**2. A historical perspective of Baghdad City**

Iraq, in general, is one of the wealthiest countries due to its oil revenue; unfortunately, it is also considered a developing country due to issues on all levels, including its architecture, urban design, and planning. This consideration is also based on the magnitude of problems that Iraqi people continue to live with. Notwithstanding, Baghdad is a central destination, both as an administrative capital and as a place that represents a new opportunity for people from other regions of Iraq to secure jobs and experience better livelihoods than those afforded elsewhere in the country [1]. Baghdad is the capital of the Republic of Iraq and considered a significant metropolitan city with a population of approximately 6.77 million people. The city is divided into two regions by the Tigris River, namely Rusafa and Karkh, in an arid zone at 33° 20 N latitude and 44° 23 E longitude [2, 3]. Since its foundation in 762 AD by Caliph Al-Mansur, Baghdad became an attractive location for surrounding foreign powers. Therefore, its history not only witnessed frequent war and domination but also saw the development of a unique variety of various cultures. Based on archaeological evidence, Baghdad's site was occupied by several peoples before the Arab conquest of Mesopotamia in 637 AD. Furthermore, excavations by the famous Michaux Stone, which was founded by a French physician in 1870, discovered that a Babylonian town called 'Bak-da-du' occupied the place of Baghdad as far back as the twelfth century BC. Moreover, due to its strategic location along the banks of the Tigris, it represented an attractive location as the new capital for the Abbasid Caliphate [4].

#### **2.1 Baghdad during the Abbasid Empire**

In 800 AD, only four decades after its establishment, Baghdad became a metropolis of more than 300,000 inhabitants. As the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate that stretched from present-day Algeria to Pakistan, Baghdad was the centre of economic and political power in the Islamic world, unrivalled in its artistic, scientific, and cultural achievements [5]. Le Strange refers to Baghdad by describing some of the monuments and historical features that belong to the Abbasid period. The city was characterised by several features: the old wall of the Eastern city with its four gates, the Mustansiriya College as the first school at that time, as well as mosques and holy shrines [6]. Le Strange states that the topography of Baghdad changed due to the shift of the riverbed and the watercourse and canals that constituted its essential features. The primary task of Le Strange was to achieve and prepare a map of old Baghdad and to reconstruct its fundamental elements by tracing the topography of the city in detail. Although it is difficult to access Le Strange's map directly from the primary source, it is still possible to see that Baghdad's character has changed dramatically, particularly within the old fabric of the city [6]. The historical view of Baghdad reflected its general character as the seat of the Abbasid Caliphate. It was a significant kernel in the emergence of the current city; moreover, cultural, religious, and economic influences provided the essential defining characteristics of the city since the construction of the Round City in 1445/762 [7].

The Tigris River, on which Baghdad stands, experienced a multi-faceted transformation in its physical and cultural environment, which resulted from natural and political factors and comprehensive development plans. In the old city, Baghdad's numerous urban features embody different historical periods. The transformation from the Round City to an organic pattern reflected its local physical and socioeconomic characteristics. Currently, the old urban fabric, particularly within Rusafa and Karkh which are located in the city centre of Baghdad, face severe disintegration. This has created segregation as a result of the implementation of unrestricted planning policies and has led to the dramatic loss of Baghdad's heritage, historical architecture,

**389**

**Figure 1.**

**Figure 2.**

*Lessons from Baghdad City Conformation and Essence DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88599*

*rights reserved for Al-Warrak Publishing Ltd., London, UK.*

*reserved for Al-Warrak Publishing Ltd., London, UK.*

and the identity of its old urban fabric [8]. According to Fathi, the Abbasid period (1152–1258) is immortalised by significant historical monuments and prominent features, such as Zumarrad Khatun's Tomb (1202) and Karkhi Mosque (1215) (**Figure 1**), Sharaibiya Madrasa (1226) and Qumriya Mosque (1228) (**Figure 2**), and Mustansiriya (1234) and Sahrawardi's Mosque (1234) (**Figure 3**) [4]. These monuments and features have played a crucial role in orienting the city network and its traditional neighbourhoods. Furthermore, they have provided indispensable public places for inhabitants throughout history. When tracing an old map, it is possible to recognise the city routes which started and ended at one of these urban points, most notably mosques. Besides its historical buildings, the organic pattern of the street network is another character of the old sector of Baghdad. The importance of Baghdad's inheritance can be studied synchronically and diachronically, including the characteristics of the network and its street edges. Between 762 and 775 AD, Al-Mansur built the Round City of Baghdad (also known as Madinat al-Salam, City of Peace) on the west side of the Tigris between the locations known today as Kadhimiya and Karkh. Gradually, the Abbasid Empire was weakened by internal conflict, which allowed for other surrounding countries to invade Baghdad during various periods of its history, such as the Persian Buwaihids in

