**2. Secondary raw materials recovered in electronic waste recycling**

E-waste contains components that have historically been valuable in significant quantities, when the dismantling costs have been low enough [9]. Some of the applications and quantities extracted for different "important" or valuable elements within electronic devices are represented in **Table 1**.

In addition to these metals, there is also another subset of elements—known as rare earth elements—which are crucial to the functioning of the newest electronics, particularly those with LED lighting and touch screen technologies. Rare earth elements are available in abundant quantities globally, but the process of their extraction can create widespread environmental problems, including radioactive contamination [10]. **Table 2** provides a list of the rare elements that are used in various electronics. It is worth noting that the actual quantity of these elements used is relatively small, but that their properties are closely linked to the performance level of these technologies [11]. Rare earths play a particularly decisive role in the high performance functioning of magnets. The information provided in **Table 2** has been adapted from information derived from the U.S. Department of Energy, a report commissioned for the U.S. Interior Department and the U.S. Geological Survey, as well as industry trade publications [12–14]. Those rare earths considered to be of the highest potential resale value (and the highest risk for supply shortages) are neodymium (Nd), europium (Eu), dysprosium (Dy), terbium (Tb) and yttrium (Y) [12, 14].


Recent technological developments, including improvements to the mechanization process as well as pilot projects that combine low-tech and mechanized

#### **Table 1.**

*A sample of valuable elements in electronic wastes.*


#### **Table 2.**

*Common uses of rare earth elements in electronic devices.*

methods, have been targeted to make e-waste recycling more profitable. Improvements to the mechanization process are fairly straightforward. On the one hand, revisions to shredding and sorting machines have improved the consistency and quality of the materials that are gathered at the preprocessing stage. In addition to this, newly mechanized methods are being developed to extract additional streams of secondary raw materials that were not previously recoverable. The major developments in this arena have been the invention of ways to extract various rare earth elements from electronics. State of the art facilities in Japan and France that can extract rare earths have recently become operational [15, 16]. Continued investment in technologies to recycle rare earths is seen as a strategic priority of industrialized countries, as these materials are essential for technologies related to communications, defense, and other state objectives, yet most mining for these materials takes place in China, a global power that has recently imposed quotas on the quantities that it is willing to sell for export [12, 17–19]. Concerns over the security and stability of the supply of rare earths have driven the development of new mechanized technologies to recover these materials from a wide range of e-waste inputs. Cost effective technologies for recovering secondary neodymium, dysprosium and praseodymium from e-waste are being further developed by U.S. based recyclers and research institutes [14]. Whether they are sited within the E.U., the U.S., or Japan, these newly operational recycling facilities will require a large quantity of e-waste inputs in order to be profitable. This challenge involves diverting a significant portion of e-waste from landfills, and from the informal recycling industry in less-developed countries.

### **3. The role of extended producer responsibility in e-waste recycling**

Estimates of how much electronic waste is generated globally within a given year vary widely [3, 20]. These estimates are based on the quantity and volume of various electronic items that are purchased in a given year, with consideration to the anticipated life expectancy of that particular item [21]. Surveys of recyclers on the volume of electronics collected can also be factored in, but it is important to note that a significant portion of consumer e-waste is either stored in consumers' homes or is mixed in with regular household waste and disposed of into landfills [22].

**51**

*Electronic Waste Recycling and Disposal: An Overview DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85983*

ized e-waste recycling industry.

currently takes place [2, 3].

**recycling**

In some instances, data on the amount of e-waste collected for recycling is available, such as in those regions that mandate producers to "take-back" consumers' unwanted electronics. Such mandates originated as part of the concept of extended producer responsibility (EPR), which holds that the manufacturers of products with hazardous components should bear the logistic and financial burden of recycling or disposing of their products in an environmentally responsible way [23]. While EPR legislation was initially opposed by manufacturers, the increased interest in the strategic importance and potential profitability of the secondary raw materials contained in e-waste (particularly the rare earth elements) has contributed to growing support for such legislation. Variations of EPR "takeback" laws have been put into effect across the globe, including in a number of U.S. states, across the European Union, and across many countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America [24]. These laws signal a potential shift away from electronics recycling taking place primarily in the informal sector, and towards the growth of the formal-

With a growing number of EPR laws mandating manufacturers to take extended responsibility for the environmentally sound recycling of their products, there has been an increase in the number of pilot projects and public-private partnerships to collect and recycle electronics in ways that are efficient and cost-effective [25]. Some of these projects entail the transport of e-wastes across national boundaries, and have fallen under the purview of the Basel Convention on the Control of the Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal (the Basel Convention). Over the years, The Basel Convention has convened technical working groups and conducted pilot projects, both of which have resulted in the development of technical guidelines for the handling and management of e-waste [26–28]. Under the purview of the United Nations University, additional pilot projects are being developed to facilitate a globalized e-waste recycling chain that involves labor-intensive dismantling and preprocessing in countries with lower labor costs (e.g., China, India, African countries), and high-tech end-processing in countries with more modern facilities (e.g., the EU countries) [3, 25]. Major recycling corporations, electronics manufacturers, and government officials believe that such partnerships will insure a higher volume of input for large, high-tech smelters and provide access to the secondary raw materials that were previously "dumped" or otherwise retained within the global South countries where informal recycling

**4. Environmental and human health hazards of electronic waste** 

and Toxic TV's" and toxicity data from Ceballos et al. [31].

