2.1 Bearings of the WEEE value-chain in Nigeria

have been substantial media reports on transboundary movement of WEEE in Nigeria [8]. Records in 2011 shows that Nigeria imported 1.2 million tonnes of new e-devices and generated e-waste of 1.1 million tonnes [9]. With these mounting quantities of WEEE, focus attention is now extended from how WEEE is managed to include reasons for the rising volume and avenues for it to be avoided [10].

Assessment and Management of Radioactive and Electronic Wastes

generated and those imported from abroad. Findings revealed that many used electrical and electronics equipment (UEEE) shipments into developing nations are combinations of nearly 25% of disused or end-of-life (E.o.L) e-devices and more than 75% of e-waste [9]. On the contrary, e-waste, though a take on problem, could be an important and alternate source for manufacturing materials whenever it is collected, dispersed and reprocessed properly [10–12]. An entirely new business opportunity is developing with the merchandising, recycling and reprocessing of WEEE [12, 13]. Subjective evidences suggest that there are insufficient actions of management functions for WEEE activities in most emerging nations [7, 9, 14]. Modern trends in recycling of WEEE, still fall short of global practice. Hence, the slow and steady upsurge in the volume of WEEE generated thereby strengthening the concern for waste recovering to protecting valuable materials and safeguarding

human health and the environment [1, 13].

Many nations are now faced with the task of handling e-waste that are internally

Nigeria's approach to WEEE management is seen as considering such emerging waste more on a basis of socioeconomic benefits instead of a long-term human health and environmental effects [7]. Reports by several authors including those by

Nnorom [4] revealed that this is driven by an approach to catch-up with the "digital divide" through imports of low-priced near E.o.L EEE from industrialized countries. Many E.o.L e-devices are reasonably stockpiled instead of direct disposal with everyday household refuse [16]. Policy regulators and monitors at the local government areas (LGAs), whose mandates covers solid waste management [17], have unsuccessful establish workable management policy for e-waste management [10]. In several industrialized countries with workable policy frameworks for e-waste, there have raised new businesses revolving around tradeoff, reprocessing and repairs of E.o.L EEE [18]. Primarily, this has been linked to the huge volume of precious metals found inside e-waste. The ratio of prized metals to waste in various E.o.L EEE (especially iron, aluminum, copper, gold etc.) is found to supersede its associated pollutants, therefore encouraging recycling in the e-waste sector [19]. Therefore, the study assessed the socioeconomic factors swaying the paths of ewaste generation and control in Southeastern Nigeria with a view to suggesting innovative measures and market potentials for firms in the recycling sector.

The main sources for WEEE inflow into Nigeria is mapped out to include the container market and RoRo market [18]. It is estimated daily that 500 containers of used laptops, computers, televisions and other e-devices are imported into Nigeria Ports [9]. The 2011 Basel Report noted that e-waste comes to Africa predominately from Europe (majorly through the ports of Felixstowe, Amsterdam and Antwerp). The Nigerian counterpart, Belgian Customs estimates that nearly 90% of these prohibited shipments influx Nigeria environment from co-loaded automobiles with E.o.L EEE [7, 18]. On inspection, many of the exports have problematic contents or are in fact mislabeled for ease of shipment of what are in fact illegal goods. In 2008, the inspection of containers by the Nigeria Customs led to the discovery of 127 e-waste containers, from which 47 of them considered hazardous were reversed and