*Sharaibiya Madrasa 1226 AD (left), Qumriya Mosque 1228 AD (right). Source: ([9], pp. 305–311). All rights* 

*Zumarrad Khatun's Tomb 1202 AD (left) and Karkhi Mosque 1215 AD (right). Source: ([9], pp. 312–315). All* 

946–1055 AD and the Turkish Seljuqs in 1055–1152 AD (**Figure 4**).

*Lessons from Baghdad City Conformation and Essence DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88599*

#### **Figure 1.**

*Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design*

**2.1 Baghdad during the Abbasid Empire**

**2. A historical perspective of Baghdad City**

Iraq, in general, is one of the wealthiest countries due to its oil revenue; unfortunately, it is also considered a developing country due to issues on all levels, including its architecture, urban design, and planning. This consideration is also based on the magnitude of problems that Iraqi people continue to live with. Notwithstanding, Baghdad is a central destination, both as an administrative capital and as a place that represents a new opportunity for people from other regions of Iraq to secure jobs and experience better livelihoods than those afforded elsewhere in the country [1]. Baghdad is the capital of the Republic of Iraq and considered a significant metropolitan city with a population of approximately 6.77 million people. The city is divided into two regions by the Tigris River, namely Rusafa and Karkh, in an arid zone at 33° 20 N latitude and 44° 23 E longitude [2, 3]. Since its foundation in 762 AD by Caliph Al-Mansur, Baghdad became an attractive location for surrounding foreign powers. Therefore, its history not only witnessed frequent war and domination but also saw the development of a unique variety of various cultures. Based on archaeological evidence, Baghdad's site was occupied by several peoples before the Arab conquest of Mesopotamia in 637 AD. Furthermore, excavations by the famous Michaux Stone, which was founded by a French physician in 1870, discovered that a Babylonian town called 'Bak-da-du' occupied the place of Baghdad as far back as the twelfth century BC. Moreover, due to its strategic location along the banks of the Tigris, it represented an attractive location as the new capital for the Abbasid Caliphate [4].

In 800 AD, only four decades after its establishment, Baghdad became a metropolis of more than 300,000 inhabitants. As the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate that stretched from present-day Algeria to Pakistan, Baghdad was the centre of economic and political power in the Islamic world, unrivalled in its artistic, scientific, and cultural achievements [5]. Le Strange refers to Baghdad by describing some of the monuments and historical features that belong to the Abbasid period. The city was characterised by several features: the old wall of the Eastern city with its four gates, the Mustansiriya College as the first school at that time, as well as mosques and holy shrines [6]. Le Strange states that the topography of Baghdad changed due to the shift of the riverbed and the watercourse and canals that constituted its essential features. The primary task of Le Strange was to achieve and prepare a map of old Baghdad and to reconstruct its fundamental elements by tracing the topography of the city in detail. Although it is difficult to access Le Strange's map directly from the primary source, it is still possible to see that Baghdad's character has changed dramatically, particularly within the old fabric of the city [6]. The historical view of Baghdad reflected its general character as the seat of the Abbasid Caliphate. It was a significant kernel in the emergence of the current city; moreover, cultural, religious, and economic influences provided the essential defining characteristics of the city since the construction of the Round City in 1445/762 [7]. The Tigris River, on which Baghdad stands, experienced a multi-faceted transformation in its physical and cultural environment, which resulted from natural and political factors and comprehensive development plans. In the old city, Baghdad's numerous urban features embody different historical periods. The transformation from the Round City to an organic pattern reflected its local physical and socioeconomic characteristics. Currently, the old urban fabric, particularly within Rusafa and Karkh which are located in the city centre of Baghdad, face severe disintegration. This has created segregation as a result of the implementation of unrestricted planning policies and has led to the dramatic loss of Baghdad's heritage, historical architecture,

**388**

*Zumarrad Khatun's Tomb 1202 AD (left) and Karkhi Mosque 1215 AD (right). Source: ([9], pp. 312–315). All rights reserved for Al-Warrak Publishing Ltd., London, UK.*

