**4. LWUE in forage-based livestock systems: challenges and opportunities**

In the major **forage-based livestock systems** like grazing, mixed-rainfed and mixed-irrigated systems of dryland production environments, the basic objectives of production as well as intensity of production operations have a great diversity within and among those systems [1]. This diversity creates many challenges for water efficiency of these livestock production systems. This creates implications and prospects at the same time for achieving efficient water use in such production systems. To elaborate further, dry and green fodder constitute major feed component in dryland production systems. Like in the case of the most intensive systems, say mixed-irrigated production system as practised in India, concentrate feed use does not exceed 10% [2]. Feed acts as a major interface between water and livestock, and such diversity in managing feed sourcing and feeding practices poses challenges and implications for the type, scale of importance and method of quantifying and strategising livestock water use efficiency.

Strategies to improve quality of locally available feed and feed management are core to any framework to improve livestock water use efficiency in any production system. We need to focus on activities like selection of crops, intercropping for maximum land and water utilisation, urea treatment of crop residues, chopping of coarse residues, etc. In mixed-irrigated systems, an improvement of feed quality (from 7 to 8.5 ME MJ kg<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> ) can lead to saving of >50 m<sup>−</sup><sup>3</sup> of water/cow/year [2]. Similarly, in mixed-rainfed systems, urea treatment of crop residues led to a considerable improvement in livestock water use efficiency [3–5]. While considering better animal management practices, livestock water productivity (LWP) can be enhanced, by reducing animal's energy requirement by means of limiting animal movement, especially in peak summer seasons. Descheemaeker et al. [3] reported that in mixed-rainfed systems, approximately 12% of the metabolisable energy of animals is spent for walking long distances for feed and water. This energy loss can be avoided by better feed sourcing and feed management.

### **5. Method of assessment of livestock water use**

An effort was made to assess and analyse LWUE in smallholder and commercial production and to formulate for strategies for improving LWUE. Primary data was collected from small- and medium-sized dairy farms in Kolar and Shimoga district, Karnataka, India. The total sample size was 240 dairy farms. The consumptive use of blue water (direct and indirect) was assessed using primary data through personal interview and observation in particular farms. Primary data from smallholders and commercial dairy units in Kolar and Shimoga district of Karnataka, India, were collected. Water use efficiency (kg/animal) was estimated and compared for smallholder as well as commercial dairy production systems using the following formula:

$$\text{WUE} = \text{(Y/U)}^{\ast}\text{100}\tag{1}$$

**141**

**Table 2.**

*(n1 = 200, n2 = 40).*

**Table 1.**

*Water Use and Dairy Production System: An Indian Experience*

formulated using participatory focus group discussions.

different operations were identified, and strategies to reduce water wastage were

The major challenges associated with LWU as perceived by farmers were analysed and ranked based on rank coefficients. Scarcity of water for livestock drinking, other livestock operations and feed quality due to low water quality used for crop production were the major challenges across all the seasons (**Tables 1** and **2**).

The water intake by animals through forage and other feed ingredients is more as compared to water intake through drinking water and that used for on-farm servicing operations such as cleaning, etc. The average direct consumptive water use by smallholder system was found to be 97 litres per day and 127 litres per day for commercial dairies. The calculated water use efficiency for smallholder system was 0.85, and for commercial dairying it was 1.62. The water use efficiency was more in the case of commercial dairy farming and less in the case of smallholder produc-

There are various factors affecting water use by livestock. The major factors are seasons, different weather parameters, fodder, feed and other inputs. The source of

Scarcity of water for livestock drinking ✓ ✓ ✓ Scarcity of water for livestock operations ✓ ✓ ✓ Scarcity of water for feed production ✓ ✓

Postharvest feed quality and quantity ✓ ✓ ✓

**Operations Smallholder system Commercial dairying**

Drinking 40 52 Washing shed 55 90 Washing animals 25 38 Cleaning cans and other equipment 10 25 Water contained in feed and fodder 743 740 **Total 873 945** Milk yield/day/animal 7.4 15.4 **WUE= (Y/U)\*100 0.85 1.62**

*Direct and indirect water use (litre/day/animal/kg of milk) and WUE in different dairy production systems* 

**Summer Winter Rainy 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3**

**Key LWU-related problems Seasonal variations**

Inefficient use of available water ✓ ✓ ✓ Soil/nutrient loss ✓ ✓ ✓ Poor feed/fodder quality ✓ ✓ ✓ High feed scarcity ✓ ✓ ✓

Use of common property resources ✓ ✓ ✓

*Problem matrix showing the scale of importance of LWU-related problems across seasons.*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91193*

tion system.

where Y = Marketable yield (kg/animal) and U = Seasonal consumptive use of water (m3 ).

