**3. Urban planning and urban design approaches and relations**

The spatial quality of urban spaces in developed countries is better than other countries. The main reason for this is thought to be that the planning system starting from the upper scales moves together with the urban design approaches to the lower scales. Thus, everything in the city that people have contact with is provided using various instruments developed together with the plans. These instruments, playing an important role in shaping the urban space, also show similarity from the aspect of urban design.

For instance, in England, the *design codes*, *design briefs*, *design guidelines*, and *development briefs* named as *supplementary planning guidance* are prepared for this purpose. In the USA, however, this process is generally named as *design review*, and the design auditing instruments such as *urban design guideline* are prepared. In France, the urban plans (*Schéma Directeur* master plan) and the "land-use plans" (*Plan d'occupationdessols-POS*) are not alone considered sufficient for managing the change in the urban space, and therefore the instruments such as "planning zone" (*ZAC-Zoned'AménagementConcerte*) and *"*zoning plan" (*PAZ-Plan d'Aménagement de Zone*) are used [15].

In the different planning approaches and legal regulations worldwide, both the central and local administrations use urban planning and urban design together in ensuring urban quality. Even though the framework offered by the zoning plans in Turkey seems enough from the quantitative aspect, the plans are not sufficient in the process controlling and directing the urban design in different countries, and the urban design instruments are used together with the plans. This is the hint for creating high-quality spaces and a successful outcome [16–18].

Since the nineteenth century, the concept of urban design has been considered in different contexts and scopes within urban planning. In this process, practitioners and theoreticians such as Kevin Lynch, David Mackay, Francis Tibbalds, etc. have offered different definitions. In parallel with the works and discussions of the theoreticians and practitioners, urban design has been conceptualized in an organized fashion (**Figure 2**).

In this conceptualization, urban design is close to urban planning at a high scale. Besides that, considering urban design as the design of small urban spaces at a low scale, it is close to the esthetic and spatial points of interest of the architecture and arts. Moreover, urban design is interested in the interaction between public and private development and its effect on the form of the city, the relationships between people and locations, movement and urban form, nature, building structure, and the processes providing successful cities and towns [1, 2, 19].

This process, designed as multidimensional, is constructed by the actors having different expectations and objectives. In order to understand or perceive the built environment, it is necessary to define key actors, the objectives and targets of these actors, the expectations of them in designing the built environment, and the relationships between the actors [21]. The roles and positions of the actors in urban design may always vary depending on the progression of the process. Although the actors may vary between the parts of the built environment, they continue existing.

*Assessing the Urban Design Quality of Turkish Cities DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89779*

and engineers [1].

**Table 1.**

**333**

*Actors selected for the analysis.*

It is difficult to define and to clearly describe the actors of urban design. Despite this difficulty arising from diversity and multidimensionality, there also is a consensus on some of the main actors. From this aspect, the actors deciding in the formation of built environment in urban design are divided into four groups: private sector, public sector, public-private cooperation, and society [22]. In other words, they can be described as professionals (urban designers, planners, architects, landscaping architects, etc.), politicians, municipalities (those working at local administration), non-governmental organizations (NGOs), universities, userssociety-urbanites, sponsors, and entrepreneurs/investors. These actors have different specialties and financial and political effects depending on their professional, administrative, capacities, etc. The professional identities in these fields have an interdisciplinary character related to planning, architecture, and landscape architecture. The specific character and professional capabilities of each of the relevant design professions are reflected in the urban design [23]. Besides these professional characters, the other professional groups supporting the process and playing a binding role are the social scientists, lawyers, economists, environmental scientists,

Within the scope of this study, the evaluations of the most effective actors directly influencing the urban places in the design and implementation phases are discussed. In other words, an analysis was made of the actors having a fundamental

**Figure 2.** *Conceptualization of the idea of urban design [18].*

In this form, one of the most important objectives of urban design is to ensure and maintain quality and character, to integrate the old and new; to protect the natural characteristics of the city, providing new and multidimensional areas; to improve the security, health, and comfort of the city, etc. The environmental quality includes many components such as "esthetic," identity, assessing the vista and natural exposition points and corridors, human scale, comfort in pedestrian transportation, ability of keeping away from the traffic noise, providing public spaces to rest-commune, developing the consciousness of heritage, and reevaluating culture and historical heritage [19].

