**10. The role of farm management**

Modern animal production is mainly based on economic principles; neither animal health and welfare nor ecological issues are taken much into consideration. However, the high morbidity and mortality in dairy production associated with poor welfare conditions necessarily questions modern industrial farming practices. In the past, politicians, agronomists and animal scientists have appeared to assume an ability in the markets and in science to drive technological changes which will enable the economic-environment system to both satisfy increasing global food demands and simultaneously solve problems of animal health and welfare. These key assumptions, however, have turned out to belong to the category of wishful thinking, lacking as they are in any profound evidence. They generally neglect, on different scales, the biological basics, particularly the complexity of physiological processes as well as the ambivalent nature of productivity and the resultant tradeoffs. Whether processes are beneficial or non-beneficial very much depends on the context in which they take place and the level at which the situation in question is being analyzed. The same is also true for the possible options of balancing the trade-offs between economic interests and animal health and welfare in a costeffective manner. Thus, the frequent attempts to formulate one-size-fits-all general recommendations for a successful implementation of measures are often misleading and contradict the actual context-specific nature of biological processes and the subsequent need for context-specific solutions at all levels of dairy farming.

#### **10.1 Lack in orientation**

For the farmers, it is often very important to know where they stand in relation to other farms. Data from a representative number of farms could be used to create a scale ranging from very low to very high prevalence of Pds per farm unit thus giving farm management an idea and orientation as to whether the individual farm belongs to the category of farms with a low, a middling or a high level of health problems. However, as long as data on production diseases is not sufficiently solid, it has little practical value for farmers and they can basically disregard it. Thus, a diagnostic procedure is essential for the assessment of the prevalence of Pds as well as for the identification and implementation of measures appropriate for the farm specific situation and for the need to balance partly contradicting goals. Both the rate of productivity and the prevalence of production diseases on dairy farms emerge from very complex processes. Focusing on single aspects without taking into account both the context and the conflicts between achieving productivity and the development of production diseases does not allow any truly valid statements and can be said to be overly narrow.

In contrast to zoonotic and epizootic diseases, productions diseases are not yet a matter of public concern. Although accompanied by pain, suffering, distress and longer persistent harm, they are not even fully recognized as a severe animal welfare issue. Being primarily treated as an internal affair of the farm, Pds are not regulated by legislation but left in the hands of the farmers and their individual readiness to act. Generally, personal economic concerns are a greater deciding factor than concern for the health of animals. Indeed, it is often said that farm

**67**

odd individual and occur regularly rather than occasionally.

*Nutrition and Health-Management in Dairy Production DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89447*

and the envisaged target figures.

**10.2 Need for profound data**

management is interested in reducing Pds solely due to economic reasons. Indeed, there is no doubt that Pds can cause severe economic losses. However, there is still a lack in valid data about the degree of failure costs, and particularly on the effort in terms of labor time and investments required to reduce the prevalence of production diseases in the farm specific context [4]. To reduce production diseases in a cost-effective way and to maintain production at a competitive level is not only highly contextual and thus requires appropriate farm-specific measures but also relies on a function of margin utility. This applies to the use of resources e.g. high-quality feed, labor time, investments to reduce production diseases as well as to the intensification occurring in the increased use of inputs. Additionally, the conditions outside the system boundaries (in terms of the price of products sold, availability and price of resources needed to reduce production diseases) have to be considered. Cost–benefit relationships not only depend on the status quo for both productivity and production diseases but also on the gap between the status quo

Optimization of the relationship between productivity and the prevalence of Pds to the benefit of both the farmer's income and the health and welfare of farm animals requires access to reliable farm-specific data. Thus, a major question is how to increase the availability of valid data and how to create an overview that can support decisions of management regarding an efficient allocation of available resources. Records of milk performance at an individual level – either through daily milk yield measurements or official milk recording – are valuable tools, and not only for performance monitoring. They also reflect the individual requirements of the dairy cows in the course of lactation and are thus essential for implementing a target-oriented nutrient supply. Often this data may be considered unnecessarily costly or time-consuming for flat rate concentrate feeding or TMR systems. Lactation curves plotted for individuals or groups of animals provide a very graphic illustration of performance. Since it is always one of the first things to be affected by the diet, milk components are an essential element for monitoring the impacts of energy and nutrient supply on dairy cows. Fat and protein levels are especially valuable indicators of diet adequacy. Furthermore, feed intake is a critical factor in providing the right degree of nutrition. Given the wide impact, dietary problems and imbalances can have on productivity, monitoring specific aspects of dairy health and fertility can be very valuable in feeding management. However, appropriate techniques for the assessment of feed intake at the individual level are not yet fully developed for use in farm practice. One sophisticated and cost-effective technology which is available but seldom implemented on dairy farms is measuring equipment which can continuously determine the body weight development. More often in use is the tool of Body Condition Scoring which provides information about the measure of a cow's energy balance. However, one disadvantage of this tool is that long temporal delays can occur in receiving the information on discrepancies and thus in subsequent responses to the information. The time delay between cows receiving too little energy in their feed rations and any resulting pregnancy rate problems often go unrecognized until it is too late to do much about them. This is compounded by the fact that fertility is not given sufficient prominence within rationing programs although fertility, like lameness, is now recognized as being caused by a number of factors, including inadequate nutrition. Furthermore, disorders like acidosis, ketosis, displaced abomasum and fatty liver are clear signs of dietary problems, especially if they affect a number of animals rather than just the