#### **Figure 2.**

*Sharaibiya Madrasa 1226 AD (left), Qumriya Mosque 1228 AD (right). Source: ([9], pp. 305–311). All rights reserved for Al-Warrak Publishing Ltd., London, UK.*

and the identity of its old urban fabric [8]. According to Fathi, the Abbasid period (1152–1258) is immortalised by significant historical monuments and prominent features, such as Zumarrad Khatun's Tomb (1202) and Karkhi Mosque (1215) (**Figure 1**), Sharaibiya Madrasa (1226) and Qumriya Mosque (1228) (**Figure 2**), and Mustansiriya (1234) and Sahrawardi's Mosque (1234) (**Figure 3**) [4]. These monuments and features have played a crucial role in orienting the city network and its traditional neighbourhoods. Furthermore, they have provided indispensable public places for inhabitants throughout history. When tracing an old map, it is possible to recognise the city routes which started and ended at one of these urban points, most notably mosques. Besides its historical buildings, the organic pattern of the street network is another character of the old sector of Baghdad. The importance of Baghdad's inheritance can be studied synchronically and diachronically, including the characteristics of the network and its street edges. Between 762 and 775 AD, Al-Mansur built the Round City of Baghdad (also known as Madinat al-Salam, City of Peace) on the west side of the Tigris between the locations known today as Kadhimiya and Karkh. Gradually, the Abbasid Empire was weakened by internal conflict, which allowed for other surrounding countries to invade Baghdad during various periods of its history, such as the Persian Buwaihids in 946–1055 AD and the Turkish Seljuqs in 1055–1152 AD (**Figure 4**).

#### **Figure 3.**

*Mustansiriya 1234 AD (left), Sahrawardi's Mosque 1234 AD (right). Source: ([9], pp. 305–311). All rights reserved for Al-Warrak Publishing Ltd., London, UK.*

**Figure 4.** *Baghdad's morphology at the end of the Abbasid Empire. Source: Based on ([8], p. 81).*

The Round City emerged as a kernel of Baghdad; moreover, it continued for three centuries. The city was characterised by a significant pattern, which entailed symmetric streets surrounded by geometrical residential blocks beside three walls with four gates. The wall was used to separate the public and private spaces by the third inner wall and to divide the city into private houses and open courtyards, including the governmental buildings, such as the palace and the mosque. Furthermore, essential buildings inside the Round City comprised the Caliphate's Palace and the mosque, while Al-Hasani states that other sectors were allocated for inhabitants but did not offer gardens, recreation space, or statues [8] (**Figure 5**). Unfortunately, the Round City disappeared without a clear reason, and nothing remains except for the carved marble of the Khasaki Mosque, which some historians believe belonged to the Mosque of Mansur [4]. At this stage, the city started to expand beyond its wall as a result of limited space, and more public facilities were required due to its increasing population [8]. Allawi states that two systems shape the Arabic Islamic city. The first is the square system; this has a

**391**

**Figure 5.**

system of Asba (sevenths) [12].

*Lessons from Baghdad City Conformation and Essence DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88599*

square as its central unit, followed by four surrounding square units. It is generally believed that the five square arrangements denoted the quarters of religious, military, and urban entities. The second system is hexagonal and was known as a

*The Round City. Plan of al-Mansour's Baghdad as originally built. Surrounded by an outer trench and two circular walls and described by historians as the most elaborate fortress city of medieval times (top). Source:* 

of the Islamic city in terms of its urban form and society. This saw a shift from dependent military settlements and expanded tribute collections to investments in private plantations, urban developments, and industrial production. Moreover, the design of the Round City of Baghdad can be discernible as an astrological schema and thus cannot be separated from astrology [12]. Allawi states that Baghdad was created by adopting a stereographic projection of the equator and the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn where the vertical axis refers to the meridian and the horizontal to the equinoctial line (**Figure 5**). It is important to note that the decline of the Abbasid Empire in Baghdad did not necessarily simultaneously affect urban life; instead, 'this paradox can probably be explained by the nature of the social struc-

ture that arose within the framework of Islam' ([12], p. 70).

