**6. Farmers' cognition of farm animal-health behavioural communication and the veterinary responses**

Given the social and economic implications of diseases of farm animals, it is essential that veterinary actions are taken to prevent, control and treat animals of any emerging disease. It is however of great value to have earlier detection of emerging or laden diseases where it is invariably impossible to prevent disease outbreak as this will save a great deal of the cost of treatment and prevent possible loss of animal to death. To achieve this, it becomes essential that livestock farmers have good cognition of their animal communication. The concept of animal communicate is generally grounded in animal behaviours whereby animals' social actions are interpreted with meaning either by fellow animals or humans. Consequently, by behavioural actions, animal communication is described as the process by which an animal transmits information to other animals (**Figure 2**) for incorporate into their decision making [60] or cause some kind of change in the animals that gets the information [61]. The transmitted information by animals in the communication process is however in form signals often reflected in sounds, colour patterns, postures, movements, electrical discharges, touches, the release of odorants, or

**35**

*Farm Animals' Health Behaviours: An Essential Communicative Signal for Farmers' Veterinary…*

some combination of these mediums [60]. These series of signals of animal communication are thus classified into four basic categories, namely visual, auditory,

*Vocalisation by a bird to its environment for a specific purpose. Source: Khan Academy [63].*

The auditory communication cue entails the use of the vocal cord (**Figure 3**) for sending sounds or cries by an animal to fellow animals or other species of animals to stimulate action(s) in the receiving animals [61, 62]. In other words, an animal vocalises to effect behavioural action(s) in the targeted receivers with the expectation that the receiving animals will appropriately use the acquired message from the vocalisation to take a responsive action [60, 63, 64]. For instance, the cries of an animal might be a message of attraction toward it or detraction away from it; and whatever action is to be taken by the animal(s) receiving the cries depends on the strength of pitches or frequencies of the vocalised sounds or cries [65] and in turn, the strength of the pitches or frequencies depend on the emerging stimulus in the environment of the animal(s) at a particular point in time. Consequently, vocalised sounds by animals at any point in time have distinct sound characteristics that denote the intent of the vocalising animal(s) and expected responses by the receiving animals. For instance, the croaking of male frogs described as 'whine' and 'chuck', maybe for attraction female frogs or keep other males away from the territory [63, 66]. Similarly, the barking or gnawing of a dog may imply a warning

tactile and pheromone cues [60].

**Figure 2.**

**Figure 3.**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89738*

*A model of communication flow between animals. Source: Gillam [62].*

*Farm Animals' Health Behaviours: An Essential Communicative Signal for Farmers' Veterinary… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89738*

**Figure 2.** *A model of communication flow between animals. Source: Gillam [62].*

some combination of these mediums [60]. These series of signals of animal communication are thus classified into four basic categories, namely visual, auditory, tactile and pheromone cues [60].

The auditory communication cue entails the use of the vocal cord (**Figure 3**) for sending sounds or cries by an animal to fellow animals or other species of animals to stimulate action(s) in the receiving animals [61, 62]. In other words, an animal vocalises to effect behavioural action(s) in the targeted receivers with the expectation that the receiving animals will appropriately use the acquired message from the vocalisation to take a responsive action [60, 63, 64]. For instance, the cries of an animal might be a message of attraction toward it or detraction away from it; and whatever action is to be taken by the animal(s) receiving the cries depends on the strength of pitches or frequencies of the vocalised sounds or cries [65] and in turn, the strength of the pitches or frequencies depend on the emerging stimulus in the environment of the animal(s) at a particular point in time. Consequently, vocalised sounds by animals at any point in time have distinct sound characteristics that denote the intent of the vocalising animal(s) and expected responses by the receiving animals. For instance, the croaking of male frogs described as 'whine' and 'chuck', maybe for attraction female frogs or keep other males away from the territory [63, 66]. Similarly, the barking or gnawing of a dog may imply a warning

*Livestock Health and Farming*

and globally [56].

the premium export market is affected as animal-source food from a region with disease outbreak will not be accepted in the international markets thereby distorting the development of the livestock sector both within the country(ies) in question