*Nutrition and Health-Management in Dairy Production DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89447*

*Livestock Health and Farming*

**10.1 Lack in orientation**

and can be said to be overly narrow.

not able to correctly interpret data regarding the negative energy balance of the individual cows and thus cannot know which animals are at a higher or a lower risk, which animals are able to cope with the NEB and which ones are showing disorders

Modern animal production is mainly based on economic principles; neither animal health and welfare nor ecological issues are taken much into consideration. However, the high morbidity and mortality in dairy production associated with poor welfare conditions necessarily questions modern industrial farming practices. In the past, politicians, agronomists and animal scientists have appeared to assume an ability in the markets and in science to drive technological changes which will enable the economic-environment system to both satisfy increasing global food demands and simultaneously solve problems of animal health and welfare. These key assumptions, however, have turned out to belong to the category of wishful thinking, lacking as they are in any profound evidence. They generally neglect, on different scales, the biological basics, particularly the complexity of physiological processes as well as the ambivalent nature of productivity and the resultant tradeoffs. Whether processes are beneficial or non-beneficial very much depends on the context in which they take place and the level at which the situation in question is being analyzed. The same is also true for the possible options of balancing the trade-offs between economic interests and animal health and welfare in a costeffective manner. Thus, the frequent attempts to formulate one-size-fits-all general recommendations for a successful implementation of measures are often misleading and contradict the actual context-specific nature of biological processes and the subsequent need for context-specific solutions at all levels of dairy farming.

For the farmers, it is often very important to know where they stand in relation to other farms. Data from a representative number of farms could be used to create a scale ranging from very low to very high prevalence of Pds per farm unit thus giving farm management an idea and orientation as to whether the individual farm belongs to the category of farms with a low, a middling or a high level of health problems. However, as long as data on production diseases is not sufficiently solid, it has little practical value for farmers and they can basically disregard it. Thus, a diagnostic procedure is essential for the assessment of the prevalence of Pds as well as for the identification and implementation of measures appropriate for the farm specific situation and for the need to balance partly contradicting goals. Both the rate of productivity and the prevalence of production diseases on dairy farms emerge from very complex processes. Focusing on single aspects without taking into account both the context and the conflicts between achieving productivity and the development of production diseases does not allow any truly valid statements

In contrast to zoonotic and epizootic diseases, productions diseases are not yet a matter of public concern. Although accompanied by pain, suffering, distress and longer persistent harm, they are not even fully recognized as a severe animal welfare issue. Being primarily treated as an internal affair of the farm, Pds are not regulated by legislation but left in the hands of the farmers and their individual readiness to act. Generally, personal economic concerns are a greater deciding factor than concern for the health of animals. Indeed, it is often said that farm

as a sign of adaption stress due to whatever reasons.

**10. The role of farm management**

**66**

management is interested in reducing Pds solely due to economic reasons. Indeed, there is no doubt that Pds can cause severe economic losses. However, there is still a lack in valid data about the degree of failure costs, and particularly on the effort in terms of labor time and investments required to reduce the prevalence of production diseases in the farm specific context [4]. To reduce production diseases in a cost-effective way and to maintain production at a competitive level is not only highly contextual and thus requires appropriate farm-specific measures but also relies on a function of margin utility. This applies to the use of resources e.g. high-quality feed, labor time, investments to reduce production diseases as well as to the intensification occurring in the increased use of inputs. Additionally, the conditions outside the system boundaries (in terms of the price of products sold, availability and price of resources needed to reduce production diseases) have to be considered. Cost–benefit relationships not only depend on the status quo for both productivity and production diseases but also on the gap between the status quo and the envisaged target figures.