*([10], p. 84). Fictive image of the Round City (bottom). Source: ([11], p. 14).*

Baghdad's Round City plan was described as a turning point in the development

*Lessons from Baghdad City Conformation and Essence DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88599*

#### **Figure 5.**

*Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design*

*reserved for Al-Warrak Publishing Ltd., London, UK.*

**390**

**Figure 4.**

**Figure 3.**

*Baghdad's morphology at the end of the Abbasid Empire. Source: Based on ([8], p. 81).*

The Round City emerged as a kernel of Baghdad; moreover, it continued for three centuries. The city was characterised by a significant pattern, which entailed symmetric streets surrounded by geometrical residential blocks beside three walls with four gates. The wall was used to separate the public and private spaces by the third inner wall and to divide the city into private houses and open courtyards, including the governmental buildings, such as the palace and the mosque. Furthermore, essential buildings inside the Round City comprised the Caliphate's Palace and the mosque, while Al-Hasani states that other sectors were allocated for inhabitants but did not offer gardens, recreation space, or statues [8] (**Figure 5**). Unfortunately, the Round City disappeared without a clear reason, and nothing remains except for the carved marble of the Khasaki Mosque, which some historians believe belonged to the Mosque of Mansur [4]. At this stage, the city started to expand beyond its wall as a result of limited space, and more public facilities were required due to its increasing population [8]. Allawi states that two systems shape the Arabic Islamic city. The first is the square system; this has a

*Mustansiriya 1234 AD (left), Sahrawardi's Mosque 1234 AD (right). Source: ([9], pp. 305–311). All rights* 

*The Round City. Plan of al-Mansour's Baghdad as originally built. Surrounded by an outer trench and two circular walls and described by historians as the most elaborate fortress city of medieval times (top). Source: ([10], p. 84). Fictive image of the Round City (bottom). Source: ([11], p. 14).*

square as its central unit, followed by four surrounding square units. It is generally believed that the five square arrangements denoted the quarters of religious, military, and urban entities. The second system is hexagonal and was known as a system of Asba (sevenths) [12].

Baghdad's Round City plan was described as a turning point in the development of the Islamic city in terms of its urban form and society. This saw a shift from dependent military settlements and expanded tribute collections to investments in private plantations, urban developments, and industrial production. Moreover, the design of the Round City of Baghdad can be discernible as an astrological schema and thus cannot be separated from astrology [12]. Allawi states that Baghdad was created by adopting a stereographic projection of the equator and the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn where the vertical axis refers to the meridian and the horizontal to the equinoctial line (**Figure 5**). It is important to note that the decline of the Abbasid Empire in Baghdad did not necessarily simultaneously affect urban life; instead, 'this paradox can probably be explained by the nature of the social structure that arose within the framework of Islam' ([12], p. 70).

#### **Figure 6.**

*A general plan of Baghdad during the earlier period between the years 767 and 917 AD (left), during the later period between the years 1017 and 1317 AD (right). Source: ([4], p. 4). The Round City disappeared, and little remains today, except for the carved marbles of the Khasaki Mosque. At the end of the Abbasid Empire, Baghdad City had moved entirely to the east bank of the Tigris River. A new era started after this extraordinary move. Later, this site became the central location for the growth and expansion of Baghdad City. Some remarkable features and historical elements remain resistant to change but will not last forever. Moreover, some no longer exist for different reasons. The current study addresses this phenomenon.*

A fundamental transformation occurred in the relationship among the city's components; these included the 'Islamic art, architecture, and urban forms first developed under conditions of rapid change and military expansion. They became an expression of the newly settled conditions of Islamic social life' ([12], p. 71). Following the demise of the Round City, and during the new Abbasid Empire, Baghdad moved to the east bank of the Tigris River (shown as the left image in **Figure 6**). The assets of Baghdad today belong to this historical period of the city with its significant monuments and organic street pattern (**Figure 13**). Otherwise, the urban areas that settled outside the historical zone were designed according to a modern scheme and a modernist ideology.

#### **2.2 Baghdad and post-Abbasid Empire: city pattern**

After the Abbasid period, Baghdad was captured by many foreign countries, which left their mark in the urban fabric of the city through the contribution of several prominent buildings that still exist today. Most of those features responded to the existing traditional fabric at that time. Five major occupations manifested their own influences on the historical area of Baghdad, namely, Mongol Hulagu, Jalayirid, Persian Safavids, Ottoman, and the British invasion. In Mongol Hulagu Period (1258–1338), Fathi confirms that, during the Mongol invasion from 1258 to 1338, a significant number of features emerged within Baghdad, such as the minaret of the Caliph's Mosque (1289) and the Aquli Mosque (1328) (**Figures 7** and **8**) [4]. At the end of the Abbasid Empire and at the start of a new era, Baghdad had moved entirely from the east bank of the Tigris River to the present-day Al-Rusafa. This represented the second major growth period after the Round City (**Figure 9**).

