**Abstract**

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites synthesized by a variety of fungal species such as *Aspergillus*, *Penicillium*, *Fusarium*, and *Alternaria*. These secondary metabolites are toxic and have a significant impact if they enter the production and food chain. Mycotoxins have attracted worldwide attention because of their impact on human health, huge economic losses, and domestic and foreign trade. Although more than 400 mycotoxins have been identified, most studies have focused on aflatoxins (AF), ochratoxin A (OTA), *Fusarium* toxins, fumonisin (FUM), zearalenone (ZEA), trichothecenes (TCT), and deoxynivalenol/nivalenol due to food safety and economic losses. This chapter will be addressing the type of mycotoxins, its importance in food industry, preventive measures, and implementation of hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP) to control mycotoxin.

**Keywords:** mycotoxin, aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, *Fusarium* toxins, fumonisin, zearalenone, trichothecenes, deoxynivalenol/nivalenol, food industry, HACCP

## **1. Introduction**

Mycotoxins are secondary toxic metabolites with a wide variety of chemical structures synthesized by fungi (mold) [1]. Mycotoxins are thought to be a kind of "chemical defense system" to protect mold from insects, microorganisms, nematodes, grazing animals, and humans [2]. Molds reproduce by means of spores, and their small molecular weight spores are easily disseminated to environment by wind. They cannot be affected by the adverse environmental conditions and can be present in the latent state for long periods. Moreover, when the environmental conditions are appropriate, spores return to vegetative form and can form into new mold colonies. Agricultural products can be contaminated with mold in pre-harvest via insect and bird damage and harsh weather condition damage such as hail damage. In addition, selected harvesting method is one of the most important reasons in contamination of the mold to the products. Improper storage, transport, and marketing can also cause the mold growth and synthesis of mycotoxins [3].

Mycotoxin can occur in food and agricultural products via many contamination pathways, at any stage of production, processing, transport, and storage (**Figure 1**) [4]. Factors that affect mold growth and mycotoxin production are temperature, relative humidity, fungicides and/or fertilizers, interaction between the colonizing toxigenic fungal species, type of subtract and nutritional factors, geographical location, genetic requirements, and insect infestation [5, 6].

Approximately 400 fungal secondary metabolites are known to be toxic, and one quarter of agricultural products have been reported to be contaminated with



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in **Table 1** [19].

*Mycotoxins: The Hidden Danger in Foods DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89001*

different degrees of toxicity according to exposure time, mycotoxin amount, physi-

In addition to risk of public health, mycotoxins generate high level of economical loses for food industry due to reduced crop yields, lost trade revenues (local and international), and livestock illnesses [13, 14]. Elimination of mycotoxin is quite though due to resistant to physical, chemical, and biological methods; however, some of the measures described in the following sections may help to prevent mycotoxin. The methods used for mycotoxin determination are chromatography such as high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), thin-layer chromatography (TLC), gas chromatographymass spectrometry (GC-MS), and also enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) technique and biosensor-based screening methods [15]. Detection is complicated due to limitations in analytical methodology [16]. Therefore, prevention of mold contamina-

According to the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), 77 countries have established guidance and regulations on mycotoxin in food and feed to control the level of mycotoxin. On the other hand, 13 countries including African countries still

Ergotism is one of the oldest determined mycotoxicoses (disease) in human and results from consumption of the ergot body in rye or other grains infected by a parasitic fungus of the genus *Claviceps*. The history of this disease is based on the outbreak of Spartans in 430 BC [17]. The world has been met with mycotoxin term after an extraordinary death of nearly 100,000 turkeys in near London, England, in 1960 due to a peanut (groundnut) meal imported from Brazil, contaminated with secondary metabolites from *Aspergillus flavus* (aflatoxins) [18]. Scientists focused on the occurrence and toxicology of mold metabolite that could cause serious health and economic losses after this case. Aflatoxin (AF) is the term derived from the name of one of the molds that produces it, *Aspergillus flavus*. Mycotoxins have been affecting people since 1960, which is the time of the finding of mycotoxin, and this

Mycotoxins can occur in the food in several ways (**Figure 1**), but technically divided into two groups; first is mold growth as a pathogen plant in field, another one is grow on stored. After plant materials are contaminated with mold spores from soil and air, they easily contaminate other food source, production area, laboratory, and even kitchen of our homes. Certain species of mold are capable of mycotoxin synthesis; therefore, each food contaminated with mold always may not contain mycotoxins. Nevertheless, moldy products are considered to be risky

