**5. Conclusion**

There is a growing body of clear and compelling evidence for the early life origins of male reproductive health (**Figure 3**). Considering the central role the

**Figure 3.**

*Early determinants of male reproductive health. Reprinted with permission from Oxford university press. © Parent et al. [25].*

reproductive hormones have in male sex differentiation, it is more than reasonable to suspect the involvement of factors that affect the production and the action of androgens during crucial windows of foetal development. However, although this developmental programming begins *in utero*, there is further convincing evidence for the effect of additional postnatal influences in early and later life. The specific mechanisms through which these associations exert their effect are as yet poorly understood. Disorders of male reproduction are clearly on the rise worldwide, and this escalation is predicted to only increase exponentially given the current obesity epidemic and the increasing impact of humans on the environment. Therefore, given the significant disease burden expected to result from declining male reproductive health, attention to further research and public health policy in this area is of the utmost importance. In addition, given the evidence for a significant number of maternal exposures and behaviours, public health measures and education focusing on maternal health are of obvious importance.
