The Influence of Self- and Partner-Enhancement, Perceptual Congruence and Personal Identity on Relational Satisfaction among Married Couples, Dating Couples and Same-Sex Roommate Dyads

*Darren Michael George, Andrel Wisdom, Annelise Linrud, Stephanie Hall, Miriam Ballais and Karina Bermudez*

#### **Abstract**

This study builds on the Taylor and Brown theory of positive illusions to attain a more in-depth understanding of the relative influence of perceptual congruence and enhanced perception (positive illusions) on relational satisfaction. A sample of 812, organized into 406 subject-partner pairs of 203 married couples, 100 dating couples, and 103 same-sex roommate dyads completed questionnaires. Each subject rated him- or her-self on six personal qualities (social skills, emotional stability, agreeableness, hostility, depression, and spirituality) and four temperaments (Dominance, Influence, Supportiveness, Conscientiousness). Then they took tests that measured the same qualities to compare with the self-ratings. On another questionnaire, each partner rated the subject on the same 10 qualities. Both subjects and partners completed the Dyadic Adjustment Scale as the measure of relational satisfaction. Primary findings discovered that in most cases, positive illusions diminish relational satisfaction. The only setting in which benefit occurs is when partners rate subjects higher than subjects rate themselves. Congruence between ratings (whether subject-test, partner-test or subject-partner) is strongly associated with relational success. Findings contrast with the Taylor and Brown theory and provide a more nuanced look at the influence of enhancement or congruence.

**Keywords:** relational satisfaction, positive illusions, congruence, profile similarity correlation

#### **1. Introduction**

#### **1.1 Public significance statement**

Positive illusions, the tendency to view self, others, or other phenomena more positively than objective criteria suggest, is common to the human experience.

This study explores the impact of positive illusions in the context of personal relationships. How one views ones' partner (positive illusion or objectively) has important consequences on the success of that relationship.

#### **2. The influence of self- and partner-enhancement, perceptual congruence and personal identity on relational satisfaction among married couples, dating couples and same-sex roommate dyads**

When Taylor and Brown [1] presented research evidence that positive illusions the belief that I rate higher in any given domain than objective evidence would suggest—have a beneficial influence on a person's life satisfaction, well-being, and relational success; heated debate followed. Early on Colvin and Block [2], Colvin et al. [3] were the primary antagonists questioning both Taylor and Brown's methodology and conclusions and went on to cite research that demonstrated the benefits of perceptual accuracy (e.g., [4, 5]).

A good deal of research has provided support for the Taylor and Brown perspective (e.g., [6–10]), but other researchers have demonstrated the opposite. For instance, Robins and Beer [11] found that positive illusions may produce short term benefit but often result in long-term negative consequences. Other studies also demonstrated challenges with positive illusions and the benefits of greater accuracy of perception (e.g., [12–16]).

Since there appears to be evidence on both sides of the issue, this study attempts to unravel the dynamics of when illusion or accuracy produces better results. Baumeister [7] has already demonstrated that as the magnitude of illusion increases, the benefit diminishes. But we extend beyond Baumeister's efforts to explore a number of factors that may influence when illusion (or enhancement) is beneficial or harmful.

To accomplish this, three different types of ratings are employed: subject ratings, partner ratings and test results.

**Subject ratings**. The subjects rate themselves on six traits, four temperaments and 15 personal characteristics on 7-point scales.

**Partner ratings**. The partners rate the subjects on the same six traits, four temperaments and 15 personal characteristics on the same scale.

**Tests**. The subjects take personality or temperament tests (details provided later) that measure the six traits and four temperaments.

Then the influence of enhancement or congruence on relational satisfaction is explored. Specifically, the study addresses congruence or enhancement in three different settings:


We pause a moment to operationalize several terms or phrases. The term *Subject* (always capitalized) refers to the primary participant who self-rates on a number of qualities and then takes tests for comparison with the self-ratings. The *Partner* (always capitalized) refers to the other member of the dyad who assesses how he or she thinks the Subject rates on the same personal qualities. *Enhancement* refers to positive differences among test results, Subject ratings, and the Partner ratings.

*The Influence of Self- and Partner-Enhancement, Perceptual Congruence and Personal Identity… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93913*

*Deviation* refers to the differences (absolute values) among the same three. The term *relational satisfaction* is the score on the Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS, [17]) and represents the primary dependent variable. To avoid redundancy we form two abbreviations: *Subject RS* and *Partner RS*.

A second issue explored is what George and George [18] call "essence qualities". It parallels Erikson's view of personal identity [19, 20], but differs in that essence qualities identify *specific areas* in which an individual is heavily defined. In the questionnaire, 15 different personal qualities are Presented and Subjects rate to what extent they are defined by each of the 15 on 7-point scales. The Partners then rate the Subjects on the same 15 qualities.

The inclusion of essence qualities allows two additional types of exploration:

First, since Subjects rate themselves and Partners rate the Subjects on essence qualities, contrasts between Subject- and Partner-ratings can be employed to measure the impact of these differences on relational satisfaction. This broadens the overall investigation to 25 different personal characteristics to test enhancement or congruence between Subjects and Partners Twenty-five is far more extensive than most studies in this area.