Since the Abbasid Caliphate and throughout the Ottoman Empire, the level of the growth and development was restricted and only dealt with specific buildings, for example, mosques, schools, and khans. In Jalayirid Period (1338–1411), Fathi states that the next period was occupied by the Jalayirid era (1338–1411), which was responsible for constructing two significant buildings, the Mirjan Mosque (1356) and the Mirjan Khan (1359) (**Figure 10**) [4]. However, this period saw no drastic changes to the city's shape through its city planning and urban morphology.

**393**

**Figure 9.**

*Al-Warrak Publishing Ltd., London, UK.*

**Figure 7.**

**Figure 8.**

*Aquli Mosque (1328). Source: ([13], pp. 188–189).*

*Lessons from Baghdad City Conformation and Essence DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88599*

*Caliph's Mosque (1289). Sources: ([13], p. 350, [14], pp. 23–24, [10], p. 48).*

*Baghdad at the end of the Abbasid Caliphate (1055–1258). Source: ([9], p. 59). All rights reserved for* 

*Lessons from Baghdad City Conformation and Essence DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88599*

**Figure 7.**

*Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design*

**Figure 6.**

modern scheme and a modernist ideology.

the Round City (**Figure 9**).

**2.2 Baghdad and post-Abbasid Empire: city pattern**

A fundamental transformation occurred in the relationship among the city's components; these included the 'Islamic art, architecture, and urban forms first developed under conditions of rapid change and military expansion. They became an expression of the newly settled conditions of Islamic social life' ([12], p. 71). Following the demise of the Round City, and during the new Abbasid Empire, Baghdad moved to the east bank of the Tigris River (shown as the left image in **Figure 6**). The assets of Baghdad today belong to this historical period of the city with its significant monuments and organic street pattern (**Figure 13**). Otherwise, the urban areas that settled outside the historical zone were designed according to a

*A general plan of Baghdad during the earlier period between the years 767 and 917 AD (left), during the later period between the years 1017 and 1317 AD (right). Source: ([4], p. 4). The Round City disappeared, and little remains today, except for the carved marbles of the Khasaki Mosque. At the end of the Abbasid Empire, Baghdad City had moved entirely to the east bank of the Tigris River. A new era started after this extraordinary move. Later, this site became the central location for the growth and expansion of Baghdad City. Some remarkable features and historical elements remain resistant to change but will not last forever. Moreover,* 

*some no longer exist for different reasons. The current study addresses this phenomenon.*

After the Abbasid period, Baghdad was captured by many foreign countries, which left their mark in the urban fabric of the city through the contribution of several prominent buildings that still exist today. Most of those features responded to the existing traditional fabric at that time. Five major occupations manifested their own influences on the historical area of Baghdad, namely, Mongol Hulagu, Jalayirid, Persian Safavids, Ottoman, and the British invasion. In Mongol Hulagu Period (1258–1338), Fathi confirms that, during the Mongol invasion from 1258 to 1338, a significant number of features emerged within Baghdad, such as the minaret of the Caliph's Mosque (1289) and the Aquli Mosque (1328) (**Figures 7** and **8**) [4]. At the end of the Abbasid Empire and at the start of a new era, Baghdad had moved entirely from the east bank of the Tigris River to the present-day Al-Rusafa. This represented the second major growth period after

Since the Abbasid Caliphate and throughout the Ottoman Empire, the level of the growth and development was restricted and only dealt with specific buildings, for example, mosques, schools, and khans. In Jalayirid Period (1338–1411), Fathi states that the next period was occupied by the Jalayirid era (1338–1411), which was responsible for constructing two significant buildings, the Mirjan Mosque (1356) and the Mirjan Khan (1359) (**Figure 10**) [4]. However, this period saw no drastic changes to the city's shape through its city planning and urban morphology.

**392**

*Caliph's Mosque (1289). Sources: ([13], p. 350, [14], pp. 23–24, [10], p. 48).*

**Figure 8.** *Aquli Mosque (1328). Source: ([13], pp. 188–189).*

#### **Figure 9.**

*Baghdad at the end of the Abbasid Caliphate (1055–1258). Source: ([9], p. 59). All rights reserved for Al-Warrak Publishing Ltd., London, UK.*

**Figure 10.**

*Mirjan Mosque 1356 AD (left) and Mirjan khan 1359 AD (right). Source: ([4], pp. 40–41).*

**Figure 11.** *The Golden Mosque of Kadhimain that was built in 1515 AD. Source: ([15], pp. 148–149).*

The Persian Safavid Period (1508–1638), it had a more architectural influence on the city's fabric through the erection of buildings that were characterised by high craftsmanship and impressive monuments, such as the Golden Mosque of Kadhimain that was built in 1515 [4]. This holy shrine was the first development to the north of the walled city and later became the most prominent settlement outside the oldest area of Baghdad. This era saw the same characteristic organic pattern that typified the surrounding neighbourhoods, besides the zigzagged network, which was analogous to the oldest part of Baghdad (**Figure 11**).