Summarizing the theoretical frame might significantly contribute to the urban design approach and the organization of the city. In the cities that are in the development process, many of the human scales disappear, the memories of the cities weaken or disappear, and the connections between the city and people rupture. The process of reconciling humans and the city in which they live incorporates a series of tasks starting with planning works, continuing with urban design practices, taking place in the third dimension. From this aspect, the best way of constructing successful and sustainable cities is to think about urban design from the very beginning of the planning and development process.

### **4. The actors in urban design processes: authorities and experts**

The physical environment is formed as a result of urban planning and the urban design process. The components of this formation are the appearance of buildings, the relationships between these structures, their locations, densities, spatial sense, landscapes, and pedestrian and vehicle movements. The components of the physical environment are gathered under nine groups: spatial, morphologic, contextual, visual, perceptual, functionality, sustainability, and the design/planning process [8, 20].

#### *Assessing the Urban Design Quality of Turkish Cities DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89779*

This process, designed as multidimensional, is constructed by the actors having different expectations and objectives. In order to understand or perceive the built environment, it is necessary to define key actors, the objectives and targets of these actors, the expectations of them in designing the built environment, and the relationships between the actors [21]. The roles and positions of the actors in urban design may always vary depending on the progression of the process. Although the actors may vary between the parts of the built environment, they continue existing.

It is difficult to define and to clearly describe the actors of urban design. Despite this difficulty arising from diversity and multidimensionality, there also is a consensus on some of the main actors. From this aspect, the actors deciding in the formation of built environment in urban design are divided into four groups: private sector, public sector, public-private cooperation, and society [22]. In other words, they can be described as professionals (urban designers, planners, architects, landscaping architects, etc.), politicians, municipalities (those working at local administration), non-governmental organizations (NGOs), universities, userssociety-urbanites, sponsors, and entrepreneurs/investors. These actors have different specialties and financial and political effects depending on their professional, administrative, capacities, etc. The professional identities in these fields have an interdisciplinary character related to planning, architecture, and landscape architecture. The specific character and professional capabilities of each of the relevant design professions are reflected in the urban design [23]. Besides these professional characters, the other professional groups supporting the process and playing a binding role are the social scientists, lawyers, economists, environmental scientists, and engineers [1].

Within the scope of this study, the evaluations of the most effective actors directly influencing the urban places in the design and implementation phases are discussed. In other words, an analysis was made of the actors having a fundamental


In this form, one of the most important objectives of urban design is to ensure and maintain quality and character, to integrate the old and new; to protect the natural characteristics of the city, providing new and multidimensional areas; to improve the security, health, and comfort of the city, etc. The environmental quality includes many components such as "esthetic," identity, assessing the vista and natural exposition points and corridors, human scale, comfort in pedestrian transportation, ability of keeping away from the traffic noise, providing public spaces to rest-commune, developing the consciousness of heritage, and re-

Summarizing the theoretical frame might significantly contribute to the urban

design approach and the organization of the city. In the cities that are in the development process, many of the human scales disappear, the memories of the cities weaken or disappear, and the connections between the city and people rupture. The process of reconciling humans and the city in which they live incorporates a series of tasks starting with planning works, continuing with urban design practices, taking place in the third dimension. From this aspect, the best way of constructing successful and sustainable cities is to think about urban design from

**4. The actors in urban design processes: authorities and experts**

The physical environment is formed as a result of urban planning and the urban design process. The components of this formation are the appearance of buildings, the relationships between these structures, their locations, densities, spatial sense, landscapes, and pedestrian and vehicle movements. The components of the physical environment are gathered under nine groups: spatial, morphologic, contextual, visual, perceptual, functionality, sustainability, and the design/planning process [8, 20].

the very beginning of the planning and development process.

evaluating culture and historical heritage [19].

