**6. Conclusion**

The development of the tools of molecular biology allowed us to see clearer in the history of parasite that infects the man, especially *Plasmodium* species. Indeed, these tools allowed us to highlight large diversity of the malaria parasites that circulate to the nonhuman primates, so to understand better the origin of the most virulent parasite responsible for human malaria (*Plasmodium falciparum* and *Plasmodium vivax*). Therefore, on the basis of available data, it is more than likely that its parasites have an African origin and that African gorillas and chimpanzees would constitute potential reservoirs of its parasites. Thus, in this context, it is important to determine or develop appropriate preventive strategies. It is necessary to set up monitoring systems in forest areas and to make sensitization campaigns.

**11**

provided the original work is properly cited.

\*Address all correspondence to: boundenga@gmail.com

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

Centre International de Recherches Médicales de Franceville (CIRMF), Franceville,

*Origin of Two Most Virulent Agents of Human Malaria:* Plasmodium falciparum*…*

(variety). It can also include of different species or genetic lineages.

Plasmodium GorA (Prugnolle et al. 2010): *Plasmodium adleri.* Plasmodium gorB (Prugnolle et al. 2010): *Plasmodium blacklocki.*

belonging to this subgenus have a strong host specificity.

Diversity: the condition of having or being composed of differing elements

Gorilla sp.: designs all species belonging to *Gorilla* genus. This genus has three subspecies of *gorilla* (*Gorilla gorilla gorilla; Gorilla gorilla graueri* and *Gorilla gorilla* 

Laverania*:* is a subgenus of the *Plasmodium* genus of parasites. The parasites

Outgroup: outgroup is a more distantly related group of organisms that serves as a reference group when determining the evolutionary relationships of the ingroup, and it is used as a point of comparison for the ingroup and specifically allows for the

Phylogenetic tree: a phylogenetic tree is a diagram that represents evolutionary

Plasmodium (non-*Laverania*): non-Laverania subgenus includes many parasites

Pan sp.: *Pan* sp. designs all species belonging to *Pan* genus (the common name of

RNA subunit (rRNA): ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA) is the RNA component of the ribosome and is an essential element for protein synthesis in all living

such as *P. malariae*, *P. vivax*, *P. ovale*-*curtisi*, and *P. ovale-wallikeri* as well as the

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84481*

**Annex for reader**

phylogeny to be rooted.

relationships among organisms.

monkey parasites *P. inui* and *P. hylobati*.

member of this genus chimpanzees and bonobo).

*beringei*).

organisms.

**Author details**

Boundenga Larson

Gabon

*Origin of Two Most Virulent Agents of Human Malaria:* Plasmodium falciparum*… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84481*

### **Annex for reader**

*Malaria*

**5. Prevention**

**6. Conclusion**

those working in very close contact with NHPs [16]. On the other hand, several studies reported that *P. falciparum* is able to infect African apes, for example, Bonobos, chimpanzees [10, 26], and recently the mandrills [16]. The question is *why these transfers are rare or why the ancestral parent of P. falciparum (P. praefalciparum) appear incapable of infecting humans today*. Loy et al. suggest that gorilla parasite strain that was able to cross the host species barrier must have carried one or more highly unusual mutations that enable it to colonize humans [49]. But,

In contrast, many parasites of *Plasmodium* subgenus were reported to infect humans. The major case known is *P. knowlesi* that infects NHPs in south Asia and now is considered as the fifth *Plasmodium* species that infects human and cause malaria in southern Asian population [19]. Other cases of natural or accidental infections of humans with simians *Plasmodium* were reported in literature. Indeed, a total of seven species of monkey malaria have been reported via mosquitoes (*P. cynomolgi*, *P. brasilianum*, *P. eylesi*, *P. knowlesi*, *P. inui*, *P. schwetzi*, and *P. simium*) [11, 68, 69]. Recently, ape *P. vivax* has been found to cause clinical malaria in Caucasians who stayed during some days in African forest [21]. Thus, parasites of *Plasmodium* subgenus are apparently able to cross the species barrier to humans. So the emergence of these parasites should be monitored in areas where an influx of contact between humans and NHPs increases with anthropization, which destroys ape habitat and favors contact. In view of the rare faction of monkeys and the increase of the human population, it is feared that human infection of simians *Plasmodium* will become more frequent which could lead to humans becoming simians' major host [70].

The potential for zoonosis is influenced by human habitation and behavior as well as the adaptive capabilities of parasites and vectors. Indeed, the existence of potential sylvatic reservoirs of *P. vivax* and *P. falciparum* in Africa could compromise malaria control and eradication efforts. Actually, there is lack of knowledge about the real extent of malaria zoonosis. Thus, this aspect of zoonosis malaria parasites must be taken into account by the public health authorities responsible for the fight against malaria. African structures health need to put appropriate strategies of prevention against zoonotic malaria parasites that could be developed. However, they must be based on good data of research on diagnosis and treatment of zoonotic malaria. Moreover, all people living in the locality or monkeys are known to grass a large variety of malaria parasite, which must take their precaution when they venture into forest environment, in order to avoid mosquito bites.

The development of the tools of molecular biology allowed us to see clearer in the history of parasite that infects the man, especially *Plasmodium* species. Indeed, these tools allowed us to highlight large diversity of the malaria parasites that circulate to the nonhuman primates, so to understand better the origin of the most virulent parasite responsible for human malaria (*Plasmodium falciparum* and *Plasmodium vivax*). Therefore, on the basis of available data, it is more than likely that its parasites have an African origin and that African gorillas and chimpanzees would constitute potential reservoirs of its parasites. Thus, in this context, it is important to determine or develop appropriate preventive strategies. It is necessary to set up monitoring systems in forest areas and to make sensitization campaigns.

supplementary studies would be necessary to support this hypothesis.

**10**

Diversity: the condition of having or being composed of differing elements (variety). It can also include of different species or genetic lineages.

Gorilla sp.: designs all species belonging to *Gorilla* genus. This genus has three subspecies of *gorilla* (*Gorilla gorilla gorilla; Gorilla gorilla graueri* and *Gorilla gorilla beringei*).

Laverania*:* is a subgenus of the *Plasmodium* genus of parasites. The parasites belonging to this subgenus have a strong host specificity.

Outgroup: outgroup is a more distantly related group of organisms that serves as a reference group when determining the evolutionary relationships of the ingroup, and it is used as a point of comparison for the ingroup and specifically allows for the phylogeny to be rooted.

Phylogenetic tree: a phylogenetic tree is a diagram that represents evolutionary relationships among organisms.

Plasmodium GorA (Prugnolle et al. 2010): *Plasmodium adleri.*

Plasmodium gorB (Prugnolle et al. 2010): *Plasmodium blacklocki.*

Plasmodium (non-*Laverania*): non-Laverania subgenus includes many parasites such as *P. malariae*, *P. vivax*, *P. ovale*-*curtisi*, and *P. ovale-wallikeri* as well as the monkey parasites *P. inui* and *P. hylobati*.

Pan sp.: *Pan* sp. designs all species belonging to *Pan* genus (the common name of member of this genus chimpanzees and bonobo).

RNA subunit (rRNA): ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA) is the RNA component of the ribosome and is an essential element for protein synthesis in all living organisms.
