**Abstract**

Despite the increasing prevalence for its diagnosis in children, there are no clinical biomarkers of autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Herein a research journey is described that began by seeking evidence for the opioid excess theory of autism using mass spectrometry methods to screen human urine specimens and has evolved into the discovery of promising murine fecal biomarkers for ASD. Our results are consistent with an emerging body of evidence that shows that intestinal microflora from ASD subjects can be distinguished from controls, suggesting that metabolite differences due to the action of intestinal microbes may provide a means to identify ASD biomarkers.

**Keywords:** autism, biomarkers, stercobilin, mass spectrometry, metabolomics, microbiome

### **1. Introduction**

Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) represent a group of neurobehavioral disorders first reported by Dr. Leo Kanner [1] which are characterized by impairments in social interactions, deficits in communications skills, repetitive behaviors, and other stereotypical behavioral patterns [2]. High rates of diagnosis in the United States (up to 1 in 59 children) [3] exemplify the seriousness of ASD as a medical concern. There is great interest in identifying potential ASD biomarkers, as the evidence indicates that early diagnosis and intervention leads to improved long-term outcomes for individuals with ASD [4, 5]. While considerable effort has been dedicated toward discovering potential genetic factors associated with ASD, it is becoming increasingly clear that genetic factors alone are insufficient to explain overall ASD etiology [6]. Combined, these factors have inhibited the development of a grand unified theory (GUT) for autism [7] (note: the irony that gut microbiota may be an important factor contributing to a GUT of ASD is not lost upon the authors).

While a GUT for ASD may be unrealistic because of heterogeneity in causation and severity, increasing attention has been devoted toward identifying potential metabolic molecular markers of ASD. One approach has been to consider conditions that are comorbid with ASD, in particular, gastrointestinal distress, which is a condition observed in a high percentage of persons with ASD [8–10]. Interestingly, the homeostasis of the central nervous system (CNS) is regulated by the gut microbiome [11, 12], and furthermore the microbiome is known to have effects in neuropsychiatric disorders [13, 14]. Therefore, the effects of the microbiome on the gut-brain axis are a potentially promising source for metabolic biomarker discovery for ASD.

In this chapter, we will cover our combined efforts to discover potential ASD biomarkers. While we initially explored the possibility that peptides consistent with the opioid excess theory of ASD [15] may possess diagnostic value, our search took a new direction during the course of research. Our results are discussed within the context of our results alongside other research that shows distinctions in the microbiota of subjects with ASD *vs.* controls.

#### **2. The opioid excess theory of autism**

Anecdotally, two of the authors of this chapter had observed substantial behavioral improvements in family members who had been diagnosed with childhood autism or were exhibiting symptoms of ASD when their diets were altered to avoid milk (casein) and/or wheat (gluten), known now as the gluten-free casein-free (GFCF) diet [16–18]. Therefore, our journey delving into the etiology of ASD initially involved an exploration into the idea of increased intestinal permeability [19], also referred to as the "leaky gut syndrome." This syndrome describes the passage of potentially bioactive peptides, created from the incomplete breakdown of the proteins through the intestinal membrane, into the blood stream and ultimately into the brain through the blood-brain barrier (BBB) [20–23]. The combined work of Panksepp [15], Shattock [17, 18, 24, 25], Waring [26], Gardner [27], and Reichelt [28] caused us to pursue this area of research. Now termed the opioid excess theory, this invaluable research from the 1990s and early 2000s explains how some of the incompletely metabolized protein pieces are described and compared to endogenous opioids, β-endorphins. An outstanding account of the opioid excess theory has been described and is highly recommended [29].

#### **3. Transition from the opioid excess theory to potential biomarkers**

Our research into ASD biomarkers began by testing the biological effects of administration of gluten exorphins (GEs) to rodents and by developing methodology to detect opioid peptides in biological fluids. Our work was inspired along two avenues. The first inspiration was derived from the results of Fukudome et al. who showed that in animal models, GE-B5 stimulated glucose-induced insulin release after intragastric administration [30]. The second inspiration was derived from the intriguing results of the Reichelt group [28], who had demonstrated that dietary intervention to eliminate casein and gluten from the diet in individuals with ASD led to improvements in the use of social, cognitive, and communicative skills over a period of 4 years.