The Ottoman period (1638–1917) represented a long-term period of occupation by a foreign government that controlled both Iraq generally and Baghdad particularly. The period lasted about three centuries (1638–1917) and saw the neglect of the city; this led to a reduction in the value of its urban context and historical monuments. However, some significant features survived, such as Gailani Mosque (1534–1638) (**Figure 12**), Imam al-Aadham Mosque (1681), Zurur Khan (1534); Khasaki Mosque (1658); Hussain Pasha Mosque (1684); Sarai Mosque (1704); Alia Madrasa (1726); Ahmadiyya Mosque (1796), and the Souk Area (1802) [2, 4]. Like the earlier periods, the number of individual monuments increased during the Ottoman era; these features were built within the same area of the walled city and surrounded by traditional neighbourhoods (called Mahallas). At the level of the city planning, the central development during this period was to open a new street that cuts through the city from the north to the south; this became known as Al-Rasheed Street. From the maps in **Figure 13**, it can be seen that the city was not subjected

**395**

**Figure 12.**

**Figure 13.**

*Publishing Ltd., London, UK.*

*Publishing Ltd., London, UK.*

ent city with this period' ([16], p. 207).

*Lessons from Baghdad City Conformation and Essence DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88599*

to any central shift in its neighbourhoods and street pattern, except Al-Rasheed Street. The neighbourhood, or mahalla, could be defined as the primary unit in the development and orientation of the street network, which thus formulated significant integration between the two spatial entities, namely, spaces and buildings. According to Al-Ashab, the 'period 1869-1920 can be virtually considered as a forerunner of subsequent morphological phases. It is a transitional phase between the "medieval" and "modern" periods in the urban history of Mesopotamia. It is thus logical to begin the study of the structural evolution and a pattern of the pres-

*Baghdad 1854 AD (left) and 1908 AD (right). Source: ([9], pp. 88–430). All rights reserved for Al-Warrak* 

*Gailani Mosque (1534–1638 AD). Source: ([15], p. 150); ([9], p. 318). All rights reserved for Al-Warrak* 

The British period (1917–1932) and monarchy system until 1958 can be divided into two stages; the first is when Mesopotamia was occupied by Britain from 1917 to 1921 and then subjected to the British mandate from 1920 to 1932; it later became independent in 1932. From 1932 to 1958, the country was governed by a monarchy. Following these radical changes, 14 July 1958 saw the announcement of a new era for the Iraqi Republic, which formed the second stage. In 1918, the British contributed

#### **Figure 12.**

*Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design*

**Figure 10.**

**Figure 11.**

The Persian Safavid Period (1508–1638), it had a more architectural influence on the city's fabric through the erection of buildings that were characterised by high craftsmanship and impressive monuments, such as the Golden Mosque of Kadhimain that was built in 1515 [4]. This holy shrine was the first development to the north of the walled city and later became the most prominent settlement outside the oldest area of Baghdad. This era saw the same characteristic organic pattern that typified the surrounding neighbourhoods, besides the zigzagged network,

The Ottoman period (1638–1917) represented a long-term period of occupation

by a foreign government that controlled both Iraq generally and Baghdad particularly. The period lasted about three centuries (1638–1917) and saw the neglect of the city; this led to a reduction in the value of its urban context and historical monuments. However, some significant features survived, such as Gailani Mosque (1534–1638) (**Figure 12**), Imam al-Aadham Mosque (1681), Zurur Khan (1534); Khasaki Mosque (1658); Hussain Pasha Mosque (1684); Sarai Mosque (1704); Alia Madrasa (1726); Ahmadiyya Mosque (1796), and the Souk Area (1802) [2, 4]. Like the earlier periods, the number of individual monuments increased during the Ottoman era; these features were built within the same area of the walled city and surrounded by traditional neighbourhoods (called Mahallas). At the level of the city planning, the central development during this period was to open a new street that cuts through the city from the north to the south; this became known as Al-Rasheed Street. From the maps in **Figure 13**, it can be seen that the city was not subjected

which was analogous to the oldest part of Baghdad (**Figure 11**).