The extent to which many of the other materials found in electronics are hazardous to human health and the environment is increasingly well-known. Electronics often contain toxic elements such as lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs) and mercury (Hg) as well as other toxic components such as PVC and brominated flame retardants (BFRs) [29]. **Table 3** presents a list of some of the known hazardous components found in the typical desktop computer (with CRT monitor). This table is an adaptation of material presented by the Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition [30] in their report "Poison PC's

Many of the health effects outlined in **Table 3** have been documented in the town of Guiyu, China, where perhaps the greatest portion of the U.S.'s e-waste exports have been deposited historically. Here, almost 80% of children have respiratory problems, and they have an especially high risk of lead poisoning [32]. Neurological, respiratory,

#### *Electronic Waste Recycling and Disposal: An Overview DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85983*

*Assessment and Management of Radioactive and Electronic Wastes*

Flat panel screens (glass coating to produce colors and

Other uses (including "chemicals, military weapons and delivery systems, and satellite systems" ([13], p. 12)

*Common uses of rare earth elements in electronic devices.*

brightness)

*Sources: [12–14].*

**Table 2.**

**Technology Rare earths used**

Electric and hybrid cars (NiMH battery) Neodymium, praseodymium, dysprosium,

Computers (magnets in hard disk drive) Neodymium, praseodymium, dysprosium,

MRI machines (magnets) Neodymium, praseodymium, dysprosium,

Smart phones (magnets and speakers) Neodymium, praseodymium, dysprosium,

terbium

terbium

praseodymium, cerium

terbium, yttrium, europium

terbium, yttrium, europium

Yttrium, europium, terbium, gadolinium,

Cerium, lanthanum, yttrium, neodymium, praseodymium, samarium, gadolinium

methods, have been targeted to make e-waste recycling more profitable.

Improvements to the mechanization process are fairly straightforward. On the one hand, revisions to shredding and sorting machines have improved the consistency and quality of the materials that are gathered at the preprocessing stage. In addition to this, newly mechanized methods are being developed to extract additional streams of secondary raw materials that were not previously recoverable. The major developments in this arena have been the invention of ways to extract various rare earth elements from electronics. State of the art facilities in Japan and France that can extract rare earths have recently become operational [15, 16]. Continued investment in technologies to recycle rare earths is seen as a strategic priority of industrialized countries, as these materials are essential for technologies related to communications, defense, and other state objectives, yet most mining for these materials takes place in China, a global power that has recently imposed quotas on the quantities that it is willing to sell for export [12, 17–19]. Concerns over the security and stability of the supply of rare earths have driven the development of new mechanized technologies to recover these materials from a wide range of e-waste inputs. Cost effective technologies for recovering secondary neodymium, dysprosium and praseodymium from e-waste are being further developed by U.S. based recyclers and research institutes [14]. Whether they are sited within the E.U., the U.S., or Japan, these newly operational recycling facilities will require a large quantity of e-waste inputs in order to be profitable. This challenge involves diverting a significant portion of e-waste from landfills, and from the informal recycling

**3. The role of extended producer responsibility in e-waste recycling**

Estimates of how much electronic waste is generated globally within a given year vary widely [3, 20]. These estimates are based on the quantity and volume of various electronic items that are purchased in a given year, with consideration to the anticipated life expectancy of that particular item [21]. Surveys of recyclers on the volume of electronics collected can also be factored in, but it is important to note that a significant portion of consumer e-waste is either stored in consumers' homes or is mixed in with regular household waste and disposed of into landfills [22].

**50**

industry in less-developed countries.

In some instances, data on the amount of e-waste collected for recycling is available, such as in those regions that mandate producers to "take-back" consumers' unwanted electronics. Such mandates originated as part of the concept of extended producer responsibility (EPR), which holds that the manufacturers of products with hazardous components should bear the logistic and financial burden of recycling or disposing of their products in an environmentally responsible way [23].

While EPR legislation was initially opposed by manufacturers, the increased interest in the strategic importance and potential profitability of the secondary raw materials contained in e-waste (particularly the rare earth elements) has contributed to growing support for such legislation. Variations of EPR "takeback" laws have been put into effect across the globe, including in a number of U.S. states, across the European Union, and across many countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America [24]. These laws signal a potential shift away from electronics recycling taking place primarily in the informal sector, and towards the growth of the formalized e-waste recycling industry.

With a growing number of EPR laws mandating manufacturers to take extended responsibility for the environmentally sound recycling of their products, there has been an increase in the number of pilot projects and public-private partnerships to collect and recycle electronics in ways that are efficient and cost-effective [25]. Some of these projects entail the transport of e-wastes across national boundaries, and have fallen under the purview of the Basel Convention on the Control of the Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal (the Basel Convention). Over the years, The Basel Convention has convened technical working groups and conducted pilot projects, both of which have resulted in the development of technical guidelines for the handling and management of e-waste [26–28].

Under the purview of the United Nations University, additional pilot projects are being developed to facilitate a globalized e-waste recycling chain that involves labor-intensive dismantling and preprocessing in countries with lower labor costs (e.g., China, India, African countries), and high-tech end-processing in countries with more modern facilities (e.g., the EU countries) [3, 25]. Major recycling corporations, electronics manufacturers, and government officials believe that such partnerships will insure a higher volume of input for large, high-tech smelters and provide access to the secondary raw materials that were previously "dumped" or otherwise retained within the global South countries where informal recycling currently takes place [2, 3].