The Sassari, Italy, experiments were performed to test whether GEs could elicit biological activity in rats. Intracerebroventricular (ICV)-injection of gluten exorphin B5 into rats stimulated the release of prolactin through activation of opioid receptors [31, 32]. Subsequently, efforts to determine the site of action of GE-B5 on prolactin secretion were conducted by pretreating male rats with naloxone methobromide (NMB), an opioid antagonist that does not cross the BBB [33]; NMB preadministration completely abolished the prolactin response. These results indicated that GE-B5 stimulates prolactin secretion through opioid

**53**

**Figure 1.**

*consumption of wheat gluten flour pizza, from [37].*

*Stercobilin: A Putative Link between Autism and Gastrointestinal Distress?*

receptors located outside the BBB. Since opioid peptides do not exert their effect on prolactin secretion directly, but via a reduced dopaminergic response, these data suggested that GE-B5 modifies brain neurotransmitter release without crossing the BBB. These results clearly demonstrated that GE-B5 could elicit opioid activity in rats. Interestingly, GE-B4, whose structure (Tyr-Gly-Gly-Trp) is identical to that of the NH2-terminal sequence of GE-B5, did not elicit such activity, thus suggesting that the presence of the carboxyl-terminal leucine in GE-B5 is essential for its

In a series of papers published between our groups at Sassari and Buffalo, we developed approaches to detect GEs in biological fluids using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) methods. First, we used LC-MS to detect GE-A5 in sheep cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) [35]. Next, using a slightly different protocol, we developed LC-MS for the detection of GE-B5 in CSF and recognized that stability was a significant issue; in the absence of protease inhibitors, GE-B5 degraded more than 50% within 600 min after collection [36]. Thus, when methods were developed for the detection of GEs in human blood plasma, aprotinin, a protease inhibitor, was added to plasma samples from patients with celiac disease (CD), a genetic autoimmune disease which induces inflammation to patients' small intestine by their ingestion of gluten. CD patients consumed a pizza made from wheat gluten, and their blood was collected at intervals over a 120 min period. Using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), GE-B4 and GE-B5 were detected in three of four patients with CD, the first time GEs were detected in human blood [37]. An LC-MS/MS spectrum of GE-B5 in blood plasma collected from a CD patient 90 min after consumption of pizza containing wheat gluten flour is shown in **Figure 1**. However, GE-B4 and GE-B5 were detected in the blood plasma of two of the four patients before consuming the pizza, indicating

Although we had established that GEs were detectable in human blood, their rapid degradation in the absence of protease inhibitors led us to become skeptical that GEs would contribute to the opioid excess theory of ASD in a substantive way, especially after the report that indicated no significant differences in the high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) urinary profiles of the children with ASD and controls and no detection of GEs in the urine specimens by matrixassisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) mass spectrometry [38]. Urine had shown some promise as a specimen that might harbor biomarkers of diagnostic value for ASD [20, 39]. In our own research, serendipity had a hand yet to play, and it led to a new viewpoint. GE-B5, one of the target exorphins, produces a [M+H]<sup>+</sup> ion at *m/z* 595, with the distinct fragmentation pattern as shown in **Figure 1**. We had

*LC-MS/MS of GE-B5 detected in a sample of human blood plasma taken from a CD patient 90 min after* 

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84791*

action on prolactin secretion [34].

another potential dietary source for the GEs.

#### *Stercobilin: A Putative Link between Autism and Gastrointestinal Distress? DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84791*

*Autism Spectrum Disorders - Advances at the End of the Second Decade of the 21st Century*

condition observed in a high percentage of persons with ASD [8–10]. Interestingly, the homeostasis of the central nervous system (CNS) is regulated by the gut microbiome [11, 12], and furthermore the microbiome is known to have effects in neuropsychiatric disorders [13, 14]. Therefore, the effects of the microbiome on the gut-brain axis are a potentially promising source for metabolic biomarker discovery

In this chapter, we will cover our combined efforts to discover potential ASD biomarkers. While we initially explored the possibility that peptides consistent with the opioid excess theory of ASD [15] may possess diagnostic value, our search took a new direction during the course of research. Our results are discussed within the context of our results alongside other research that shows distinctions in the

Anecdotally, two of the authors of this chapter had observed substantial behavioral improvements in family members who had been diagnosed with childhood autism or were exhibiting symptoms of ASD when their diets were altered to avoid milk (casein) and/or wheat (gluten), known now as the gluten-free casein-free (GFCF) diet [16–18]. Therefore, our journey delving into the etiology of ASD initially involved an exploration into the idea of increased intestinal permeability [19], also referred to as the "leaky gut syndrome." This syndrome describes the passage of potentially bioactive peptides, created from the incomplete breakdown of the proteins through the intestinal membrane, into the blood stream and ultimately into the brain through the blood-brain barrier (BBB) [20–23]. The combined work of Panksepp [15], Shattock [17, 18, 24, 25], Waring [26], Gardner [27], and Reichelt [28] caused us to pursue this area of research. Now termed the opioid excess theory, this invaluable research from the 1990s and early 2000s explains how some of the incompletely metabolized protein pieces are described and compared to endogenous opioids, β-endorphins. An outstanding account of the opioid excess theory

**52**

for ASD.

microbiota of subjects with ASD *vs.* controls.