Water use efficiency for crop biomass used as fodder = Total Biomass/water applied at different levels of requirement [6] method was used for calculation of LWP of feed (recommended by the IWMI). Different water wastage points in

#### *Water Use and Dairy Production System: An Indian Experience DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91193*

different operations were identified, and strategies to reduce water wastage were formulated using participatory focus group discussions.

The major challenges associated with LWU as perceived by farmers were analysed and ranked based on rank coefficients. Scarcity of water for livestock drinking, other livestock operations and feed quality due to low water quality used for crop production were the major challenges across all the seasons (**Tables 1** and **2**).

The water intake by animals through forage and other feed ingredients is more as compared to water intake through drinking water and that used for on-farm servicing operations such as cleaning, etc. The average direct consumptive water use by smallholder system was found to be 97 litres per day and 127 litres per day for commercial dairies. The calculated water use efficiency for smallholder system was 0.85, and for commercial dairying it was 1.62. The water use efficiency was more in the case of commercial dairy farming and less in the case of smallholder production system.

There are various factors affecting water use by livestock. The major factors are seasons, different weather parameters, fodder, feed and other inputs. The source of


#### **Table 1.**

*Livestock Health and Farming*

**opportunities**

strategising livestock water use efficiency.

ity (from 7 to 8.5 ME MJ kg<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

**4. LWUE in forage-based livestock systems: challenges and** 

In the major **forage-based livestock systems** like grazing, mixed-rainfed and mixed-irrigated systems of dryland production environments, the basic objectives of production as well as intensity of production operations have a great diversity within and among those systems [1]. This diversity creates many challenges for water efficiency of these livestock production systems. This creates implications and prospects at the same time for achieving efficient water use in such production systems. To elaborate further, dry and green fodder constitute major feed component in dryland production systems. Like in the case of the most intensive systems, say mixed-irrigated production system as practised in India, concentrate feed use does not exceed 10% [2]. Feed acts as a major interface between water and livestock, and such diversity in managing feed sourcing and feeding practices poses challenges and implications for the type, scale of importance and method of quantifying and

Strategies to improve quality of locally available feed and feed management are core to any framework to improve livestock water use efficiency in any production system. We need to focus on activities like selection of crops, intercropping for maximum land and water utilisation, urea treatment of crop residues, chopping of coarse residues, etc. In mixed-irrigated systems, an improvement of feed qual-

) can lead to saving of >50 m<sup>−</sup><sup>3</sup>

An effort was made to assess and analyse LWUE in smallholder and commercial production and to formulate for strategies for improving LWUE. Primary data was collected from small- and medium-sized dairy farms in Kolar and Shimoga district, Karnataka, India. The total sample size was 240 dairy farms. The consumptive use of blue water (direct and indirect) was assessed using primary data through personal interview and observation in particular farms. Primary data from smallholders and commercial dairy units in Kolar and Shimoga district of Karnataka, India, were collected. Water use efficiency (kg/animal) was estimated and compared for smallholder as well as commercial dairy production systems using the following

where Y = Marketable yield (kg/animal) and U = Seasonal consumptive use of

Water use efficiency for crop biomass used as fodder = Total Biomass/water applied at different levels of requirement [6] method was used for calculation of LWP of feed (recommended by the IWMI). Different water wastage points in

WUE = (Y/U)\*100 (1)

[2]. Similarly, in mixed-rainfed systems, urea treatment of crop residues led to a considerable improvement in livestock water use efficiency [3–5]. While considering better animal management practices, livestock water productivity (LWP) can be enhanced, by reducing animal's energy requirement by means of limiting animal movement, especially in peak summer seasons. Descheemaeker et al. [3] reported that in mixed-rainfed systems, approximately 12% of the metabolisable energy of animals is spent for walking long distances for feed and water. This energy loss can

be avoided by better feed sourcing and feed management.

**5. Method of assessment of livestock water use**

of water/cow/year

**140**

formula:

water (m3

).

*Problem matrix showing the scale of importance of LWU-related problems across seasons.*


#### **Table 2.**

*Direct and indirect water use (litre/day/animal/kg of milk) and WUE in different dairy production systems (n1 = 200, n2 = 40).*


**Table 3.**

*Factors affecting water use (ranking; n = 240).*

**Figure 1.**

*Perceived water wastage points in summer season (%respondents), n = 240.*

water and animal conditions like lactation stage, age and body and health conditions also play a role in water use efficiency (**Table 3**).

The water wastage points mainly in summer season were identified, which is presented in **Figure 1**.
