and this may be reflected as tucked abdomen and tail, hunched back or standing still for extended periods [49].

#### **4.3 Drop or refusal of food consumption**

Animals are ever ready to feed when nothing is wrong with them and as such a drop in the rate of feed consumption or outright refusal of feed by an animal or non-excitation at being fed would imply that something is wrong with the animal. Most diseases though cause an animal to refuse feed, nutritional factors equally accounted for feed refusal. For instance, diseases such as bloating, grass tetany, ketosis, hypocalcaemia, and mineral deficiencies are caused by nutrient deficiencies, excesses or imbalances, or by metabolic disturbances [51]. As a result of poor feeding or feed conversion efficiency, the animals lose weight with characteristic caved-in stomach and general weakness.

#### **4.4 Abnormal droppings/dungs**

Excreta of farm animals should be firm or looks 'bolus' and black or darkish green, particularly in cattle and pigs, and like small balls in sheep and goats. Droppings in poultry are usually greyish with urinary liquid. Where the dung of an animal looks watery, and sometimes have the faeces stained with blood would imply that something is wrong with the animal. Such signs usually have to with diarrhoea or other gastrointestinal diseases. Coccidia in piglets, for instance, is characterised by diarrhoea and scour in early stage, and late-stage, faeces become yellow or creamy-grey diarrhoea causing loss of condition and reduced growth rates at age 7–10 days [45]. Mortality rates may reach 20% [52]. Concurrent infections with other bacteria, viruses or parasites can increase mortality further.

#### **4.5 Abortion in animals**

One of the production goals in livestock management is a production of litters either for multiplication of animal population or marketing for income generation. A farmer could readily achieve this with healthy animals but where a pregnant animal is infected with the abortion-related disease the resultant effect is loss of foetus. Diseases such as leptospirosis, vibriosis, pestivirus, and trichomoniasis cause abortion which may be early-term abortion or embryonic loss in ruminant farm animals [51]. Also, there may be stillbirth, weak, stunted or deformed calves, and low calving and lambing rate. Observation of these traits in the animals calls for veterinary care of the animal(s).

**33**

*Farm Animals' Health Behaviours: An Essential Communicative Signal for Farmers' Veterinary…*

A careful look at production records of the animals could help determine the health status of the animals. An animal that has been prolific in production certainly loses production potential when its normal healthy condition is hindered by a disease or pest infestation. In a lactating dam with impaired physiological functions, there may be a drop in the quantity of produced per day or drop in egg production by sick birds [53]. Dressing of diseased animals also produces poor quality meat that is unfit for consumption thereby leading to loss of revenue or

The end of physiologically disturbed animal(s) is death, especially where the signs of ill health are not quickly detected for prompt veterinary action. In some cases, however, death may be sudden without a physical sign of ill health. Several diseases are so virulent that it leads to the death of farm animals within a short time. For instance, anthrax could cause sudden death within 2–3 days in ruminant and pigs. In the vein, PPR (Peste des petits ruminants) in small ruminants is associated

Diseases of farm animals generally cause a lot of losses either directly or indirectly in livestock production. Direct economic implications include decreased productivity of the animals, cost of disease control of animals, death of farm animals and loss of means of livelihood or economies of farmers. A diseased animal generally has its physiological functions impaired and as such will not be able to perform maximally or optimally. In the light, production outputs of farm animals in terms of egg, milk, meat, and wool production gradually decline [56] thereby resulting in inefficient production of the farmers. In other words, what farmers get as returns from production is far less than what is invested in the production of the animals. This is usually due to decreased food intake and/or inability of the animals to efficiently convert consumed feed into metabolic energy required for productivity. Alongside this is loss of quality products—milk and meat that might come from infected animals thereby losing market acceptability or value [53]. In severe cases and depending on the virulence of the disease, animals might lose weight appreciatively and die. This incur great loss to farmers as opportunity for production of kids is lost due to disease-related abortions by dams, revenue that could have accrued from sales of animals and animal products, and ultimate loss of means of livelihood in case of high mortality or death of herds and flocks which may be difficult to replace in most cases. An attempt to save the stock and sustain production result in increased cost of production arising from the cost of drug acquisition for treatment of the animals and of veterinary services. Economic losses to the world poultry industry are believed to be more than US\$3 billion annually [57]. Back in the year 2000 in rural communities in the northern part of Cameroon, an estimated value of sheep and goats losses to PPR was put at US\$53, 902 over five years, while in Bangladesh, the estimated value of goats mortality from PPR was put at US\$34.8million in the year 2001 [56]. Also is a devastating effect on cash flow and equity at the farm or industry level arising from sharp fall in consumers' demand for primary products of livestock out of concern of zoonosis, and severe limitation or elimination of animal marketing options [18, 55]. In the same vein, access to