Mycotoxins appear in almost all kinds of animal feed and products such as wheat bran, noug cake, pea hulls, maize grain, milk and meat, and also human food such as cereal, fruit and vegetables, spice, etc. [5]. Consuming these foods creates serious health risks in human and all animal species. Mycotoxin intake by feed or food causes chronic intoxication rather than acute symptoms. Acute toxicity is observed in high-dose mycotoxin exposure, and symptoms show a rapid effect such as borborygmy, abdominal pain, diarrhea, etc. On the other hand, low-level mycotoxin exposure in long period causes serious impairments in the liver, kidney, and immune system organs and tissues. Therefore, mycotoxin plays a significant role in cancer in these organs [2]. Some important mycotoxin health effects are shown in **Figure 2**. Toxic effects on humans and animals of important mycotoxins are shown

ological state, and sensitivity of the organism in humans and animals.

tion and mycotoxin synthesis is essential for food safety in food industry.

do not have specific regulation for food safety [4].

**2. Importance of mycotoxin in food industry**

problem still persists worldwide.

products in terms of mycotoxin.

**Figure 1.** *Factors affecting mycotoxin occurrence in the food and feed chain [7, 8].*

mycotoxins in the world [5–9]. While a type of mold may form more than one mycotoxin, a mycotoxin can be synthesized by many molds. The most common types of mold which are known to produce mycotoxins are *Aspergillus*, *Penicillium*, *Fusarium*, and *Alternaria* [10].

According to the result of many studies in poultry and mammals, mycotoxins can be carcinogenic, mutagenic, teratogenic, hepatotoxic, nephrotoxic, immunosuppressive, and embryotoxic [11]. The phenomenon of toxicity is called mycotoxicosis occurring after consumption of mycotoxin-contaminated product by human and animal [12].

Especially cereals, grains, nuts, oilseeds, fruits, dried fruits, vegetables, cocoa and coffee beans, wine, beer, herbs, and spices are major mycotoxin vectors since they are consumed by a large mass of people and animals [4]. Mycotoxins cause

#### *Mycotoxins: The Hidden Danger in Foods DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89001*

*Mycotoxins and Food Safety*

**44**

**Figure 1.**

*Fusarium*, and *Alternaria* [10].

mycotoxins in the world [5–9]. While a type of mold may form more than one mycotoxin, a mycotoxin can be synthesized by many molds. The most common types of mold which are known to produce mycotoxins are *Aspergillus*, *Penicillium*,

*Factors affecting mycotoxin occurrence in the food and feed chain [7, 8].*

According to the result of many studies in poultry and mammals, mycotoxins can be carcinogenic, mutagenic, teratogenic, hepatotoxic, nephrotoxic, immunosuppressive, and embryotoxic [11]. The phenomenon of toxicity is called mycotoxicosis occurring after consumption of mycotoxin-contaminated product by human and animal [12]. Especially cereals, grains, nuts, oilseeds, fruits, dried fruits, vegetables, cocoa and coffee beans, wine, beer, herbs, and spices are major mycotoxin vectors since they are consumed by a large mass of people and animals [4]. Mycotoxins cause

different degrees of toxicity according to exposure time, mycotoxin amount, physiological state, and sensitivity of the organism in humans and animals.

In addition to risk of public health, mycotoxins generate high level of economical loses for food industry due to reduced crop yields, lost trade revenues (local and international), and livestock illnesses [13, 14]. Elimination of mycotoxin is quite though due to resistant to physical, chemical, and biological methods; however, some of the measures described in the following sections may help to prevent mycotoxin. The methods used for mycotoxin determination are chromatography such as high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), thin-layer chromatography (TLC), gas chromatographymass spectrometry (GC-MS), and also enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) technique and biosensor-based screening methods [15]. Detection is complicated due to limitations in analytical methodology [16]. Therefore, prevention of mold contamination and mycotoxin synthesis is essential for food safety in food industry.

According to the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), 77 countries have established guidance and regulations on mycotoxin in food and feed to control the level of mycotoxin. On the other hand, 13 countries including African countries still do not have specific regulation for food safety [4].