Second, the influence of the *strength* of essence qualities on relational satisfaction can also be measured. Linville [21] research allows some interesting parallels. She found that self-complexity has a significant positive impact on relational success and overall life satisfaction. It is anticipated that strength of essence qualities would have a similar effect.

#### **3. Literature review**

**Positive illusions: do they exist and how are they measured**. There is little controversy about the existence of positive illusions. The tendency to view one's self and important people in one's environment more positively than reality is common to the human experience (e.g., [1, 22–26]).

Several methods have been used to measure positive illusions: A common one is to measure one's self on a particular quality then measure hypothetical others on the same quality (e.g., [1, 26, 27]). In relationships, illusion may be measured by comparing an individual's perception with the perception of their partner (e.g., [9]). Lewinsohn et al. [28] contrasted the opinion of experts with the opinion of the subjects. In the objective world, there is often opportunity to compare with actual standards (e.g., [29]). Example: I think I'm really smart. A test reveals an IQ of 87. My perception is illusion. In the medical world, one's perception of likelihood or speed of recovery can also be contrasted with actual results (e.g., [26]). Example: A cancer patient thinks he will live another six months. He actually lives another four months. His opinion was illusion. In the present study we employ the method of research found in the objective domain: Self-perception is contrasted with results of an assessment instrument.

In addition to illusion about self, there is also a significant literature that deals with illusion about someone else. In the context of romantic relationships, the illusion applies to one's partner. The phrase "love is blind" dates back 650 years [30]. The meaning then and now is identical, and refers to the tendency to view one's partner with an unrealistically positive bias. Gagné and Lydon [31] and Solomon and Vazire [32] both address this phenomenon and argue that it is possible for one to have both positive bias and realistic appraisals of their romantic partner. In the present study, equal attention is devoted to both self-bias and partner-bias.

**Positive illusions are associated with greater relational satisfaction**. The logic of beneficial positive illusions was suggested by Bandura [33] who stated that if

everyone viewed themselves entirely accurately they would only attempt tasks they could easily accomplish. Those who view themselves more positively often put in "the extra effort needed to surpass their ordinary performances" (p. 1176).

In addition to Taylor and Brown's work [1, 26], Murray, Holmes and Griffin's [10] longitudinal research with a sample of dating couples revealed that good relationships were a combination of accepting certain negative qualities and idealizing (positive illusions) the strengths of their Partners. A year later, Murray and Holmes [9] included married couples into their study with similar results. Neff and Karney [34] and George et al. [35] found that people with higher relational satisfaction tend to see their Partners in a more positive light, to idealize their positive qualities and to view their own relationship as superior to others. Babincak [6] with a sample of 154 undergraduates found that those with an inflated view of themselves experienced greater personal and relational satisfaction. Morry, Reich, and Kito [8] found that with a sample of 92 cross-sex friendships, 90 dating couples and 94 married couples partner enhancement resulted in greater feelings of being understood, validated and overall relationship quality. This is only a sampling of an extensive literature on this topic (e.g., [36, 37]).

**Partner enhancement is associated with poorer relational satisfaction**. The logic of a negative impact of a Partner having positive illusions about a Subject, is suggested by the marriage proposal. Many times, agreement to marry is concomitant with the rosy glow that renders inflated perception (positive illusions) of personal characteristics of their partner and ends down the line with divorce.

Robins and Beer [11] revealed that in personal relationships, positive illusions about one's partner may produce immediate happiness but result in long term diminishment of well-being, self-esteem and poorer relational success. Tucker and Anders [16] found that anxiously attached married men experienced poorer marital satisfaction due to their inability to accurately perceive their Partner's feelings. Cooper, Chassin, and Zeiss [13] found that congruence between the husband's self-concept and the wife's perception of the husband's self-concept was associated with greater relational satisfaction. An older study [15] found that greater relational satisfaction was associated with congruence between the husband's expectations and the wife's perception of those expectations.

**Personal qualities**. The influence of personal qualities on relational satisfaction has been explored in many studies. Research has found that four of the six qualities used in this study are related to greater relational satisfaction: emotional stability (e.g., [38, 39]); agreeableness (e.g., [38]); social skills (e.g., [40, 41]); and spirituality (e.g., [42–45]; Shaffer, 2008). Hostility and depressiveness are predictors of lower relational satisfaction (e.g., [46, 47]).

#### **4. Summary**

The present research is exploratory. Since there is such a diversity of research outcomes in this field, hypotheses are difficult to form. What this study does contribute is a more objective assessment of enhancement or congruence by including comparisons with test results. Then, greater validity is achieved because of 25 personal qualities are used in these comparisons (see [48] for a discussion of these issues). Finally, the ability to include enhancement, congruence, diminishment, or deviation as predictors (of relational satisfaction) allows greater comprehensiveness.