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89738*

**4.6 Drop-in productivity**

profitable income to the farmer.

**4.7 Sudden death of animal(s)**

with high morbidity and mortality [54, 55].

**5. Economic implications of animal diseases**

*Farm Animals' Health Behaviours: An Essential Communicative Signal for Farmers' Veterinary… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89738*

#### **4.6 Drop-in productivity**

*Livestock Health and Farming*

for extended periods [49].

**4.3 Drop or refusal of food consumption**

caved-in stomach and general weakness.

**4.4 Abnormal droppings/dungs**

mortality further.

**4.5 Abortion in animals**

veterinary care of the animal(s).

**4.2 Wobbled movement or gait**

Whenever there is a need for farm animals to move, they will move steadily and easily; and where there is the need to flee from threats in their environment, they move very fast and run. Where an animal moves sluggishly or could not move would imply ill health. Abnormal gait can include unusual walking patterns or uneven weight-bearing, as seen when a cow is suffering from lameness [49]. Lameness may be an indication of rot in the foot characterised by swelling and moistened skin between the claws and foul-smelling discharge. Consequently, the animal remains lying down for long periods and may not bear weight on the affected leg, and where both front legs are affected, sheep, for example, walk on their knees and severe cases and chronic infection leads to grossly misshapen and overgrown hooves [50]. In the same vein is an abnormal stance indicating pain and this may be reflected as tucked abdomen and tail, hunched back or standing still

Animals are ever ready to feed when nothing is wrong with them and as such a drop in the rate of feed consumption or outright refusal of feed by an animal or non-excitation at being fed would imply that something is wrong with the animal. Most diseases though cause an animal to refuse feed, nutritional factors equally accounted for feed refusal. For instance, diseases such as bloating, grass tetany, ketosis, hypocalcaemia, and mineral deficiencies are caused by nutrient deficiencies, excesses or imbalances, or by metabolic disturbances [51]. As a result of poor feeding or feed conversion efficiency, the animals lose weight with characteristic

Excreta of farm animals should be firm or looks 'bolus' and black or darkish green, particularly in cattle and pigs, and like small balls in sheep and goats. Droppings in poultry are usually greyish with urinary liquid. Where the dung of an animal looks watery, and sometimes have the faeces stained with blood would imply that something is wrong with the animal. Such signs usually have to with diarrhoea or other gastrointestinal diseases. Coccidia in piglets, for instance, is characterised by diarrhoea and scour in early stage, and late-stage, faeces become yellow or creamy-grey diarrhoea causing loss of condition and reduced growth rates at age 7–10 days [45]. Mortality rates may reach 20% [52]. Concurrent infections with other bacteria, viruses or parasites can increase

One of the production goals in livestock management is a production of litters either for multiplication of animal population or marketing for income generation. A farmer could readily achieve this with healthy animals but where a pregnant animal is infected with the abortion-related disease the resultant effect is loss of foetus. Diseases such as leptospirosis, vibriosis, pestivirus, and trichomoniasis cause abortion which may be early-term abortion or embryonic loss in ruminant farm animals [51]. Also, there may be stillbirth, weak, stunted or deformed calves, and low calving and lambing rate. Observation of these traits in the animals calls for

**32**

A careful look at production records of the animals could help determine the health status of the animals. An animal that has been prolific in production certainly loses production potential when its normal healthy condition is hindered by a disease or pest infestation. In a lactating dam with impaired physiological functions, there may be a drop in the quantity of produced per day or drop in egg production by sick birds [53]. Dressing of diseased animals also produces poor quality meat that is unfit for consumption thereby leading to loss of revenue or profitable income to the farmer.