## **2. Importance of mycotoxin in food industry**

Ergotism is one of the oldest determined mycotoxicoses (disease) in human and results from consumption of the ergot body in rye or other grains infected by a parasitic fungus of the genus *Claviceps*. The history of this disease is based on the outbreak of Spartans in 430 BC [17]. The world has been met with mycotoxin term after an extraordinary death of nearly 100,000 turkeys in near London, England, in 1960 due to a peanut (groundnut) meal imported from Brazil, contaminated with secondary metabolites from *Aspergillus flavus* (aflatoxins) [18]. Scientists focused on the occurrence and toxicology of mold metabolite that could cause serious health and economic losses after this case. Aflatoxin (AF) is the term derived from the name of one of the molds that produces it, *Aspergillus flavus*. Mycotoxins have been affecting people since 1960, which is the time of the finding of mycotoxin, and this problem still persists worldwide.

Mycotoxins can occur in the food in several ways (**Figure 1**), but technically divided into two groups; first is mold growth as a pathogen plant in field, another one is grow on stored. After plant materials are contaminated with mold spores from soil and air, they easily contaminate other food source, production area, laboratory, and even kitchen of our homes. Certain species of mold are capable of mycotoxin synthesis; therefore, each food contaminated with mold always may not contain mycotoxins. Nevertheless, moldy products are considered to be risky products in terms of mycotoxin.

Mycotoxins appear in almost all kinds of animal feed and products such as wheat bran, noug cake, pea hulls, maize grain, milk and meat, and also human food such as cereal, fruit and vegetables, spice, etc. [5]. Consuming these foods creates serious health risks in human and all animal species. Mycotoxin intake by feed or food causes chronic intoxication rather than acute symptoms. Acute toxicity is observed in high-dose mycotoxin exposure, and symptoms show a rapid effect such as borborygmy, abdominal pain, diarrhea, etc. On the other hand, low-level mycotoxin exposure in long period causes serious impairments in the liver, kidney, and immune system organs and tissues. Therefore, mycotoxin plays a significant role in cancer in these organs [2]. Some important mycotoxin health effects are shown in **Figure 2**. Toxic effects on humans and animals of important mycotoxins are shown in **Table 1** [19].

**Figure 2.**

*Aflatoxin (AFL), ochratoxin A (OTA), patulin (PAT), fumonisin (FUM), trichothecenes (TCT), and zearalenone (ZEA) mycotoxin health effects [20].*

Mycotoxins have caused many serious outbreaks worldwide. There was an outbreak that occurred in 1967, and 26 people were poisoned because of the consumption of moldy rice for up to 3 weeks in Taiwan [21]. An outbreak of aflatoxicosis affecting humans, reported in India, led to the death of 100 people in 1974 [22]. Another outbreak was reported in India in 1995, affecting 1424 people due to sorghum and maize contaminated with fumonisin [23]. During January–June 2004, an aflatoxicosis outbreak in eastern Kenya resulted in 317 cases and 125 deaths [24].

Mycotoxin contamination in foods and fodder has been becoming a global concern day by day. According to Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) reports, it is estimated that mycotoxin affects nearly 25% of the world's crop each year and is causing huge agricultural product and industrial losses in billions of dollars [25]. For example, estimated annual loss in the United States is approximately \$ 0.5–1.5 billion [19]. The main effects of mycotoxins on national economies can be thought in five ways:


Economic impacts are felt by agricultural chain such as manufacturer of plant and animal, especially cereal industry, consumers, and briefly all farm-to-fork steps.

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**3.1 Aflatoxins (AF)**

*Mycotoxins: The Hidden Danger in Foods DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89001*

Aflatoxin *Aspergillus flavus*

Patulin *Aspergillus terreus*

Zearalenone *Fusarium*

Fumonisin *Fusarium* 

Ochratoxin OTA

Trichothecenes (T2, DON, DAS,

HT2)