#### **10.2 Need for profound data**

Optimization of the relationship between productivity and the prevalence of Pds to the benefit of both the farmer's income and the health and welfare of farm animals requires access to reliable farm-specific data. Thus, a major question is how to increase the availability of valid data and how to create an overview that can support decisions of management regarding an efficient allocation of available resources. Records of milk performance at an individual level – either through daily milk yield measurements or official milk recording – are valuable tools, and not only for performance monitoring. They also reflect the individual requirements of the dairy cows in the course of lactation and are thus essential for implementing a target-oriented nutrient supply. Often this data may be considered unnecessarily costly or time-consuming for flat rate concentrate feeding or TMR systems. Lactation curves plotted for individuals or groups of animals provide a very graphic illustration of performance. Since it is always one of the first things to be affected by the diet, milk components are an essential element for monitoring the impacts of energy and nutrient supply on dairy cows. Fat and protein levels are especially valuable indicators of diet adequacy. Furthermore, feed intake is a critical factor in providing the right degree of nutrition. Given the wide impact, dietary problems and imbalances can have on productivity, monitoring specific aspects of dairy health and fertility can be very valuable in feeding management. However, appropriate techniques for the assessment of feed intake at the individual level are not yet fully developed for use in farm practice. One sophisticated and cost-effective technology which is available but seldom implemented on dairy farms is measuring equipment which can continuously determine the body weight development. More often in use is the tool of Body Condition Scoring which provides information about the measure of a cow's energy balance. However, one disadvantage of this tool is that long temporal delays can occur in receiving the information on discrepancies and thus in subsequent responses to the information. The time delay between cows receiving too little energy in their feed rations and any resulting pregnancy rate problems often go unrecognized until it is too late to do much about them. This is compounded by the fact that fertility is not given sufficient prominence within rationing programs although fertility, like lameness, is now recognized as being caused by a number of factors, including inadequate nutrition. Furthermore, disorders like acidosis, ketosis, displaced abomasum and fatty liver are clear signs of dietary problems, especially if they affect a number of animals rather than just the odd individual and occur regularly rather than occasionally.

### **10.3 Dealing with complexity**

Due to the fact that being confronted with the complexity of production diseases for a long time, farm practice is unswervingly in search of simple approaches to deal with unintended side-effects. This contradicts with the major challenge, namely variation, in dairy farming: variation in the energy and nutrient supply of the individual cow, variation in the utilization and partitioning of energy and nutrients and the differences in the requirements needed for the essential tasks of regulation and immune defense, resulting in a large variation in the gaps between supply and demand. Without feeding control measures, it is left to the animals to cope with the occurring discrepancies. In this respect, an apparent "survival of the fittest" selection occurs at the farm level. However, it is not necessarily a selection between farm animals based on comparable initial and boundary conditions but on a highly variable situation in terms of performance level and additional demands by fluctuating internal and external stressors. Consequently, the selection might occur to a high degree by pure chance.

The prevalence of production diseases on farms indicates the degree of shortcomings of farm management at two levels. Firstly, regarding the degree of a demand-oriented supply with energy and nutrients according to the individual requirements, and secondly, regarding protection against stressors such as pathogens, crowding effects or heat stress which lead to a need for additional resources. Production diseases are always context specific. The context is characterized by the specific farm conditions, the individual cow situation and the interactions between both. Dairy farms vary widely when it comes to the living conditions of the animals. Thus, health problems require a diagnostic procedure at the farm level. This diagnosis needs to include the most relevant influencing factors involved in the multifactorial processes as well as estimations about the most effective and efficient strategies in the farm-specific context [3, 67, 68].

#### **10.4 Assuming responsibility**

An important prerequisite for any improvements, however, is related to the need to assume responsibility not only for the results of efforts to increase productivity but also for the negative side effects of the production processes. The farm management designs the living conditions of farm animals and organizes the allocation of resources but it is also, to some degree, responsible for the resource partitioning processes within an organism. This applies to breeding for a high number of lactocytes in the mammary gland, which is responsible for a prioritized skim of glucose from the body pool, and to sucking away every last drop of milk via milking. Metabolic disorders indicate an imbalanced trade-off between the original goal of sustaining the offspring via milk and the goal of self-maintenance of the dam. Farmers are challenged to reduce the degree of trade-offs by adapting the breeding practices to the quality of available nutrients and, at least, temporarily, decreasing the amount of milk extracted during milking, perhaps also the frequency of milking. To increase milk production, it is not uncommon in intensive dairy systems to increase milking frequency to three times daily. Reducing milking frequency is much less common. In doing so, it is in fact possible to improve the overall energy balance of cows during early lactation with once-daily milking [69]. Furthermore, this procedure can entail an improvement in the metabolic profile [70] and immune function [71] of dairy cows. In contrast, Soberon et al. [72] reported that cows subjected to an increased milking frequency are 1.4 times more likely than the control cows to be classified as sub-clinically ketotic. Depending on the stage of

**69**

*Nutrition and Health-Management in Dairy Production DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89447*

production per cow.