*The Golden Mosque of Kadhimain that was built in 1515 AD. Source: ([15], pp. 148–149).*

*Mirjan Mosque 1356 AD (left) and Mirjan khan 1359 AD (right). Source: ([4], pp. 40–41).*

**394**

*Gailani Mosque (1534–1638 AD). Source: ([15], p. 150); ([9], p. 318). All rights reserved for Al-Warrak Publishing Ltd., London, UK.*

#### **Figure 13.**

*Baghdad 1854 AD (left) and 1908 AD (right). Source: ([9], pp. 88–430). All rights reserved for Al-Warrak Publishing Ltd., London, UK.*

to any central shift in its neighbourhoods and street pattern, except Al-Rasheed Street. The neighbourhood, or mahalla, could be defined as the primary unit in the development and orientation of the street network, which thus formulated significant integration between the two spatial entities, namely, spaces and buildings. According to Al-Ashab, the 'period 1869-1920 can be virtually considered as a forerunner of subsequent morphological phases. It is a transitional phase between the "medieval" and "modern" periods in the urban history of Mesopotamia. It is thus logical to begin the study of the structural evolution and a pattern of the present city with this period' ([16], p. 207).

The British period (1917–1932) and monarchy system until 1958 can be divided into two stages; the first is when Mesopotamia was occupied by Britain from 1917 to 1921 and then subjected to the British mandate from 1920 to 1932; it later became independent in 1932. From 1932 to 1958, the country was governed by a monarchy. Following these radical changes, 14 July 1958 saw the announcement of a new era for the Iraqi Republic, which formed the second stage. In 1918, the British contributed

to the dramatic transformation of the style of buildings and introduced new functions to the urban design of Baghdad and other regions of Iraq. Although some public buildings affected the main character of Baghdad, they were considered a new feature among its old urban fabric, particularly with regard to their form and function. Nevertheless, there was an attempt to make these buildings sympathetic to the existing atmosphere by adopting local materials and local historical and cultural metaphors [4]. One noteworthy development in the vocabulary of this period was the use of new terms and classifications to study the structure of the city. Moreover, these new definitions were adopted in the planning and design of new neighbourhoods that were located outside the old town of Baghdad. Furthermore, Al-Ashab argues that the term 'function' cannot be used precisely as an urban definition in Iraq as the term was developed from studies on British towns and therefore signifies meanings that relate to a different context [16]. According to Al-Ashab, 'the definition of urban status in Iraq seems to lie in the acquisition of certain administrative, commercial and religious functions, embodied in the morphological features of al-Sarai (the main administrative complex), bazaar and Friday mosque' ([16], pp. 82–83). Furthermore, during the British period, a new system to number the city via Mahallas was introduced, when the house owner was given a unique number to denote an exact and unmistakable address. The central trend of development in this period was to shift from inward to outward, not only in terms of the typology of the traditional house but also with regard to the city's pattern. One further fundamental transformation was to remove the city wall entirely (**Figure 14**).

This brief review of the critical stages of planning, urban and architecture, in Baghdad aims to create a general picture of the emergence of the city. Throughout

**397**

*Lessons from Baghdad City Conformation and Essence DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88599*

and development (**Figure 15**).

*The growth of Baghdad. Source: ([16], p. 141).*

**Figure 15.**

organic fabric of the old city of Baghdad.

this history, most decision-making was subject to a top-down approach, issued from authorities, and with limited consideration for community needs or social lives. Moreover, there were no sharp, separated lines between these periods of foreign occupation; instead, some continued by adopting similar themes and principles in managing the city. This characteristic also reflects the next phase of Baghdad. In the modern period since 1958, as the capital city of Iraq since 1958, Baghdad adopted significant comprehensive development, whether in the oldest parts or outside the remaining wall. Within the outer areas, and beyond the oldest district of the city, Baghdad extended widely in a semicircular shape, which considered the traditional zone as the centre and thus the starting base for expansion