Beyond the farm, level is indirect consequences of disease in animals which include zoonotic and cost of human treatment, loss of employment to farm labours

and employment in other livestock values chains or industries, alteration of nutritional balance of the populace, change in consumer behaviours and marketing shocks. Humans become infected with animal diseases either from consumed products of infected animals or the circulation of zoonotic agents between animals, humans, and the environment with hindrances of their wellbeing and economic activities. The direct cost of zoonotic diseases over the last decade is estimated to be more than \$20 billion with over \$200 billion indirect losses to affected economies as a whole [58]. With marketing shocks, characterised by either short supplies of animals and animal products and/or an increase in prices of the available ones, consumers to make rational decisions to opt for alternative safe and cheap food sources. For instance, short supply of livestock products such milk, eggs and poultry meat, which tend to be cheapest, may lead to increase in prices thereby forcing consumers, particularly the poor people, to substitute with vegetable proteins or consume more of carbohydrate food sources with consequential less balanced diet [56]. In addition to related diseases of farm animals' disruption of nutrition security of the human populace is the transmission of such disease(s) to human populace either directly from the animal or on consummation of food products from the diseased animals. Farmworkers are most affected directly due to contacts with animals they care for and indirectly with the general populace through the consumption of disease-laden animal products. As expressed by the world society for the protection of animals, as much or more than 500 different pathogens, be it viruses, bacteria or parasites, are be transmitted from animals to humans through contact with live animals and dust inhalation, and consumption of disease-laden meat and animal by-products [59]. With numerous cases of animal diseases, particularly Avian Flu, Swine Flu, infecting people as well as the workers and veterinarians, the spread of animal viruses to humans is thus a serious public health concern and as such, they

need for control and prevention of diseases in farm animals.

**communication and the veterinary responses**

**6. Farmers' cognition of farm animal-health behavioural** 

Given the social and economic implications of diseases of farm animals, it is essential that veterinary actions are taken to prevent, control and treat animals of any emerging disease. It is however of great value to have earlier detection of emerging or laden diseases where it is invariably impossible to prevent disease outbreak as this will save a great deal of the cost of treatment and prevent possible loss of animal to death. To achieve this, it becomes essential that livestock farmers have good cognition of their animal communication. The concept of animal communicate is generally grounded in animal behaviours whereby animals' social actions are interpreted with meaning either by fellow animals or humans. Consequently, by behavioural actions, animal communication is described as the process by which an animal transmits information to other animals (**Figure 2**) for incorporate into their decision making [60] or cause some kind of change in the animals that gets the information [61]. The transmitted information by animals in the communication process is however in form signals often reflected in sounds, colour patterns, postures, movements, electrical discharges, touches, the release of odorants, or

**34**

of a possible attack against and intruder. In the light of this, cries and sounds are essential tools by which animals communicate, not only with their surroundings [67] but also to convey a great deal of information over long distances for a specific purpose. Thus, most animals rely on sound communication for social relations, protection of themselves, survival and understanding of their environment [68].

Alongside the auditory communication is the visual dimension of the animals' communication whereby animals display signals that are visible to fellow animals. Such signals may be gestures, body postures, and colouration, movement or positioning of the body by the communicating animals [63]. Consequently, animals communicate non-verbally by expression of signals that could be described as acts or structures, to convey information to recipients to elicits a response in the recipients [69]. For instance, claw raising by hermit crab which implies an intention to attack is a warning communication signal to recipients and processing of such a signal would make the recipient respond by fleeing the environment of moving away from the crab. Similarly, a chimpanzee communicates threats by raising its arms, slapping the ground or staring directly at another chimpanzee [63]. Given the need for mating, some animals communicate to one another by a display of colouration change to attract the opposite sex. For instance, a display of bright yellow feathers by a male American goldfinch is a communicative signal to a prospective mate for mating. Animals thus communicate by behaviours to help them recognise and care for the young ones, find mates, coordinate group behaviour, defend territory and establish dominance.

Given the concept of animal communication, the same principle applies to farm animal communication to farmers whereby farm owners rely on behavioural actions of their animals as an element of information communication with them [66, 70–74]. In essence, farm animals communicate their current status to their owners by both vocalisation and behavioural signals. Given that environmental stimulus and/or hormone concentrations affecting the mood, thirst, hunger and appetitive behaviour of an animal stimulate specific behaviours and vocalisations in the animals, livestock farmers would need, not just to perceive the displayed actions by their animals, but to appropriately interpret such vocalisations and behaviours for necessary action to be taken. Although animals' vocalisations have been categorised into five 'main syllables' based on the mouth, tongue and nasal placement and the speed of air leaving the throat, no specific meaning has been attributed to different calls [75]. Consequently, a particular farmer will have to use his judgement, particularly based on experience and familiarity with his sets of animals, to determine the state of his animals' welfare and/or needs. Understanding the varying pitches or frequencies of sounds by animals is thus crucial to ensure an appropriate response to the animals' needs by a livestock attendant. For instance, a livestock attendant with a good understanding of the varying vocalisation pitches may get to know that a high and consistent pitch of sounds by a dam is an indication of out of contact with its kids [76–78] or that of difficult parturition. Frequency and pitch of coughing by farm animals equally serve as a good auditory cue to attract the attention of a farmer for the healthcare of the animal. Thus as an animal becomes more excited or distressed, the duration, volume, and pitch of the calls increase.