**10.5 Unfair competition**

lactation, breed, and parity, the reduction in milk yield losses in the course of shortterm alterations to milking frequency in early lactation varies considerably and can amount up to 22% [73]. This figure has been revealed as an average milk loss across 30 different international short-term studies. While it is comprehensible that short-term alterations to milking frequency may provide a tool to better manage the metabolism and energy balance of cows during early lactation [74], many farmers fear that the losses in milk yield could be too high. All the more is it necessary not to go for a general strategy but to develop a farm specific strategy that suits the situation of the individual cows, thereby also considering the fears of farmers. The aim should be to throttle the withdrawal of milk by adapting the quantity to the estimation of risk for the individual cow. This practice would be suitable under certain infrastructural farm conditions, including the availability of valid data on dairy systems where an emphasis is placed on animal health rather than on milk

Finally, the crucial question is, at which rate of disturbances and Pds should an intervention by farm management take place. Currently this is determined solely by individual farm management, often to the detriment of the animals. Farm management, however, would be well-advised to show an interest in reducing the prevalence of production diseases. A high prevalence of production diseases represents a low health performance by farm management. Farms with a high prevalence of Pds are not only disregarding their obligation to prevent suffering of the animals but are also delivering inferior products to the market. Thus, low levels of Pds should be seen as a significant production goal which carry as much weight as productivity goals. However, setting low disease levels as a production goal will only occur when farmers realize that they can gain an advantage over competitors who have higher levels of Pds. On the other hand, farms behave unfairly when they cause, and/or basically ignore, a high level of Pds and related welfare problems and therefore produce an inferior level of product and process quality while simultaneously achieving the same market prices as those who invest time, money and effort in product and process improvements. Moreover, farm associations, like those of organic agriculture, should be more concerned about unsatisfactory health performances amongst member farms and doing more to raise the lack of concern shown by their consumer clientele as this defies general consumer expectations and any efforts to justify the premium prices [75]. Whether it is intrinsically motivated or forced by economic reasons or the demands of retailers to improve the current unsatisfactory situation regarding the prevalence of production diseases, farm management needs to know how and where to direct its efforts. Benchmarking would offer an appropriate methodological approach to deal with the issue of unfair competition and also with the uncertainties in the assessment of Pd data as these methodological uncertainties affect all farms, if not exactly to the same degree. Benchmarking allows target figures to be deduced from the average levels obtained from assessing a sufficient number of comparable farms or from an estimate of the optimum balance between productivity and disease related loss and failure costs. While farmers are generally hesitant in their readiness to extend control to others, farm management lacks orientation regarding its own position in relation to other farms and regarding the target figures it should aim for in the future as long as benchmarking is not established. The lack of benchmarking for Pd values in relation to the product quantity of products from animal origin can be seen as one of the main barriers in the fight to reduce nutritional disorders and related Pds in dairy production.

#### *Nutrition and Health-Management in Dairy Production DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89447*

lactation, breed, and parity, the reduction in milk yield losses in the course of shortterm alterations to milking frequency in early lactation varies considerably and can amount up to 22% [73]. This figure has been revealed as an average milk loss across 30 different international short-term studies. While it is comprehensible that short-term alterations to milking frequency may provide a tool to better manage the metabolism and energy balance of cows during early lactation [74], many farmers fear that the losses in milk yield could be too high. All the more is it necessary not to go for a general strategy but to develop a farm specific strategy that suits the situation of the individual cows, thereby also considering the fears of farmers. The aim should be to throttle the withdrawal of milk by adapting the quantity to the estimation of risk for the individual cow. This practice would be suitable under certain infrastructural farm conditions, including the availability of valid data on dairy systems where an emphasis is placed on animal health rather than on milk production per cow.

### **10.5 Unfair competition**

*Livestock Health and Farming*

**10.3 Dealing with complexity**

high degree by pure chance.

in the farm-specific context [3, 67, 68].