The 8-year war between Iraq and Iran (1980–1988) clearly influenced the progress of development projects, particularly in Baghdad. In addition, statesponsored projects' progress slowed, particularly those related to Baghdad's city centre; for instance, this affected the substantial project to develop Haifa Street on the Karkh side (1981–1985) [3]. Baghdad's city centre could be characterised as a compact urban structure within the historic fabric, which has a predominantly organic pattern compared with other regions of the city, which seem less compact [3]. Besides the accelerated horizontal expansion of the city, the transformation from the inward (courtyard) to the outward house is the second substantial change in the neighbourhood design prototype. In considering the traditional oldest pattern, the home is the smallest generative unit which cumulatively and spontaneously works with other houses to create al-Mahallas (quarters). In turn, this process leads to the generation of additional urban elements, such as streets and sahahs (squares). In the modern pattern, pre-planned schemes and usebased zoning were the primary tools in designing new neighbourhoods across Baghdad. In this regard, Marshall confirms that the 'land use zones and roads, in a modernist urban structure, [are] represented separately as nodes and links, but in a traditional urban street network, the streets themselves are significant spatial entities' ([18], p. 112). The primary concerns in the traditional area involve not only individual elements (historical and heritage monuments) but also the whole

**Figure 14.** *A plan of Baghdad during and after the British period. Source: [17].*

*Lessons from Baghdad City Conformation and Essence DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88599*

*Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design*

to the dramatic transformation of the style of buildings and introduced new functions to the urban design of Baghdad and other regions of Iraq. Although some public buildings affected the main character of Baghdad, they were considered a new feature among its old urban fabric, particularly with regard to their form and function. Nevertheless, there was an attempt to make these buildings sympathetic to the existing atmosphere by adopting local materials and local historical and cultural metaphors [4]. One noteworthy development in the vocabulary of this period was the use of new terms and classifications to study the structure of the city. Moreover, these new definitions were adopted in the planning and design of new neighbourhoods that were located outside the old town of Baghdad. Furthermore, Al-Ashab argues that the term 'function' cannot be used precisely as an urban definition in Iraq as the term was developed from studies on British towns and therefore signifies meanings that relate to a different context [16]. According to Al-Ashab, 'the definition of urban status in Iraq seems to lie in the acquisition of certain administrative, commercial and religious functions, embodied in the morphological features of al-Sarai (the main administrative complex), bazaar and Friday mosque' ([16], pp. 82–83). Furthermore, during the British period, a new system to number the city via Mahallas was introduced, when the house owner was given a unique number to denote an exact and unmistakable address. The central trend of development in this period was to shift from inward to outward, not only in terms of the typology of the traditional house but also with regard to the city's pattern. One further fundamental

transformation was to remove the city wall entirely (**Figure 14**).

This brief review of the critical stages of planning, urban and architecture, in Baghdad aims to create a general picture of the emergence of the city. Throughout

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**Figure 14.**

*A plan of Baghdad during and after the British period. Source: [17].*

**Figure 15.** *The growth of Baghdad. Source: ([16], p. 141).*

this history, most decision-making was subject to a top-down approach, issued from authorities, and with limited consideration for community needs or social lives. Moreover, there were no sharp, separated lines between these periods of foreign occupation; instead, some continued by adopting similar themes and principles in managing the city. This characteristic also reflects the next phase of Baghdad. In the modern period since 1958, as the capital city of Iraq since 1958, Baghdad adopted significant comprehensive development, whether in the oldest parts or outside the remaining wall. Within the outer areas, and beyond the oldest district of the city, Baghdad extended widely in a semicircular shape, which considered the traditional zone as the centre and thus the starting base for expansion and development (**Figure 15**).

The 8-year war between Iraq and Iran (1980–1988) clearly influenced the progress of development projects, particularly in Baghdad. In addition, statesponsored projects' progress slowed, particularly those related to Baghdad's city centre; for instance, this affected the substantial project to develop Haifa Street on the Karkh side (1981–1985) [3]. Baghdad's city centre could be characterised as a compact urban structure within the historic fabric, which has a predominantly organic pattern compared with other regions of the city, which seem less compact [3]. Besides the accelerated horizontal expansion of the city, the transformation from the inward (courtyard) to the outward house is the second substantial change in the neighbourhood design prototype. In considering the traditional oldest pattern, the home is the smallest generative unit which cumulatively and spontaneously works with other houses to create al-Mahallas (quarters). In turn, this process leads to the generation of additional urban elements, such as streets and sahahs (squares). In the modern pattern, pre-planned schemes and usebased zoning were the primary tools in designing new neighbourhoods across Baghdad. In this regard, Marshall confirms that the 'land use zones and roads, in a modernist urban structure, [are] represented separately as nodes and links, but in a traditional urban street network, the streets themselves are significant spatial entities' ([18], p. 112). The primary concerns in the traditional area involve not only individual elements (historical and heritage monuments) but also the whole organic fabric of the old city of Baghdad.