The auditory communicative signal may though be a narrow lead to early detection of illnesses in farm animals, the visual communication cue is more elaborate and much obvious to attract the attention of farm attendants or farmers for prompt veterinary actions. Ordinarily, a healthy animal is active and mostly in group association, but becomes dull or isolated when its normal healthy condition is impaired which becomes a communicative signal of ill health. As highlighted in **Table 1**, the displayed signals can be readily seen and obvious to stimulate veterinary actions.

**37**

**Table 1.**

*Farm Animals' Health Behaviours: An Essential Communicative Signal for Farmers' Veterinary…*

**signs**

**Gastrointestinal** 

Appetite loss Diarrhoea Abdominal pain Weight loss Dehydration (sunken eyes, prolonged skin tent)

Weight loss Decreased appetite Diarrhoea and abdominal pain Food coming out of nose or mouth

Lack of appetite Weight loss Diarrhoea

Diarrhoea Weight loss Swollen crop or abdomen

*Source: Developed from Department of Agriculture and Rural Development, State of Michigan Bulletin (Retrieved* 

**Skin signs Neurological signs**

Behavioural changes or easily startled Restlessness or agitation Lack of coordination or high stepping Head rubbing, tossing or pressing Exaggerated blinking and chewing movements Trembling or convulsions

Behavioural changes Excessive scratching and rubbing Loss of coordination Abnormal gaits (high stepping) Biting feet and limbs

Head tilt or head pressing Inability to rise or convulsions

Behavioural changes Lack of coordination Excessive salivation or drooling Seizures or tremors Paddling while lying on their side

Difficulty walking Torticollis (twisted

neck) Lack of coordination or inability to rise Tremors or paralysis of limbs or neck Paralysis and dilation of the crop Blindness Head pressing

Blisters or ulcers around muzzle, mouth, lips, gums, tongue, teats and/or feet Severe itching Circular areas of hair loss Warts

Itchy, dry brittle fleece Red mouth and

Blisters or ulcers around muzzle, mouth, lips, gums, tongue, teats and/or feet

Blisters or ulcer around nose and

Swollen and/ or discoloured comb, wattles, legs and head Dark or crusty spots on comb Mites or Lice (near vent) Scaly legs

feet Pustules Blotchy Skin

nose

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89738*

**Respiratory signs**

Multiple coughing animals Difficult laboured or rapid breathing Nasal discharge

Coughing Nasal discharge Difficulty breathing

Coughing Difficult laboured or rapid breathing

Open mouth breathing Nasal discharge Sneezing Coughing or gasping

**General signs of illness**

Depression Fever Lethargy (lack of energy) Dull coat Watery eyes Lameness, arthritis, or hot and painful feet

Pigs Lethargy (lack of energy) Fever Lameness, painful movement and stiffness Swollen joints

Poultry Lethargy (lack of energy) Depression Drop in egg production Eye discharge Thin-shelled eggs Ruffled feathers Off feed or water

*from online, July 1, 2019).*

*Signals for early detection of ill-health in farm animals.*

Cattle Fever, lethargy (lack of energy) Excessive salivation Lameness

**Farm animals**

Sheep and goats


*Farm Animals' Health Behaviours: An Essential Communicative Signal for Farmers' Veterinary… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89738*

*Source: Developed from Department of Agriculture and Rural Development, State of Michigan Bulletin (Retrieved from online, July 1, 2019).*

#### **Table 1.**

*Livestock Health and Farming*

establish dominance.

the duration, volume, and pitch of the calls increase.