**10.4 Assuming responsibility**

Due to the fact that being confronted with the complexity of production diseases for a long time, farm practice is unswervingly in search of simple approaches to deal with unintended side-effects. This contradicts with the major challenge, namely variation, in dairy farming: variation in the energy and nutrient supply of the individual cow, variation in the utilization and partitioning of energy and nutrients and the differences in the requirements needed for the essential tasks of regulation and immune defense, resulting in a large variation in the gaps between supply and demand. Without feeding control measures, it is left to the animals to cope with the occurring discrepancies. In this respect, an apparent "survival of the fittest" selection occurs at the farm level. However, it is not necessarily a selection between farm animals based on comparable initial and boundary conditions but on a highly variable situation in terms of performance level and additional demands by fluctuating internal and external stressors. Consequently, the selection might occur to a

The prevalence of production diseases on farms indicates the degree of shortcomings of farm management at two levels. Firstly, regarding the degree of a demand-oriented supply with energy and nutrients according to the individual requirements, and secondly, regarding protection against stressors such as pathogens, crowding effects or heat stress which lead to a need for additional resources. Production diseases are always context specific. The context is characterized by the specific farm conditions, the individual cow situation and the interactions between both. Dairy farms vary widely when it comes to the living conditions of the animals. Thus, health problems require a diagnostic procedure at the farm level. This diagnosis needs to include the most relevant influencing factors involved in the multifactorial processes as well as estimations about the most effective and efficient strategies

An important prerequisite for any improvements, however, is related to the need to assume responsibility not only for the results of efforts to increase productivity but also for the negative side effects of the production processes. The farm management designs the living conditions of farm animals and organizes the allocation of resources but it is also, to some degree, responsible for the resource partitioning processes within an organism. This applies to breeding for a high number of lactocytes in the mammary gland, which is responsible for a prioritized skim of glucose from the body pool, and to sucking away every last drop of milk via milking. Metabolic disorders indicate an imbalanced trade-off between the original goal of sustaining the offspring via milk and the goal of self-maintenance of the dam. Farmers are challenged to reduce the degree of trade-offs by adapting the breeding practices to the quality of available nutrients and, at least, temporarily, decreasing the amount of milk extracted during milking, perhaps also the frequency of milking. To increase milk production, it is not uncommon in intensive dairy systems to increase milking frequency to three times daily. Reducing milking frequency is much less common. In doing so, it is in fact possible to improve the overall energy balance of cows during early lactation with once-daily milking [69]. Furthermore, this procedure can entail an improvement in the metabolic profile [70] and immune function [71] of dairy cows. In contrast, Soberon et al. [72] reported that cows subjected to an increased milking frequency are 1.4 times more likely than the control cows to be classified as sub-clinically ketotic. Depending on the stage of

**68**

Finally, the crucial question is, at which rate of disturbances and Pds should an intervention by farm management take place. Currently this is determined solely by individual farm management, often to the detriment of the animals. Farm management, however, would be well-advised to show an interest in reducing the prevalence of production diseases. A high prevalence of production diseases represents a low health performance by farm management. Farms with a high prevalence of Pds are not only disregarding their obligation to prevent suffering of the animals but are also delivering inferior products to the market. Thus, low levels of Pds should be seen as a significant production goal which carry as much weight as productivity goals. However, setting low disease levels as a production goal will only occur when farmers realize that they can gain an advantage over competitors who have higher levels of Pds. On the other hand, farms behave unfairly when they cause, and/or basically ignore, a high level of Pds and related welfare problems and therefore produce an inferior level of product and process quality while simultaneously achieving the same market prices as those who invest time, money and effort in product and process improvements. Moreover, farm associations, like those of organic agriculture, should be more concerned about unsatisfactory health performances amongst member farms and doing more to raise the lack of concern shown by their consumer clientele as this defies general consumer expectations and any efforts to justify the premium prices [75]. Whether it is intrinsically motivated or forced by economic reasons or the demands of retailers to improve the current unsatisfactory situation regarding the prevalence of production diseases, farm management needs to know how and where to direct its efforts. Benchmarking would offer an appropriate methodological approach to deal with the issue of unfair competition and also with the uncertainties in the assessment of Pd data as these methodological uncertainties affect all farms, if not exactly to the same degree. Benchmarking allows target figures to be deduced from the average levels obtained from assessing a sufficient number of comparable farms or from an estimate of the optimum balance between productivity and disease related loss and failure costs. While farmers are generally hesitant in their readiness to extend control to others, farm management lacks orientation regarding its own position in relation to other farms and regarding the target figures it should aim for in the future as long as benchmarking is not established. The lack of benchmarking for Pd values in relation to the product quantity of products from animal origin can be seen as one of the main barriers in the fight to reduce nutritional disorders and related Pds in dairy production.