the Öko-Institut and Green Advocacy Ghana in 2010 [15] and Osibanjo and

2. WEEE streams: The trail to developing nations

60

e-Waste management in Nigeria is now been tackled not only by relying on prohibiting illegal imports, but by embracing other management strategies through the processes of generation, collection, handling, recovery, recycling and towards final disposal. In this regard, e-waste is considered with the idea of evaluating consumer's behavioral and its socioeconomic implications [15, 18]. Following the Basel Report on e-waste for 2011, a well-coordinated cluster of e-waste recyclers in some regions across West Africa focused their collection activities mainly on UEEE (or end-of-life EEE) and discarded e-waste. These traders source the items from locally generated and foreign imports which is based on categories of items been savaged [7]. The report showed that those in the recycling sector are engaged in recovering e-waste from waste streams, worked on these items and recovered several types of components and materials. Such recovered components from disassembled devices sometimes sever as sources for repair spare-parts. In another report, Lagos, Nigeria has two main recycling clusters located at Alaba International Market and Ikeja Computer Village employing nearly 15,000 technicians and traders with more than 5000 registered enterprises [10]. These two locations were characterized with high patronage by Nigerians, as well as West and Central African nationals in the sales and professional repairs of refurbished EEE.

Furthermore, it is on record that the collection, handling and refurbishing of ewaste in Nigeria take place mainly in the informal sector of recycling by inexperience, low-class, illiterate and undocumented-business individuals. Some of these scavengers, with no prior training and little investment, move around neighborhoods and waste dumps with their handcarts to collect (or in some cases buy) disused e-devices and related metal scraps that contain valuable like aluminum, copper, brass, iron, etc. [7]. These items recovered are then sold directly to cottage recycling businesses (engaged in dismantling to recover valuable components) or to secondary traders that organize large-scale sales to local and foreign recycling firms [10]. The remnant from the dismantled items is often subjected to indiscriminate disposals - including burning (especially plastics coated materials) [8, 16]. Besides, these scavengers are guaranteed of steady access to daily pay, as the proceeds from each day's scouting immediately materialize on sales of the recovered components.

### 2.2 Pathways for e-waste generation and recycling of the households and traders

The transboundary movement of UEEE/WEEE in industrialized nations varies from one country to another. In certain instances, private households organize their e-waste disposal by requesting either government service or private service, usually for a price [1]. More often, the scheduled bulky waste pick-up service is managed by private collectors who are often concerned with the afterward segregation of the collected wastes towards recovery and recycling. Whereas, the measures used during "recycling" in Nigeria are comparably considered crude and unstandardized. Recovered components are sometimes sold for export to other places in Africa and Asia [7].

The transboundary movements of e-waste in West Africa countries is found to be driven by a craving for UEEE/WEEE owing to its cheap pricing, quality and durability [7, 8]. The brokers and traders of WEEE have been identified as some of the key players in this trade. This sector ranges from household-arrangement to a

bulky and well-arranged distributing syndicates. They are well organized and linked from their point of shipment (Europe) to destination (Africa). Another influence in the collection and handling of UEEE/WEEE is the recurrent visits of WEEE traders to designated formal collection centers to request certain useful items for free with a view to process them for export outside Europe [1, 20]. In this vein, some amount of e-waste somehow finds its way into informal arrangements. Consequently items originally designated for recycling plants are diverted from the formal value-chain into the informal sector. The Basel Report of 2011 stressed that this trail of UEEE from the formal recyclers to informal recyclers is the deviation orchestrated by some registered middlemen to illicit traders (or informal recyclers). These brokers act as logistic firms or sub-contractors in scheduling pick-up services for WEEE, and in many instances consent certain items requested by WEEE traders from the waste streams [7]. In turn losing track of what becomes of such items at the end.

#### 2.3 The nexus of e-waste and the SDGs

As e-waste recycling scheme is gaining more attention, there remains slow competitiveness for the adaptation of innovative technologies in the preprocessing of WEEE. Hence, there is a strong need for the adoption of frontier technologies in recycling. Consequently, the problems of WEEE could be linked to the sustainable development goals (SDGs) in areas of building strong businesses, promoting inclusive and sustainable industrialization and fostering innovation (goal-9); justifiable economic growth, complete and productive employment with decent working environment for everyone (goal-8); as well as maintaining sustainable resources usage and production patterns (goal-12) [21]. Therefore, sustainable management of e-waste in Nigeria and its possible recycling is of high relevance to the SDGs—the planet goals—especially to the prosperity goals, and particularly to goal-12.