**2. The opioid excess theory of autism**

has been described and is highly recommended [29].

**3. Transition from the opioid excess theory to potential biomarkers**

istration of gluten exorphins (GEs) to rodents and by developing methodology to detect opioid peptides in biological fluids. Our work was inspired along two avenues. The first inspiration was derived from the results of Fukudome et al. who showed that in animal models, GE-B5 stimulated glucose-induced insulin release after intragastric administration [30]. The second inspiration was derived from the intriguing results of the Reichelt group [28], who had demonstrated that dietary intervention to eliminate casein and gluten from the diet in individuals with ASD led to improvements in the

use of social, cognitive, and communicative skills over a period of 4 years.

The Sassari, Italy, experiments were performed to test whether GEs could elicit biological activity in rats. Intracerebroventricular (ICV)-injection of gluten exorphin B5 into rats stimulated the release of prolactin through activation of opioid receptors [31, 32]. Subsequently, efforts to determine the site of action of GE-B5 on prolactin secretion were conducted by pretreating male rats with naloxone methobromide (NMB), an opioid antagonist that does not cross the BBB [33]; NMB preadministration completely abolished the prolactin response. These results indicated that GE-B5 stimulates prolactin secretion through opioid

Our research into ASD biomarkers began by testing the biological effects of admin-

receptors located outside the BBB. Since opioid peptides do not exert their effect on prolactin secretion directly, but via a reduced dopaminergic response, these data suggested that GE-B5 modifies brain neurotransmitter release without crossing the BBB. These results clearly demonstrated that GE-B5 could elicit opioid activity in rats. Interestingly, GE-B4, whose structure (Tyr-Gly-Gly-Trp) is identical to that of the NH2-terminal sequence of GE-B5, did not elicit such activity, thus suggesting that the presence of the carboxyl-terminal leucine in GE-B5 is essential for its action on prolactin secretion [34].

In a series of papers published between our groups at Sassari and Buffalo, we developed approaches to detect GEs in biological fluids using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) methods. First, we used LC-MS to detect GE-A5 in sheep cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) [35]. Next, using a slightly different protocol, we developed LC-MS for the detection of GE-B5 in CSF and recognized that stability was a significant issue; in the absence of protease inhibitors, GE-B5 degraded more than 50% within 600 min after collection [36]. Thus, when methods were developed for the detection of GEs in human blood plasma, aprotinin, a protease inhibitor, was added to plasma samples from patients with celiac disease (CD), a genetic autoimmune disease which induces inflammation to patients' small intestine by their ingestion of gluten. CD patients consumed a pizza made from wheat gluten, and their blood was collected at intervals over a 120 min period. Using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), GE-B4 and GE-B5 were detected in three of four patients with CD, the first time GEs were detected in human blood [37]. An LC-MS/MS spectrum of GE-B5 in blood plasma collected from a CD patient 90 min after consumption of pizza containing wheat gluten flour is shown in **Figure 1**. However, GE-B4 and GE-B5 were detected in the blood plasma of two of the four patients before consuming the pizza, indicating another potential dietary source for the GEs.

Although we had established that GEs were detectable in human blood, their rapid degradation in the absence of protease inhibitors led us to become skeptical that GEs would contribute to the opioid excess theory of ASD in a substantive way, especially after the report that indicated no significant differences in the high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) urinary profiles of the children with ASD and controls and no detection of GEs in the urine specimens by matrixassisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) mass spectrometry [38]. Urine had shown some promise as a specimen that might harbor biomarkers of diagnostic value for ASD [20, 39]. In our own research, serendipity had a hand yet to play, and it led to a new viewpoint. GE-B5, one of the target exorphins, produces a [M+H]<sup>+</sup> ion at *m/z* 595, with the distinct fragmentation pattern as shown in **Figure 1**. We had

**Figure 1.**

*LC-MS/MS of GE-B5 detected in a sample of human blood plasma taken from a CD patient 90 min after consumption of wheat gluten flour pizza, from [37].*

begun using LC-MS/MS to screen for GEs, and other potential opiate peptides, in urine. Using specimens from urines collected and reported in [38], we observed by LC-MS/MS a significant difference in the abundance of a species with *m/z* 595 in the urine specimens between ASD and controls.