The dependent variable is relational satisfaction as measured by the Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS). As mentioned earlier, subject relationship satisfaction is designated "*Subject RS*"; partner relationship satisfaction is designated "*Partner RS*". This

*The Influence of Self- and Partner-Enhancement, Perceptual Congruence and Personal Identity… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93913*

study explores whether enhancement (Subject-test, Partner-test, Partner-Subject), congruence (Subject-test, Partner-test, Partner-Subject), deviation—the absolute value of differences between the same three contrasts, and strength of essence qualities has a significant impact on relational satisfaction. These comparisons are measured for the entire sample (*N* = 406) and for the three subsets of the sample: Married couples (*N* = 203), dating or engaged couples (*N* = 100) and same-sex roommates (*N* = 103).

#### **5. Method**

#### **5.1 Participants**

A total of 812 subjects participated. They were assessed as dyads and were identified as the *Subject* and the *Partner*. Thus, there were 406 Subject-Partner pairs: 203 were married couples, 100 were dating or engaged couples, and 103 were same-sex roommates. The married couples were defined as legally married or cohabiting for at least one year. Dating and engaged couples were self-identified. Roommates were defined as living in the same dorm room or house and were restricted to same-sex roommates in a non-romantic relationship. All romantically involved couples were heterosexual.

Gender breakdown included 432 women (53%) and 380 men (47%). The ethnic composition of the group was 56% Caucasian, 11% Black, 11% Asian, 15% Hispanic and 7% other. The mean age of the married couples was 43.1 years (range 21–85); mean age of the dating/engaged couples was 25.1 years (range 18–59) and the mean age of roommates was 22.8 (range 18–61). Other demographics included religious affiliation, amount of education, and duration of the relationship. Married couples averaged: 3.4 years of college and 16.7 years married (range: 2–47 years). Dating couples: 2.6 years of college, 2.0 years dating (range: 1 month – 5 years). Same-sex roommates: 2.6 years of college, 1.6 years as roommates (range: 1 month – 3.4 years).

#### **6. Materials**

Materials included separate questionnaires for the Subjects and the Partners. The Subject questionnaire was four pages (2-sided) and the Partner questionnaire was two pages (2-sided). The questionnaires were identical for married and dating/engaged couples. They were also identical for roommates except for the relationship-satisfaction questions, which were adapted to measure satisfaction in the context of a non-romantic relationship.

**The questionnaires**. The Subject questionnaire began with 2/3 page of instructions, including the sponsoring organization, brief description of the study, assurance of confidentiality, informed consent, debriefing and further instructions about how to complete the hardcopy or the online versions. This was followed by six demographic items, 18 items that measured Essence Qualities, 10 items that allowed Subjects to make a self-rating on each of 10 personal qualities, and 60 items assessed social skills, agreeableness, depression, hostility, emotional stability and spirituality. Next followed a 24-item test adapted from the DISC that measured temperament types, and the final page measured relationship satisfaction with the Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS, [17]).

The Partner questionnaire included the same instructions and the demographic items. However, for the 18 Essence Qualities, the six personality measures, and the four DISC temperament measure, rather than rating themselves, they rated the Subject. The Partner questionnaire concluded with the Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS) to measure their own relational satisfaction.

#### **6.1 Procedure**

Students from an undergraduate research-methods class at a university in Central Alberta, collected data for partial class credit. They were provided with a script to use when approaching potential participants. The method of approach included face-to-face, telephone, email, and a variety of social media resources always using the pre-prepared script.

Two different methods of assessment were used: Hard-copy and online versions of the questionnaire: 180 dyads completed the hard copy; 226 completed the online version. After hard-copy forms were completed, Subjects sealed the survey in a coded envelope and returned it to one of several collection boxes on campus. For online forms, when Subjects completed all questions, results were automatically forwarded to the central database.

All data were entered and analyzed. Irregular or incomplete forms were discarded prior to data entry. The most common type of discarded form was when one individual from the dyad responded but their Partner did not. More specifically, there were 812 valid forms. An additional 50 forms were discarded due to being incomplete or irregular. A depressing 292 forms were valid but were unpaired with a Partner and thus were unusable in the present study.

#### **6.2 Variables**

**Overview**. The study is complex and includes several different classes of variables and several types of analyses or manipulations of those variables. Because of this, the following road map will provide context.

Classes of variables include:


Four broad classes of analysis include:


*The Influence of Self- and Partner-Enhancement, Perceptual Congruence and Personal Identity… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93913*

**Demographics**. Included are gender, ethnicity (Black, White, Asian, Hispanic, Other), age, religious affiliation (several prominent Protestant denominations, Catholic, agnostic, atheist, other) amount of education (scale ranging from less than high school to doctorate), and duration of the relationship.

**The self-ratings.** Subjects were asked to rate themselves on the six personal qualities: agreeableness, emotional stability, social skills, spirituality, depressiveness, and hostility and the four DISC temperaments: Dominant, Influencer, Supportive, Conscientious. Each of the self-ratings was scored on a 7-point scale. For trait measures, the upper and lower anchors varied based on the qualities being measured. The middle score was 4 (*about as much as others*) or an equivalent phrase. For temperament measures, the anchors were identical: 1 (*not in the slightest*) to 7 (*yes, that's me!*).