developing low-income community have been found to constitute a majority of diverse indigenous group with social difference gap. With such gap of the populace, organizing a thorough e-waste management at such places would be challenging. Secondly, the concern of lobbyists, interest groups and political parties would definitely affect to a large extent the kind of management strategies that is finally put in place for managing e-waste in a community [24]. Therefore, there is a need to incorporate in every stage of the policy making process individuals' views and participation. Lastly, the purpose of e-waste management, its technical and organizational scheme would depend in general on both the economic context of the inhabitants and the economy of the town. For example, in some fast developing towns like Enugu, Onitsha and Aba in Southeastern Nigeria, there are renowned specialized markets boosting informal trade in Fast Moving Consumer Goods with high trade volumes [25], and its highly characterized waste management problems [26]. Consequently, the level of economic development is a vital factor in the amount and composition of e-waste generated in that place [27]. Therefore, to accomplish the objective of this paper, the authors focused on assessing the strategic aspects revolving the political structure, social context, individual economy and

Conceptual framework for WEEE management strategies (Adapted from Okorhi [9], assessment of WEEE

Wastes from Industrialized Nations: A Socio-economic Inquiry on E-waste Management…

2.5 Market potential of innovative e-waste recycling at firm level

The industrialization of Africa could be achieved through sustainable innovation and awareness creation of its innovation potentials. According to a report published by Schluep et al. in 2009 [28], sustainable innovation refers to the shift of sustainable technologies, products and services to the marketplace, requiring a market creation concept and a shared global agenda. Whereas, environmental management and sustainability focuses on finding solutions to global pressing environmental

technical inputs.

63

Figure 1.

management strategies in South Eastern Nigeria).

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88075

### 2.4 Theories and concepts for the socioeconomic evaluation of e-waste management

The old perception of waste disposal—"dilute and disperse" is no longer tenable, rather a novel model of "concentrate and contain" has paved way to an idea referred to as the "Integrated Waste Management Scheme" [16, 22]. Generated waste is now deliberated as wealth out of place. Numerous waste items can now be collected, refurbished, and reused in the industries, agricultural, construction and building sectors etc. thereby safeguarding natural resources and energy in production of new items. Such measures also minimize environmental effects and relative health issues that could arise from the continuous exploitation of natural resources [10, 23]. This study is driven by the Pongrácz "theory of Waste Management" which is grounded on an agreed expectation that waste management can prevent waste to safeguard man and his environment. It assumes that the practice of waste management would avoid resources losses by turning waste to resources and conserving natural resources. Hence, the theory suggests that "we shall prevent waste from being produced by producing useful products (non-wastes) primarily" [11].

Hence, a conceptual framework (Figure 1) was developed to address the socioeconomic factors for the sustainable management of WEEE in the Recycling Sector. The fundamental aspects in this e-waste framework include the "Political, Institutional, Social, Financial, Economical and Technical". There are four contextual concerns raised in WEEE management which are namely: "Environmental, Sociocultural, Political and Economic" [10, 16, 24].

Individuals' behavior and approach to managing their generated wastes differs owing to their social and cultural traits. For example, people living in a fast

Wastes from Industrialized Nations: A Socio-economic Inquiry on E-waste Management… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88075


#### Figure 1.

bulky and well-arranged distributing syndicates. They are well organized and linked from their point of shipment (Europe) to destination (Africa). Another influence in the collection and handling of UEEE/WEEE is the recurrent visits of WEEE traders to designated formal collection centers to request certain useful items for free with a view to process them for export outside Europe [1, 20]. In this vein, some amount of e-waste somehow finds its way into informal arrangements. Consequently items originally designated for recycling plants are diverted from the formal value-chain into the informal sector. The Basel Report of 2011 stressed that this trail of UEEE from the formal recyclers to informal recyclers is the deviation orchestrated by some registered middlemen to illicit traders (or informal recyclers). These brokers act as logistic firms or sub-contractors in scheduling pick-up services for WEEE, and in many instances consent certain items requested by WEEE traders from the waste streams [7]. In turn losing track of what becomes of such items at the end.

