**3.3 Current scenario in India and developing countries**

Antibiotic use has been increasing steadily (e.g., between 2005 and 2009, 40% increase has been found in units of antibiotics sold). Cephalosporin sales increased by 60% over that 5-year period (in units sold) [20]. Antibiotics are used to treat human illness, livestock, and poultry diseases. In livestock sector, it accounts for more than 50% in order to control and treat diseases, and in low doses in animal feed, to promote growth and improve production of animal products [29]. There is no regulation in India to regulate the use of antibiotics in food animals, such as poultry and dairy animals raised for domestic consumption. As per, Prevention of Food Adulteration Rules (1995), Part XVIII: use of antibiotic and other pharmacologically active substances are applied only to certain types of seafood and poultry intended for export only [30]. Very few studies on antibiotic residues in animal products have been conducted in India, where one on honey was widely recognized [31]. Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi, in a study revealed that 11 of 12 samples of honey taken from the domestic market were not in compliance

*Livestock Health and Farming*

overuse are not well recognized.

**2.6 Use of antibiotics in poultry**

and tetracycline [21].

Research Institute near Bangalore in 2000 revealed that tetracyclines, gentamycin, ampicillin, amoxicillin, cloxacillin, and penicillin were commonly used to treat dairy animals and mastitis was treated with beta-lactam class of antibiotics. The prevalence of antibiotic residues in milk samples has been found to be higher in silo and tanker samples as compared to market and commercial pasteurized milk samples [19]. These findings prove that that antibiotic are used in dairy animals in these regions, though details of the frequency, duration, and reasons for use and

The level of resistance in Indian poultry is reported to be high for many antibiotics. A recent study conducted by members of the Global Antibiotic Resistance Partnership [20] reported significant differences in the resistance pattern of broiler farms of Punjab with level of antibiotics used in normal poultry production. Results revealed that antibiotic use in broiler farms were likely to be more than 20 times to harbor-resistant *E. coli*, and prevalence of multi-drug resistance was much higher which was found 94% in broiler farms. In meat shops of Bikaner (Rajasthan), 96% of chicken samples contained *S. aureus* (n = 48), which were sensitive to ciprofloxacin, doxycycline, and gentamycin, and all were resistant to ampicillin, cloxacillin,

Farm workers and slaughterers are at high risk of exposure to resistant antimicrobials due to direct contact with infected animals. Handling pigs and poultry while working in a farm environment puts farm workers at risk of picking up resistant bacteria from the animals' bodies or their feces. A study in the Netherlands in 2001–2002 revealed the same genetic patterns of resistance in *E. coli* samples from turkeys and broiler chickens, their farmers and slaughterers [22]. Consumption of food contaminated with resistant bacteria such as *Salmonella*, *Campylobacter*, and *E. coli* can increase the resistant bacteria in the human beings. Contamination of meat from fecal material getting onto the carcase during the slaughter and evisceration process, during the removal of animal gut, can contaminate other foods in domestic or restaurant/ catering kitchens. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) revealed in 2010 that live chickens colonized with *Campylobacter* are 30 times more likely to contaminate meat as compared to uninfected birds [23]. Resistant bacteria can be transferred in water, soil, and air because animals excrete a significant amount of antibiotics they are administered, which make manure a potential source of both antibiotics and

**2.7 Transfer of antimicrobial resistance from livestock to humans**

antibiotic-resistant bacteria that can enter soil and groundwater [15].

**3. Rationale and approaches to limit the spread of antimicrobial** 

Synchronization of international, national, and local approaches is advised for control and prevention of antimicrobial resistance. Promoting the rational use of antimicrobials, control on over-the-counter availability of antimicrobials, improvement of hygiene, prevention of infection, and control are the major recommended approaches. Thus, proper understanding of mechanism of resistance and accordingly innovation in development of new drugs is the need of the hour. A multidisciplinary, collaborative, regulatory approach is demanded for combating

**14**

**resistance**

antimicrobial resistance [24].

with standards for its export. The level of antibiotic residues found was not high enough to cause an adverse effect in consumers, but it appealed for regulation and monitoring of antibiotic residues in honey because continuous long-term exposure to low levels of antibiotics could increase antibiotic resistance in pathogenic bacteria making their treatment difficult [32]. The National Policy for Containment of Antimicrobial Resistance—India was documented in years 2007, 2011, and 2017, which covers a range of topics, including reduction of antibiotic use in animals, particularly domesticated animals; provision of infection surveillance in hospitals; improving hospital surveillance for monitoring antibiotic resistance; promoting rational and judicious use of drug through education, monitoring, and supervision; researching new drugs; and developing and implementing a more restrictive and participatory antibiotic policy by including various stakeholders 65. Under the new Schedule H1, selling of antibiotics over-the-counter will be banned [20].