Appreciate that a self-rating on a trait is attempting to measure a single quality. Temperament, by contrast, is multi-faceted and statements appear to be not only double-barreled, but multi-barreled. The unique value of temperament measures (in a counseling or seminar context) and the difficulty of measuring these constructs for use in research, is fully appreciated. Because of this, the temperament measures see only limited use in this study. Two examples follow:


**Personality trait measures from assessment instruments**. The choice of the six traits was based on the experience of the authors and their colleagues in a counseling context. All six personality variables have demonstrated their influence in the success and non-success of relationships. All variables produced a final measure ranging from 1 to 7 with 1 representing low levels of a particular quality and 7 associated with high levels.

*Spirituality*. Personal spirituality was assessed by 12 questions selected from the 18-item George-Mabb-Walsh Spirituality Scale [49]. All questions were measured on 7-point scales; anchors varied depending on the nature of the question. Three of the items were reverse coded. The final spirituality measure was the mean of the 12 items with 1 representing low levels of spirituality and 7 high levels.

*Agreeableness, Emotional stability*. Two predictors were selected from the Big Five Personality Inventory [50]: Agreeableness (9 items) and Neuroticism/emotional stability (8 items) were rated on 7-point scales that ranged from 1 (*Strongly disagree*), to 4 (*Neutral*) and 7 (*strongly agree*). The final measure for both variables was the mean of the relevant items.

*Social Skills*. Social skills was measured by 11 questions selected from the Carlsmith Social Skills Scale [40]. Items were rated on 7-point scales. Anchors varied based on the nature of the questions. Three of the items were reverse coded. The final measure was the mean of the 11 ratings.

*Depression*. Depression was assessed by 11 statements that measured depression from the Anxiety and Stress Scale [47]. Scales, scoring and the final measure were identical to those for Social skills. Thus, 1 represents low levels of depression and 7 high levels.

*Hostility*. Hostility was measured with 10 items selected from the State Hostility Scale [46]. Subjects indicated to what extent they agreed or disagreed with each of

ten statements. Each statement was scored on a 7-point scale with the same anchors as those used in the Big 5. The final Hostility measure was the mean of the 10 items with 1 representing low levels of hostility and 7 indicating high levels.

**DISC Temperament Scale measures.** Four temperament qualities were assessed by an adaptation of an on-line version of the DISC Temperament Scale. Each of the four temperaments is associated with one of the four letters of D-I-S-C (Dominant, Influencer, Supportive, Conscientious). For instance, the description of the S (*supportive*) temperament is "I am cooperative, kind, loyal, patient, and enjoy encouraging and supporting others."

The DISC assessment instrument included 24 lines of four randomly distributed words. In each line one of the words reflected the D (*dominant*) perspective; one of the words was associated with I (*influencer*); one with S (*supportive*) and the fourth word related to C (*conscientious*). Participants selected one word in each of the 24 sets. The raw score for D, I, S, and C was the sum of words that were circled. For this data set, D-scores ranged from 0 to 20; I-scores from 0 to 16; S-scores from 0 to 17; and C-scores from 0 to 17. To create metrics similar to other variables, raw scores were converted to 7-point scales based on a normal distribution of values utilizing the IBM SPSS® "Rv.Lnormal" procedure.

**Essence qualities**. Essence Qualities were assessed by Subjects rating to what extent 15 different attributes, widely found to be common defining qualities [18], were central to their identity. The items included: understanding, social, perceptive, generous, cherish family and family events, love of learning, deeply spiritual, ever growing, creative, disciplined, neat and orderly, musical, logical, and enthusiastic pursuit of fitness. The 15th item asked their profession and three additional lines were provided to include other options. These additional lines were heavily used as 67% of participants included at least one additional quality; 39% identified three additional qualities. All 18 items were rated on 7-point scales. The lower and middle anchors varied based on the quality described. The high anchor was 7 (*central to my identity*) for all 18. An example follows:

1. Disciplined. 1 (*follow my urges*), 4 (*when necessary*), 7 (*central to my identity*).

To reduce bias, the Partners also rated the Subjects on the same 15 measures. The final measure of the strength of each of the 15 Essence Qualities was the mean of the Subject's and the Partner's rating. This "criss-cross" method of reducing bias is widely employed in couples' research (see [51]). The overall measure was the mean of the 15 criss-crossed scores. A score near 1 represents many low ratings across the 15 contrasting qualities; a score near 7 indicates many high ratings across these diverse qualities. The variable being measured is: "To what extent am I heavily defined across a number of contrasting qualities."

**Relational satisfaction, the primary dependent variable.** Relational satisfaction was assessed by the Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS, [17]) and was scored in the manner specified by the authors. For the roommates (in non-romantic relationships), some of the questions did not fit their setting, such as "quality of sexual relationships." Because of this, three of the 32 questions were deleted and one was adapted to better reflect a roommate setting (instead of "likelihood of divorce or separation," roommates' version was "likelihood of finding another roommate").

Both Subjects and Partners completed the Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS) so the study could assess how different variables influenced both the Subjects' relational satisfaction (*Subject RS*) and the Partners' relational satisfaction (*Partner RS*).