Assessment and Management of Radioactive and Electronic Wastes

As e-waste recycling scheme is gaining more attention, there remains slow competitiveness for the adaptation of innovative technologies in the preprocessing of WEEE. Hence, there is a strong need for the adoption of frontier technologies in recycling. Consequently, the problems of WEEE could be linked to the sustainable development goals (SDGs) in areas of building strong businesses, promoting inclusive and sustainable industrialization and fostering innovation (goal-9); justifiable economic growth, complete and productive employment with decent working environment for everyone (goal-8); as well as maintaining sustainable resources usage and production patterns (goal-12) [21]. Therefore, sustainable management of e-waste in Nigeria and its possible recycling is of high relevance to the SDGs—the

planet goals—especially to the prosperity goals, and particularly to goal-12.

2.4 Theories and concepts for the socioeconomic evaluation of e-waste

avoid resources losses by turning waste to resources and conserving natural resources. Hence, the theory suggests that "we shall prevent waste from being

Hence, a conceptual framework (Figure 1) was developed to address the socioeconomic factors for the sustainable management of WEEE in the Recycling Sector. The fundamental aspects in this e-waste framework include the "Political, Institutional, Social, Financial, Economical and Technical". There are four contextual concerns raised in WEEE management which are namely: "Environmental, Socio-

Individuals' behavior and approach to managing their generated wastes differs

owing to their social and cultural traits. For example, people living in a fast

produced by producing useful products (non-wastes) primarily" [11].

cultural, Political and Economic" [10, 16, 24].

The old perception of waste disposal—"dilute and disperse" is no longer tenable, rather a novel model of "concentrate and contain" has paved way to an idea referred to as the "Integrated Waste Management Scheme" [16, 22]. Generated waste is now deliberated as wealth out of place. Numerous waste items can now be collected, refurbished, and reused in the industries, agricultural, construction and building sectors etc. thereby safeguarding natural resources and energy in production of new items. Such measures also minimize environmental effects and relative health issues that could arise from the continuous exploitation of natural resources [10, 23]. This study is driven by the Pongrácz "theory of Waste Management" which is grounded on an agreed expectation that waste management can prevent waste to safeguard man and his environment. It assumes that the practice of waste management would

2.3 The nexus of e-waste and the SDGs

management

62

Conceptual framework for WEEE management strategies (Adapted from Okorhi [9], assessment of WEEE management strategies in South Eastern Nigeria).

developing low-income community have been found to constitute a majority of diverse indigenous group with social difference gap. With such gap of the populace, organizing a thorough e-waste management at such places would be challenging. Secondly, the concern of lobbyists, interest groups and political parties would definitely affect to a large extent the kind of management strategies that is finally put in place for managing e-waste in a community [24]. Therefore, there is a need to incorporate in every stage of the policy making process individuals' views and participation. Lastly, the purpose of e-waste management, its technical and organizational scheme would depend in general on both the economic context of the inhabitants and the economy of the town. For example, in some fast developing towns like Enugu, Onitsha and Aba in Southeastern Nigeria, there are renowned specialized markets boosting informal trade in Fast Moving Consumer Goods with high trade volumes [25], and its highly characterized waste management problems [26]. Consequently, the level of economic development is a vital factor in the amount and composition of e-waste generated in that place [27]. Therefore, to accomplish the objective of this paper, the authors focused on assessing the strategic aspects revolving the political structure, social context, individual economy and technical inputs.