As shown in **Figure 2**, the LC chromatograms of (A) control and (B) ASD urines show a remarkable difference in abundance for this species which elutes at ~12.9 min; typical depletion in ASD urines was 67% vs. the controls (in **Figure 2B** depletion is a factor of 68). The MS/MS of this species, codenamed "595A" at the time, is shown in **Figure 2C**. Clearly, the fragmentation pattern of 595A does not correspond to that of GE-B5 shown in **Figure 1** and is dominated by the formation of two product ions at *m/z* 470 and *m/z* 345, respectively. While we did not know the identity of 595A initially, intuition about fragmentation behavior of small molecules led us to suspect a particularly stable molecule, perhaps of the porphyrin family. The emergence of the Human Metabolome Database (HMDB) in 2007 [40] allowed us to search for possible metabolites, and we obtained one hit that satisfied the *m/z* of 595A and porphyrin metabolic pathways—l-stercobilin, C33H46N4O6, a metabolite found in mammalian waste products. Subsequently, we purchased stercobilin hydrochloride from Frontier Scientific and performed nanoelectrospray ionization (nanoESI) and MS/MS on stercobilin hydrochloride and obtained the same fragmentation pattern [41], and we have established this identity in a number of publications [42–45]. We had thus identified 595A as l-stercobilin as a potential biomarker of ASD in human urine. However, methods of performing reliable

#### **Figure 2.**

*Chromatogram of (A) control urine extract and (B) ASD urine extract. (C) MS/MS of the peak at 12.9 min in the ASD urine extract, with a precursor ion mass of m/z 595.*

**55**

**Figure 3.**

*Stercobilin: A Putative Link between Autism and Gastrointestinal Distress?*

could be used as an internal standard for mass spectrometry analysis.

**4. Strategies for producing tetrapyrrole standards**

quantification were needed in order to validate whether this was the case; unfortunately, isotopically labeled standards of stercobilin are not commercially available. Thus, we embarked on approaches to synthesize a suitable label for stercobilin that

In order to test whether stercobilin (or any other tetrapyrrole bilin) might be useful as a potential ASD biomarker, it would be necessary to have a reliable standard for quantitative purposes. Our first approach to develop a standard for the bilins was to perform methyl esterification [42]. To achieve methyl esterification of bilins, methanolic HCl was first prepared by the combination of 160 μL of acetyl chloride with 1 mL of anhydrous methanol dropwise *slowly*. Next, 10 μg of the bilin was dissolved in 500 μL of the methanolic HCl and reacted at room temperature for 2 h. This led to efficient (>90%), but incomplete, derivatization of stercobilin at its carboxyl groups to the dimethylester; MS/MS using collision-induced dissociation (CID) with argon gas confirmed that derivatization occurs at each carboxyl group, and although most of the bilins were converted to the dimethylester form, a small amount of the monomethyl ester was also produced. Furthermore, the dimethylesters were found to have high solubility in 50/50 methanol/water; this was found to be problematic for longterm stability, as the level of esterification would decrease over storage time at 4°C.

In another attempt to quantitate stercobilin, an isotopologue standard was created based off of the work by Bergmann et al. [46]. Isotopologues are often ideal internal standards for quantitation using mass spectrometry because the isotopologue is itself chemically similar to the analyte of interest but is shifted in mass due to the incorporation of another isotope. In the structure of stercobilin, the four oxygens within the carboxylic acid groups on the inner pyrroles are labile and able to be

reaction works under an acidic environment utilizing trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) as a proton donor to aid in the protonation of the carbonyl oxygen for the nucleophilic substitution reaction. Currently, we have scaled up our original procedure [47] by

18O in an LC autosampler vial with screw cap lid. The vial is placed in an incubator at 70°C for 8 h [43]. Following the reaction, the sample is dried down under air

mol of stercobilin mixed with 10 μL 5% (v/v) TFA and 95 μL of

18O (as can be seen in red in **Figure 3**). The

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84791*

**4.1 Methyl esterification of bilins**

**4.2 18O labeling of bilins**

using ca. 5 × 10<sup>−</sup><sup>6</sup>

H2

exchanged with the oxygen atoms of H2

and reconstituted in 100 mL of 20:80 (v/v) ACN/H2O.

*The structure of stercobilin with the labile oxygen sites highlighted in red.*

quantification were needed in order to validate whether this was the case; unfortunately, isotopically labeled standards of stercobilin are not commercially available. Thus, we embarked on approaches to synthesize a suitable label for stercobilin that could be used as an internal standard for mass spectrometry analysis.