*Conceptualization of the idea of urban design [18].*

*Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design*

**Figure 2.**

**332**

professional identity in the urban design. These are the professionals working in the private sector, public sector, and NGOs. The common character of these professionals is that they have an effective and specialized structure in the field of urban design. From this aspect, the professional titles of these actors were selected to be an urban planner, architect, and landscape architect. Seventy-three professionals following the urban design processes in Turkey and involved in many processes were involved in the analyses. Among these actors, there are 30 urban planners, 27 architects, and 16 landscape architects (**Table 1**).

**6. Selection of the evaluation criteria within the scope of urban design**

The common characteristics of qualified/successful urban spaces are to offer livable, dynamic, and different spaces having character and (most importantly) satisfying the people living there. Nowadays, the first step of constructing these qualified/successful urban spaces is to determine and implement the principles of urban design. The urban design criteria are abstract on their own. However, when they are concretized within the process of development, they have significant effects on the city and consequently on the people because they gain an environ-

The most effective part of these urban spaces is the urban public spaces. Urban public spaces cover all the built or natural environments easily accessed by the public and used free of charge. It covers all the streets, squares, roads, residential areas, parks incorporating commercial or public usage areas for the citizens, open areas, and the public or private properties where the society can freely visit at least in the daytime. The urban spaces should be freely accessible for every person and provide the highest urban quality to the urbanites. The most important necessities in public spaces are comfort, relaxation, active/passive participation, exploration,

Certain urban design criteria are utilized in order to keep the urban space quality

at the highest level. These criteria cannot become clear because of the different perspectives of researches and the spatial conditions in different periods. However,

According to the analyses made in the literature by various researchers, the criteria constituting the components of high-quality urban spaces are classified in different ways. The physical needs and the need for security, belonging, respect, and existing in a space are the fundamental needs [24, 29]. Another perspective is about the relationship and continuity of the patterns. The integrity and continuity of spatial relationships are crucial. From this aspect, many principles influencing the quality of urban life have been determined [30]. Another approach is that of Kevin Lynch. The criteria he put forward as design criteria are vitality, identity, adaptation, access, diversity, freedom, and domination [31]. In the criteria

discussed by Nasar [32], there are common points besides the differences from the other theoreticians. These criteria were classified as compliance with nature, order, definitiveness, identity, and cleanliness. Similarly, discussing the importance of human scale and the pedestrian- and cyclist-oriented urban design for ensuring the urban quality and the destructive effect of vehicles, Gehl designed the criteria for the livability of urban spaces. These criteria are security, vitality, density, perceptibility, accessibility, and control [33]. From the same perspective, considering that the importance of the urban design criteria arises from livable cities, Llewelyn Davies Yeang also designed certain criteria. These criteria are noise, sound, crowdedness, the material quality of space, presence, function of open and public area, presence of pedestrians, accessibility, service diversity and quality, mass transpor-

The criteria selected here are based on the literature review and the participation

Considering the specific conditions of Turkish cities in terms of urban design, the specialists defined the criteria. In the next phase, these criteria were weighted

of a specialist group, which consists of actors playing an effective role in urban design decisions, in Turkey. This group consists of 73 specialist actors (urban planners, architects, and landscape architects). In this approach, the quantitative weight method is used in defining the relative importance of the criteria following the

ment for contacting all the senses of people after the concretization.

and human needs [28].

tation, and security [34].

vision of specialists.

and prioritized.

**335**

there are also certain common points.

*Assessing the Urban Design Quality of Turkish Cities DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89779*

Among the selected actors related to the field of urban design, the urban planners are interested in the quality of the built and visual environment, examine the designrelated subjects from theoretical and political aspects, and ensure that they are reflected in the practice. They prepare the projects, which will meet the necessities of future objectives and provide solutions for the problems at different scales. Within the scope of plans, the architects make use of their creativity and implement their original and independent designs. They play a role in the entire project design and implementation process. The landscape architects, however, integrate the physical content, nature, and nature's components with the design by making use of their experience in using the dependence to location/ground and time as an important design element [24]. The decision-makers in this process may significantly vary in terms of person and institution. The effects of powers such as politicians, entrepreneurs, financial institutions, investors, etc. have always been effective on the actors. However, the present study does not involve these powers. It focuses on the evaluations of the main actors about the reflection of design processes on the space.