*The Influence of Self- and Partner-Enhancement, Perceptual Congruence and Personal Identity… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93913*

#### **6.3 Difference scores**

**Enhancement measures**. The measures of enhancement and congruence in the present study involved difference scores. These differences were calculated between (a) Subject self-ratings and test results (to measure self-enhancement), (b) Partner's ratings of the Subject and test results (to measure Partner enhancement), and (c) Partner's rating and the Subject's rating (to measure whether Partners rated Subjects higher than Subjects rated themselves). Also included was (d) Essence qualities. Since there were only Subject and Partner ratings only Partner-Subject enhancement could be measured

Once differences were calculated, they were changed to z scores to create metrics similar to other variables. Correlations or regressions between the difference scores and relational satisfaction identified whether enhancement benefits, had no effect, or diminishes relational satisfaction.

**Congruence measures**. There were also four different congruence measures. The congruence measures are simply the absolute value of the four types of enhancement measures listed above. Congruence measures assessed to what extent participants deviated from congruence either with test scores or with the Subject self-ratings. A score near zero suggests high congruence whereas larger scores suggest deviation from congruence—whether enhancement or diminishment.

#### **6.4 Profile similarity correlation**

The Profile Similarity Correlation measure is increasingly used in couples' research (e.g., [52, 53]) but shows promise as a tool to better understand the dynamics of relational satisfaction. The PSC is designed to measure similarity of profiles between two members of a dyad. In the present study, PSCs were computed across 10 variables, the six personality variables and the four temperaments.

Four PSC measures were computed in the present study: (a) the correlations between the Subject's 10 self-ratings and the Subject's test results; (b) the correlation between the Partner's 10 Subject-ratings and the Subject's test results; (c) the correlation between the Partner's 10 Subject-ratings and the Subject's self-ratings; and (d) the correlation between Subject's ratings of 15 Essence Qualities and the Partner's rating of the Subject's 15 Essence Qualities.

An example illustrates the usefulness of PSC. Let us say the Subject rates himself 4 s and 5 s on the 10 of the Essence Qualities and 1 s and 2 s on the other five. A hypothetical Partner rates the Subject 5 s and 6 s on the same 10 Essence Qualities and 2 s and 3 s on the other five. This profile illustrates two separate outcomes: Enhancement of the Subject by the Partner (the Partner consistently rates the Subject higher than the Subject rates himself) and a strong correlation between the two sets of values (a high PSC) due to the similarity of profile (high and low ratings by the Subject are matched by high and low ratings by the Partner).

If correlations between PSC and relational satisfaction are computed, a high correlation suggests that similarity of ratings is associated with relational satisfaction.

#### **7. Results**

The primary purpose of the study is to determine the influence of enhancement, congruence or diminishment on relational satisfaction among couples. In addition, we explore some related findings such as the influence of personal qualities and strength of Essence Qualities on relational satisfaction. We begin by reporting the psychometric validity of our variables and comparing our results with Baumeister's.


*The Influence of Self- and Partner-Enhancement, Perceptual Congruence and Personal Identity… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93913*


*\* DAS scored according to instructions of the authors. Missing values for all variables were low (0–3% range) and were replaced by predicted values from regression equations. S = Subject rating. P = Partner rating.*

#### **Table 1.**

*Psychometrics of key variables; N = 406 for all variables.*

#### **7.1 Psychometrics**

All the primary criterion and predictor variables displayed good to excellent psychometrics. **Table 1** provides a complete assemblage of essentially all variables used in the study and includes standard psychometrics plus measures of internal consistency (α).

A comparison of the 360 (44%) participants who completed the hard-copy questionnaires with the 452 (56%) who completed the online version found few systematic differences between the two sets. The authors judged that the two groups were sufficiently similar to combine into a single data set.

#### **7.2 Influence of degree of enhancement on relationship satisfaction**

First, present results partially confirmed the Baumeister findings that more extreme illusions are less beneficial. However, there was only one setting where enhancement increased relational satisfaction: The Partner's RS was higher if the Partner rated the Subject higher than the Subject rated him or herself (*r*[404] *=* .21, *p* < .001). However when the squared term was added in a stepwise regression analysis, the benefit dropped off significantly as the enhancement becomes greater: β = −.19, *R* = .40, *R*<sup>2</sup> = .16, *R*<sup>2</sup> change = .024, *F*-change (1, 403) = 11.523, *p* = .001. See **Figure 1** that illustrates a positive linear relationship and a negative curvilinear relationship.

#### **7.3 Influence of enhancement on RS**

A brief overview of the central issue now takes place. The degrees of freedom for all correlations is 404 unless otherwise specified. Self-enhancement diminished both the Subjects' (*r =* −.21, *p* < .001) and the Partners' (*r =* −.14, *p* = .005) RS. The Partner-test enhancement resulted in lower *Subject RS* (*r* = −.18, *p* < .001) and had no effect on *Partner RS* (*r* = .08, *p* = .10). The Partner-Subject enhancement showed no effect for Subjects (*r* = −.03, *ns*) and, the one instance of support for Taylor and Brown, enhanced RS for Partners (*r* = .21, *p* < .001).