### 2.5 Market potential of innovative e-waste recycling at firm level

The industrialization of Africa could be achieved through sustainable innovation and awareness creation of its innovation potentials. According to a report published by Schluep et al. in 2009 [28], sustainable innovation refers to the shift of sustainable technologies, products and services to the marketplace, requiring a market creation concept and a shared global agenda. Whereas, environmental management and sustainability focuses on finding solutions to global pressing environmental

problems. It is said that the best available environmentally sound management (ESM) systems are programs and techniques that produces sustainable environment through its protection, paving way for safer health and working conditions, generating employment as well as other socioeconomic benefits [10]. In pursuit of these, there arises the deployment of frontier strategies (including the 5Rs) in ewaste management. However, the activities of metal recyclers in Nigeria are secondarily connected with the e-waste recycling sector, because the business outputs are a measure of functional items and valuable components rather than just raw materials [7]. Though, the 2011 Basel Report found the sector producing significant amount of e-waste. This is because the e-waste recycling sector in Nigeria is dominated by firms (or individuals) with "informal" arrangements which collect WEEE at random, manually dismantling (or sorting), preprocessing, selling valuable components and, disposal of the leftovers [10]. On the other hand, prized metals present in printed wiring boards (PWBs) are hardly collected for export to recycling facilities, and when that happens, the selling price is often below world market prices and discouraging to WEEE traders [7]. Also, some devices extracted from WEEE are used as spare parts in the repairs of faulty EEE.

Obviously, the ease to getting vital production materials used in the manufacture of new EEE is progressively attracting concern as global reserves of raw materials is fast declining and becoming more expensive [1]. The overall aim for "formal" e-waste recycling is to avert hazardous materials from WEEE in an ESM manner; recover prized items as much as possible; build an eco-friendly and sustainable SMEs and; consider the socio-economic implications [24]. Consequently, the recycling of e-waste is a key strategy for reducing "stockpiled" waste streams, minimizing the consumption of natural resources as well as improving energy usage. In this light, the paper briefly discuss the sustainability benchmarks for evaluating and adopting technologies for e-waste recycling; some innovative WEEE recycling technologies that could be adopted by recycling firms; as well as the market potential for e-waste recycling in many developing nations.

For a better consideration of the procedure for selecting innovative e-waste recycling technologies in developing countries, Schluep et al. [28] suggested, among others, the importance of sustainability benchmarks. Table 1 shows the sustainability benchmarks for evaluating and adopting technologies for WEEE recycling in developing nations, including Nigeria. The benchmarks to compare the innovation of technologies were then grouped with elements of sustainability. Whereas, Table 2 shows some innovative e-waste recycling technologies that could be adopted by e-waste recycling firms in Nigeria.

To sum up, the market potential for e-waste recycling are enormous as the annual growth rate of WEEE in Nigeria is put at 10% in the volume of waste generated [13]. It has been identified that a mid-term medium potential for integrated e-waste smelting already exist in some countries of Asia, Africa, South and North America [24]. Hence, from job creation, entrepreneurship and sustainability viewpoints, the "informal" practices of collection and manually dismantling of ewaste may not really require a transformation to a "formal" arrangement using high-tech equipment for the processing of WEEE [29]. The innovative technologies been continuously adapted by the larger informal sector in Nigeria is gaining ground [7]. Opportunities in recycling of e-waste arise in the improvement of the processing of cable-coated from poly-vinyl-chloride and insulators, and polybrominated biphenyls coated plastics. Also is the collection of large quantities of PWBs for export and fair pricing. By using the voluntary carbon standard (VCS) or carbon action reserve (CAR) schemes, there is now the potential of recovering chlorofluorocarbon from cooling units and insulation foam which in turn brings both environmental and economic gains [7]. It was also suggested that the improved

utilization of polystyrene from e-waste recycling would guarantee a higher mone-

Innovative e-waste recycling technologies for recycling firms (Adapted from Schluep et al. [28]).

Sustainability benchmarks for evaluating and adopting technologies for e-waste recycling in developing

Wastes from Industrialized Nations: A Socio-economic Inquiry on E-waste Management…

The methodical conception for this article is based on both reviews from available literature on sustainability, innovations and management strategies for

tary value from the pricing of carbon (IV) oxide.

3. Materials and methods

Table 1.

Table 2.

65

countries (Adapted from Schluep et al. [28]).

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88075