**Table 1.**

*animals [19].*

*A. parasiticus A. nomius Penicillium*

*verticillioides F. culmorum*

*Aspergillus Penicillium A. ochraceus P. nordicum P. verrucosum*

*A. clavatus Penicillium Penicillium carneum P. clavigerum P. griseofulvum*

*Fusarium Cephalosporium Trichoderma Fusarium oxysporum*

*F. graminearum F. culmorum*

**3. Worldwide important mycotoxin in food industry**

Aflatoxins are a group of toxic secondary metabolites of filamentous fungi, *Aspergillus flavus*, *A. nomius*, and *A. parasiticus*, and the most important mycotoxins in the world for human food and animal feed [26]. On the other hand, recent studies have showed that *A. nomius*, *A. sergii*, *A. bombycis*, *A. minisclerotigenes*, *A. parvisclerotigenus*, *A. pseudocaelatus*, *A. pseudotamari*, and *A. ochraceoroseus* also have aflatoxigenic properties, but the occurrence of these species in nature is low [27]. The natural fungal multiplication subsequent to quantity of AF production is affected by various factors including environmental conditions (e.g., high temperature, moisture, and relative humidity), the presence of carbon dioxide and oxygen, mechanical damages, plant genre, insect infestation and amount of spores, and implementation of pesticides and fungicides [28, 29]. Among these, especially temperature and relative humidity are the most important effects of the formation and amount of AF as *A. flavus* has shown optimal growth at temperature from 29 to 35°C, maximum

*Name of some important mycotoxin-producing fungi, susceptible foods, and mycotoxin effects on humans and* 

**Mycotoxins Genus/species Major food Toxic effects and diseases**

Cereals, feeds, oilseeds and pulp, coconut

Cereals, herbs, oil seeds, figs, beef jerky, fruits, and

Silage, wheat, feeds, apples, grapes, peaches, pears, apricots, olives, cereals

Cereals, feeds, silage, legumes, fruits, and vegetables

Cereals, corn, silage, timothy grass, fodder

wine

Carcinogenic, hepatotoxicity, teratogenicity, decreasing immune systems, affecting the structure of DNA, hepatitis, bleeding, kidney

edema, carcinogenic,

neurotoxicity, liver damage, heart failure, esophageal cancer in

Kidney and liver damage, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, suppression of immune system,

Neural syndromes, brain hemorrhage, skin lesions, skin cancer, lung, mutagenicity, antibacterial effect

Immune suppression,

skin necrosis, hemorrhage, anemia, granulocytopenia, oral epithelial lesions, GIS lesions, hematopoietic, alimentary toxic aleukia (ATA), hypotension,

Carcinogenic, hormonal imbalance estrogenic effect, reproductive problems, teratogenic

cytotoxic,

coagulopathy

lesions

Cereals, corn Encephalomalacia, pulmonary

humans

carcinogenic

*Mycotoxins: The Hidden Danger in Foods DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89001*

*Mycotoxins and Food Safety*

cases and 125 deaths [24].

*zearalenone (ZEA) mycotoxin health effects [20].*

**Figure 2.**

4.Cost of analysis of mycotoxin

Mycotoxins have caused many serious outbreaks worldwide. There was an outbreak that occurred in 1967, and 26 people were poisoned because of the consumption of moldy rice for up to 3 weeks in Taiwan [21]. An outbreak of aflatoxicosis affecting humans, reported in India, led to the death of 100 people in 1974 [22]. Another outbreak was reported in India in 1995, affecting 1424 people due to sorghum and maize contaminated with fumonisin [23]. During January–June 2004, an aflatoxicosis outbreak in eastern Kenya resulted in 317

*Aflatoxin (AFL), ochratoxin A (OTA), patulin (PAT), fumonisin (FUM), trichothecenes (TCT), and* 

Mycotoxin contamination in foods and fodder has been becoming a global concern day by day. According to Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) reports, it is estimated that mycotoxin affects nearly 25% of the world's crop each year and is causing huge agricultural product and industrial losses in billions of dollars [25]. For example, estimated annual loss in the United States is approximately \$ 0.5–1.5 billion [19]. The main effects of mycotoxins on national economies can be thought in five ways:

2.Decrease in commercial value because of contaminated food and feed

3.Human and animal health losses due to harmful impacts associated with

Economic impacts are felt by agricultural chain such as manufacturer of plant and animal, especially cereal industry, consumers, and briefly all farm-to-fork

1.Product yield losses due to toxigenic mold diseases

5.Strategies to control mycotoxin contamination

mycotoxin-contaminated food and fodder consumption

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steps.


#### **Table 1.**

*Name of some important mycotoxin-producing fungi, susceptible foods, and mycotoxin effects on humans and animals [19].*