**Figure 1.** *Diminishment of benefit as enhancement becomes greater.*

A different pattern emerged when considering enhancement of Essence Qualities. Since no instrument measures Essence Qualities, the only enhancement possibility is a comparison of Subject ratings on each of the 15 with the Partner rating of the Subjects' Essence Qualities. The results found that Partner-Subject EQ enhancement was associated with greater relational satisfaction for the Subject (*r* = .14, *p* = .005) and even more so for Partner (*r* = .34, *p* < .001). Greater detail may be found in **Table 2**. Thus, with the exception of Partner-Subject enhancement, there was a consistent pattern of enhancement being associated with lower relational satisfaction.

#### **7.4 Influence of deviation on relational satisfaction**

Recall that deviation from congruence is the absolute value of (a) subject minus test, (b) partner minus test, and (c) partner minus subject. A score of zero indicates no deviation whereas a larger score indicates greater deviation.

The Subject-test deviation was associated with poorer RS for the Subjects (*r* = −.15, *p* = .002) and the Partners (*r* = −.17, *p* = .001). The Partner-test deviation predicted lower RS for the Subjects (*r* = −.17, *p* = .001) and the Partners (*r* = −.16, *p* = .001). Partner-Subject deviation was associated with lower RS (marginal) for the Subjects (*r* = −.10, *p* = .056) and the Partners (*r* = −.12, *p* = .016). Finally Subject-Partner Essence-Quality deviation showed a similar trend: lower RS for the Subjects (*r* = −.13, *p* = .010) and the Partners (*r* = −.14, *p* = .007). While no results were particularly robust, there was a consistent pattern of deviation being associated with lower relational satisfaction. **Table 2** contains additional detail on how Marrieds, Dating, and Roommates fared on the same comparisons.

#### **7.5 Influence of profile similarity coefficient (PSC) on relational satisfaction**

Profile Similarity Correlations (for the entire data set) included:


*The Influence of Self- and Partner-Enhancement, Perceptual Congruence and Personal Identity… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93913*

*\*Deviate: Absolute value of the enhance score. Positive correlation: greater deviation associated with greater RS. Negative correlation: greater deviation associated with lower RS.*

#### **Table 2.**

*Bivariate correlations between key variables and subject and partner relational satisfaction; 2-tail significance in parentheses (p > .10 = "ns"); degrees of freedom, N – 2.*

**Subject-test PSC**. A high PSC predicted greater *Subject RS* (*r* = .26, *p* < .001) and *Partner RS* (*r* = .22, *p* < .001). A similar pattern emerged for all subsets except for the dating couples.

**Partner-test PSC**. A high PSC predicted greater *Subject RS* (*r* = .27, *p* < .001) and *Partner RS* (*r* = .34, *p* < .001). A similar pattern of significance emerged for all subsets.

**Partner-Subject PSC**. A high PSC predicted greater *Subject RS* (*r* = .31, *p* < .001) and *Partner RS* (*r* = .33, *p* < .001). A similar pattern emerged for all subsets except for dating couples.

**Subject-Partner PSC for Essence Qualities**. A high PSC predicted greater *Subject RS* (*r* = .11, *p* = .032) and *Partner RS* (*r* = .11, *p* = .035). Although results in the context of Essence Qualities are barely significant, the pattern is consistent with other PSC measures.

Thus in all four setting similarity of correlations (high PSC) is associated with greater relational satisfaction for both subjects and partners. See **Table 2** for detail.

#### **7.6 Influence of strength of essence qualities on personal characteristics and RS**

The influence of Essence-Quality strength on relational satisfaction was consistent with Erikson's theory. Stronger Essence Qualities on the part of the primary Subject was associated with greater RS for both the Subjects (*r* = .30, *p* < .001) and even more so for the Partners (*r* = .37, *p* < .001). A similar pattern of results was observed for all subsets.

#### **7.7 Influence of personal traits on relational satisfaction**

Both Subjects' and Partners' relational satisfaction was enhanced if they were more emotionally stable, agreeable, socially skilled, and spiritual, and was diminished if they were more hostile or depressed. The *r*-values ranged from .22 to .43 for the Subjects; from .12 to .28 for the Partners (all significance values were *p* < .001). It is interesting to note that the pattern of relationships was the same for both Subjects and Partners but the effect for Subjects was more robust in every instance.

#### **7.8 Insights from regression analysis**

This data set is not primarily designed for regression analysis or structural equation modeling. The study addresses several specific factors associated with relational satisfaction and there is no intent for it to be comprehensive. The objective of the regressions in this setting is not so much to attain high R<sup>2</sup> values but rather to test the relative importance of the predictor variables and also partial correlations after other variables are accounted for.

Two analyses were conducted: the first included a criterion variable of *Subject RS*, the second a criterion variable of *Partner RS*. Predictors for both analyses included six discrepancy variables (the last six variables in **Table 1**), four PSC variables (subject-test, partner-test, subject partner, subject-partner essence qualities), essence qualities (single combined variable), and the six tested personality variables. For all analyses, Stepwise Multiple regression was conducted with a *p* to enter of .07 and a *p* to drop of .10. Note: Additional regressions were conducted with subsets of these variables; contact the first author for additional information.