of a possible attack against and intruder. In the light of this, cries and sounds are essential tools by which animals communicate, not only with their surroundings [67] but also to convey a great deal of information over long distances for a specific purpose. Thus, most animals rely on sound communication for social relations, protection of themselves, survival and understanding of their environment [68]. Alongside the auditory communication is the visual dimension of the animals' communication whereby animals display signals that are visible to fellow animals. Such signals may be gestures, body postures, and colouration, movement or

positioning of the body by the communicating animals [63]. Consequently, animals communicate non-verbally by expression of signals that could be described as acts or structures, to convey information to recipients to elicits a response in the recipients [69]. For instance, claw raising by hermit crab which implies an intention to attack is a warning communication signal to recipients and processing of such a signal would make the recipient respond by fleeing the environment of moving away from the crab. Similarly, a chimpanzee communicates threats by raising its arms, slapping the ground or staring directly at another chimpanzee [63]. Given the need for mating, some animals communicate to one another by a display of colouration change to attract the opposite sex. For instance, a display of bright yellow feathers by a male American goldfinch is a communicative signal to a prospective mate for mating. Animals thus communicate by behaviours to help them recognise and care for the young ones, find mates, coordinate group behaviour, defend territory and

Given the concept of animal communication, the same principle applies to farm animal communication to farmers whereby farm owners rely on behavioural actions of their animals as an element of information communication with them [66, 70–74]. In essence, farm animals communicate their current status to their owners by both vocalisation and behavioural signals. Given that environmental stimulus and/or hormone concentrations affecting the mood, thirst, hunger and appetitive behaviour of an animal stimulate specific behaviours and vocalisations in the animals, livestock farmers would need, not just to perceive the displayed actions by their animals, but to appropriately interpret such vocalisations and behaviours for necessary action to be taken. Although animals' vocalisations have been categorised into five 'main syllables' based on the mouth, tongue and nasal placement and the speed of air leaving the throat, no specific meaning has been attributed to different calls [75]. Consequently, a particular farmer will have to use his judgement, particularly based on experience and familiarity with his sets of animals, to determine the state of his animals' welfare and/or needs. Understanding the varying pitches or frequencies of sounds by animals is thus crucial to ensure an appropriate response to the animals' needs by a livestock attendant. For instance, a livestock attendant with a good understanding of the varying vocalisation pitches may get to know that a high and consistent pitch of sounds by a dam is an indication of out of contact with its kids [76–78] or that of difficult parturition. Frequency and pitch of coughing by farm animals equally serve as a good auditory cue to attract the attention of a farmer for the healthcare of the animal. Thus as an animal becomes more excited or distressed,

The auditory communicative signal may though be a narrow lead to early detection of illnesses in farm animals, the visual communication cue is more elaborate and much obvious to attract the attention of farm attendants or farmers for prompt veterinary actions. Ordinarily, a healthy animal is active and mostly in group association, but becomes dull or isolated when its normal healthy condition is impaired which becomes a communicative signal of ill health. As highlighted in **Table 1**, the displayed signals can be readily seen and obvious to stimulate veterinary actions.

**36**

*Signals for early detection of ill-health in farm animals.*

Body movement of the animals is also essential cues to understanding the health communication behaviours of the animals. For instance, cattle will normally have their tails raised and positioned horizontally when defecating or urinating bur observation such positioning of tail aside the need for excretion is an indication of the health issue to be given attention. Also, kicking and tail swishing may be performed in response to acute pain with these signals directed toward the painful stimulus [49]. The ability of farmers to understand the communicative signals, however, depends on their good knowledge of different animal diseases and the signs that may be shown before the emergence of a particular disease. Based on experience, some farmers have developed the skills and intuition to rightly interpret behavioural signals of an animal about a specific kind of illness that is most likely to emerge or already discomforting the animals2 . A field experience by which a set of goats' communicate their owner that their pen is heavily infested by lice was by their reluctance to enter the pen each day they return from free-range, and when forced into the pen, they began an unusual and constant stamping of their feet. But a curious examination of the sudden reluctance of entry into the pen revealed that the dusty floor of the pen was highly infested by lice which always walk into the goats' underneath hair thereby causing skin irritation to the animals. This was discovered when a multitude of lice flung onto the farmer's legs on entering pen thereby necessitating thorough cleaning of the pen and thereafter, no constant stamping of feet was observed among the goat. In essence, every behavioural actions farm animals might mean a lot and as such, livestock farmers need to understand and be able to distinguish between normal and abnormal behaviours of their farm animals to ensure good management of the animals' welfare. But farmers who do not have the experience or skill to accurately interpret the observed health communication behaviour of a farm animal would have to consult the service of a veterinarian. Thus farmers would have to consciously monitor the social actions of their animals for quick detection of laden diseases in their stock.
