**2.2 Data collection**

*Livestock Health and Farming*

rural livelihoods.

livestock production.

**2.1 Study site**

**2. Materials and methods**

maize are also commonly grown.

areas will inform sustainable livestock production.

systems, contributing more than 75% of the total variable costs of production [2, 3]. Thus, a comprehensive inventory of animal feeds and feeding systems in semi-arid

Rangeland productivity, i.e. the amount of available grazing and browse per square area per unit time, is a proxy indicator of sustainability of livestock-based rural livelihoods. In recent years, climate change and variability, among other factors, has resulted in the declines in the quality and quantity of the rangelands in semi-arid areas such as the South East Lowveld (SEL) of Zimbabwe [4–7]. Additionally, in these areas, while Transfrontier Conservation Areas (TFCAs) have been established mainly to facilitate sustainable livelihoods, global biodiversity conservation, regional peace, and sustainable socio-economic development of African communities through the cooperation at local and international levels [8], they are also likely to increase interaction between wildlife, livestock, and humans with adverse consequences. For instance, due to increased human and livestock populations in surrounding agricultural areas, cattle are likely to encroach more into wildlife areas in search of feed [9]. Therefore, a deeper comprehension of animal feeds and feeding will improve livestock production and consequently transform

Innovations in livestock husbandry are the activities and processes associated with the generation, production, dissemination, adaptation, and use of existing or new technical, institutional, and organisational knowledge [10, 11]. Although there are different innovations in livestock feeds and feeding, most of them have not been adopted by farmers [12]. For instance, [12] showed that discontinuance of urea treatment of maize stover for livestock supplementation was attributed to high labour requirements of preparing the stover, lack of monitoring by extension services, and inaccessibility of urea fertiliser. It is thus important for the policy to consider such factors as the economic environment, availability of local material, and social and human capital when promoting livestock production systems. In this chapter, we explore and explain different livestock feeds and feeding strategies that are mostly adopted in semi-arid areas. We also recommend other alternatives that have a potential of adaption for increased

The study was carried out in the semi-arid South East Lowveld (SEL) of Zimbabwe. The area is found at an altitude of 300–600 m above mean sea level [11]. It experiences mean maximum and minimum temperatures of 21.8°C in October and 13.3°C in June, respectively, and mean annual rainfall of 300–600 mm between November and March and is characterised by high interannual variability (coefficient of variation ≈ 4045%) [13]. The major soil types are basalt-derived vertisols. Other soil types include eutric fluvisols, leptosols, and chromic luvisols [14]. The two main land uses in the area are agricultural production in the communal areas and wildlife conservation in Gonarezhou National Park and Malipati Safari Area, both of which form part of the Great Limpopo TFCA that contains a wide range of wildlife species such as *Loxodonta africana* (the elephant), *Giraffa camelopardalis* (giraffe), and *Syncerus caffer* (African buffalo). A communal land is a land category characterised by collective or community land ownership [15]. Livestock production is the major source of livelihoods in the communal area, while small grains and

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Individual structured questionnaires were administered to 150 respondents randomly selected, representing approximately 12% of the total households in the study area. The questionnaire was designed to capture socio-demography and livestock production characteristics, specifically feed resources and farmer innovations in livestock feeding and management. The questionnaire was pretested before final administration. We also conducted two focus group discussions (FGD) with seven key informants each, representative of the pastoral, agro-pastoral, and croplivestock production systems in the area. For the woody species, we carried out veld assessment. Using the point-centred quarter method [16], we established 53 30 m × 30 m plots at each sampling point along 9 transects randomly established, measuring between 10 and 15 km each. The plant species were identified with the help of the locals in addition to using field identification guides [17–19]. Canopy structure, tree height, growth habit, leaf, bark, and other tree structures were used to differentiate closely related trees. Trees rooted within the plot, or along plot margins with at least half of the rooted system inside the plot, were considered [20]. We also recorded altitude and location of each individual tree using a Global Positioning System (GPS) Unit. Samples of the species not identified in the field, as well as all the other species, were collected for verification at the National Herbarium in Harare, Zimbabwe.