**Analysis 1**. The regression on *Subject RS* found four variables entering the equation: Depression, β = −.27; Partner-Subject PSC, β = .12; Essence Qualities, β = .11; and hostility β = −.11. This generated R, R2 and DF values of: .47, .23, 1, 401.

**Analysis 2**. The regression on *Partner RS* also found four variables entering the equation: Essence Qualities, β = .23; Partner enhance Subject, β = .21; hostility, β = −.17; and Partner-Subject PSC, β = .14. This generated R, R2 and DF values of: .50, .25, 1, 401.

*The Influence of Self- and Partner-Enhancement, Perceptual Congruence and Personal Identity… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93913*

Thus, three qualities significantly influenced both Subject and Partner relational satisfaction: Strength of essence qualities, congruence between subjects and partners on the ten self- and partner-ratings (Subject – Partner PSC), and the negative impact of hostility. Depression was the greatest single predictor (negative) of the subjects' relational satisfaction. The partner viewing the subject higher than subject self-ratings was the second-ranked predictor of the partners' relational satisfaction.

#### **7.9 Other differences**

Analysis of gender differences were remarkable more for the similarity between men and women than for any differences. When contrasting type of relationships, for both Subjects and Partners, dating couples had the greatest RS (*M*s = 4.86, 4.85), marrieds were next (*M*s = 4.71, 4.67), and roommates were lowest (*M*s = 4.32, 4.37). All pairwise comparisons were significantly different (α = .05).

#### **8. Discussion**

As the discussion progresses, the reader is reminded of the overall perspective of this study. Taylor and Brown [1] research supported the benefits of positive illusions in many settings. Subsequent research has instances of support or non-support for the Taylor and Brown Theory. Present findings are discussed in the context of identifying the influence of enhancement or congruence on relational satisfaction in several contexts.

#### **8.1 The influence of enhancement**

Three types of enhancement are explored in this study: Subject-test, Partnertest, and Partner-Subject. In contrast with the Taylor and Brown theory in almost all instances enhancement (positive illusions) is detrimental to relational satisfaction; both for the Subjects and the Partners. The only instance of support for Taylor and Brown is when Partners rate Subjects higher than Subjects rate themselves, the Partner's relational satisfaction is enhanced.

This pattern holds true for each of the subsets except for married couples. Their results are in the same direction but not significant for the Subject and show a non-significant *positive* trend for the Partner. The contrast of the married couples is perhaps in the nature of their relationship. In an on-going and committed relationship, researchers find that attention to (and even enhancement of) the positives and the ignoring of the negatives is one key to success in many marriages (see [9, 34, 35]).

#### **8.2 The influence of deviation from accuracy of perception**

For all three settings, a deviation from congruence from either the test results or the Subjects' self-ratings results in diminished relational satisfaction for both Subjects and Partners. When the Subject self-ratings deviate from the test results, the outcome is lower RS for Subjects and Partners and for each subset. An identical pattern occurs for deviation of the Partners' Subject-ratings with test results, also significant (for the entire sample). The results are less robust for the Partner deviating from Subject ratings. Both show negative impact but are barely significant. Although marrieds, dating and roommates show a similar pattern of results their outcomes are often do not achieve significance. The influence of PSC helps to create a more complete picture.

#### **8.3 The influence of profile similarity correlation (PSC)**

The Profile Similarity Correlation measures how similar (highly correlated) are the pattern of ratings between the couples on a given set of variables. Also, as suggested in the introduction, the PSC can also measure enhancement or diminishment.

The PSC produced some of the strongest results in the entire data set. For three of the PSC measures (Subject-test, Partner-test, and Partner-Subject), not only are benefits to the relational satisfaction of both Subjects and Partners for entire sample significant at the .001 level, most of the subsets achieve the same significance.

The message is clear. When the results of deviation from accuracy and the PSC are considered, one may say that relational satisfaction (whether for Subjects or Partners) is associated with reasonable accuracy of judgment and congruence with both the Subject self-ratings and test results. When the occasional benefit of enhancement occurs (only for the Partner rating the Subject higher than the Subject rates herself) one is motivated to ask the question: Is this the type of enhancement spoken of by Robins and Beer [11] that yields short-term benefit but long-term misfortune?

#### **8.4 The influence of essence qualities**

In the present study, those high in Essence Qualities scored a perfect record (all at *p*s < .001) of being more agreeable, emotionally stable, spiritual, better social skills, while being less hostile, and depressed.

The results were nearly as strong with the benefit on Subject's and Partner's RS. Of all possible correlations (between Essence Qualities and relational satisfaction), the effect was significant at the .001 level for the entire sample and all subset except dating couples.

These results, despite being robust, should not be that surprising. Erikson [19, 20] anchored a strong personal identity (Stage 5) as the prerequisite to successful intimate relationships (Stage 6). Linville [21] also found emotional and relational health associated with her concept of self-complexity. The utility of essence qualities as a unique concept (despite similarities to Erikson and Linville) is their usefulness in a counseling or seminar context. George and George [18] have documented that almost never do a couple share identical essence qualities. In counseling, then, the couple can learn to enjoy the strength of shared essences and explore how to deal with essences that differ.