#### **4.7 Sudden death of animal(s)**

The end of physiologically disturbed animal(s) is death, especially where the signs of ill health are not quickly detected for prompt veterinary action. In some cases, however, death may be sudden without a physical sign of ill health. Several diseases are so virulent that it leads to the death of farm animals within a short time. For instance, anthrax could cause sudden death within 2–3 days in ruminant and pigs. In the vein, PPR (Peste des petits ruminants) in small ruminants is associated with high morbidity and mortality [54, 55].

### **5. Economic implications of animal diseases**

Diseases of farm animals generally cause a lot of losses either directly or indirectly in livestock production. Direct economic implications include decreased productivity of the animals, cost of disease control of animals, death of farm animals and loss of means of livelihood or economies of farmers. A diseased animal generally has its physiological functions impaired and as such will not be able to perform maximally or optimally. In the light, production outputs of farm animals in terms of egg, milk, meat, and wool production gradually decline [56] thereby resulting in inefficient production of the farmers. In other words, what farmers get as returns from production is far less than what is invested in the production of the animals. This is usually due to decreased food intake and/or inability of the animals to efficiently convert consumed feed into metabolic energy required for productivity. Alongside this is loss of quality products—milk and meat that might come from infected animals thereby losing market acceptability or value [53]. In severe cases and depending on the virulence of the disease, animals might lose weight appreciatively and die. This incur great loss to farmers as opportunity for production of kids is lost due to disease-related abortions by dams, revenue that could have accrued from sales of animals and animal products, and ultimate loss of means of livelihood in case of high mortality or death of herds and flocks which may be difficult to replace in most cases. An attempt to save the stock and sustain production result in increased cost of production arising from the cost of drug acquisition for treatment of the animals and of veterinary services. Economic losses to the world poultry industry are believed to be more than US\$3 billion annually [57]. Back in the year 2000 in rural communities in the northern part of Cameroon, an estimated value of sheep and goats losses to PPR was put at US\$53, 902 over five years, while in Bangladesh, the estimated value of goats mortality from PPR was put at US\$34.8million in the year 2001 [56]. Also is a devastating effect on cash flow and equity at the farm or industry level arising from sharp fall in consumers' demand for primary products of livestock out of concern of zoonosis, and severe limitation or elimination of animal marketing options [18, 55]. In the same vein, access to

the premium export market is affected as animal-source food from a region with disease outbreak will not be accepted in the international markets thereby distorting the development of the livestock sector both within the country(ies) in question and globally [56].

Beyond the farm, level is indirect consequences of disease in animals which include zoonotic and cost of human treatment, loss of employment to farm labours and employment in other livestock values chains or industries, alteration of nutritional balance of the populace, change in consumer behaviours and marketing shocks. Humans become infected with animal diseases either from consumed products of infected animals or the circulation of zoonotic agents between animals, humans, and the environment with hindrances of their wellbeing and economic activities. The direct cost of zoonotic diseases over the last decade is estimated to be more than \$20 billion with over \$200 billion indirect losses to affected economies as a whole [58]. With marketing shocks, characterised by either short supplies of animals and animal products and/or an increase in prices of the available ones, consumers to make rational decisions to opt for alternative safe and cheap food sources. For instance, short supply of livestock products such milk, eggs and poultry meat, which tend to be cheapest, may lead to increase in prices thereby forcing consumers, particularly the poor people, to substitute with vegetable proteins or consume more of carbohydrate food sources with consequential less balanced diet [56]. In addition to related diseases of farm animals' disruption of nutrition security of the human populace is the transmission of such disease(s) to human populace either directly from the animal or on consummation of food products from the diseased animals. Farmworkers are most affected directly due to contacts with animals they care for and indirectly with the general populace through the consumption of disease-laden animal products. As expressed by the world society for the protection of animals, as much or more than 500 different pathogens, be it viruses, bacteria or parasites, are be transmitted from animals to humans through contact with live animals and dust inhalation, and consumption of disease-laden meat and animal by-products [59]. With numerous cases of animal diseases, particularly Avian Flu, Swine Flu, infecting people as well as the workers and veterinarians, the spread of animal viruses to humans is thus a serious public health concern and as such, they need for control and prevention of diseases in farm animals.