#### **8.5 Variations based on the subsets**

When considering the three primary subsets (marrieds, dating couples, roommates) responses were reasonably consistent with the overall results, except for the dating couples. Of 26 comparisons between the three groups, the dating couples produced similar but weaker results 16 times, completely opposite results 3 times, and were reasonably congruent results on the other six. Essentially, we found less influence on Subject and *Partner RS* by the dating couples than for the entire sample or the other two groups. Researchers speculate that the "in love" factor may be instrumental. "In love" is not an issue with the roommates and is less of a factor with the marrieds with an average duration of the relationships of 17 years. Perhaps the tendency of in-love Partners to idealize each other, renders the effects of enhancement, congruence or similarity to be not so great an influence. This also underlines the contention [18] that the dynamics of successful friendship (roommates in this case) are quite similar to the dynamics of successful romantic relationships.

*The Influence of Self- and Partner-Enhancement, Perceptual Congruence and Personal Identity… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93913*

#### **8.6 Limitations of the study and conclusions**

More might be done with the temperament measures. In this study, temperament was used only in the PSC correlations. The challenge of their multidimensionality provides difficulty for any researcher, but the multidimensionality is intrinsic to the concept of temperament. Their power in a counseling or seminar setting demonstrates that continued effort to provide effective ways to measure and employ them in research is desirable.

A possible solution is, perhaps, suggested by the measure of Essence Qualities in the present study. Essence Qualities are defined as *contrasting qualities* that define an individual. Yet a measure was derived "the mean of the 15" that measures strength of identity across a wide range of diverse qualities. Perhaps this provides some insights into the measure of temperament. Temperament should be easier to measure and conceptualize (than essence qualities) because the set of qualities are often highly correlated with each other.

Perhaps the greatest limitation of the study is that the areas in which enhancement or congruence were assessed (the six personality variables) is limited. There are thousands of areas in couple relationships that might also be assessed. How well do results from six variables extrapolate to enhancement or congruence across the wide array of other personal characteristics? Future studies might begin to systematically explore different classes of variables to gain a more complete picture.

#### **8.7 A final word**

The present study reveals that asking whether positive illusions are beneficial is too simplistic. The study appears to illustrate that positive illusions by the Partner may sometimes have benefit. But, this finding is overwhelmed by the weight of evidence that 1. assessment that is congruent with Subject ratings or test results, 2. assessment that does not deviate too far from the test or partner ratings, and 3. a high correlation between the perspectives of the one doing the judging and one being judged is beneficial to relational satisfaction.

#### **Author details**

Darren Michael George1 \*, Andrel Wisdom1 , Annelise Linrud1 , Stephanie Hall2 , Miriam Ballais1 and Karina Bermudez1

1 Burman University, Canada

2 Trinity Western University, Canada

\*Address all correspondence to: dgeorge@burmanu.ca

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

#### **References**

[1] Taylor SE, Brown JD. Illusion and well-being: A social psychological perspective on mental health. Psychological Bulletin. 1988;*103*:193-210

[2] Colvin CR, Block J. Do positive illusions foster mental health? An examination of the Taylor and Brown formulation. Psychological Bulletin. 1994;*116*(*1*):3-20

[3] Colvin CR, Block J, Funder DC. Overly positive self-evaluations and personality: Negative implications for mental health. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1995;*68*(*6*):1152-1162

[4] Allport GW. *Personality: A Psychological Interpretation*. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston; 1937

[5] Jahoda M. *Current Concepts of Positive Mental Health*. New York: Basic Books; 1958

[6] Babincak P. Life satisfaction, beliefs, and relations to oneself and others in university students. Studia Psychologica. 2008;*50*(*1*):79-94

[7] Baumeister RF. The optimal margin of illusion. Journal of Clinical and Social Psychology. 1988;*8*:176-189

[8] Morry MM, Reich T, Kito M. How do I see you relative to myself? Relationship quality as a predictor of self- and partner-enhancement within cross-sex friendships, dating relationships, and marriages. Journal of Social Psychology. 2010;*150*(*4*):369-392

[9] Murray SL, Holmes JG. A leap of faith? Positive illusions in romantic relationships. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 1997;*23*(*6*):586-604

[10] Murray SL, Holmes JG, Griffin DW. The self-fulfilling nature of positive

illusions in romantic relationships: Love is not blind but prescient. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1996;*71*(*6*):1155-1180

[11] Robins RW, Beer JS. Positive illusions about the self: Short-term benefits and long-term costs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2001;*80*(*2*):340-352

[12] Chapman G. *The Five Love Languages*. Chicago: Northfield Publishing; 2004

[13] Cooper K, Chassin L, Zeiss A. The relation of sex-role self-concept and sexrole attitudes to the marital satisfaction and personal adjustment of dual-worker couples with preschool children. *Sex Roles, 12*, 227-241. 1985

[14] Gottman JM. *The Relationship Cure*. New York: Three Rivers Press; 2002

[15] Stuckert R. Role perception and marital satisfaction. Marital and Family Living. 1963;*24*:415-419

[16] Tucker JS, Anders SL. Attachment style, interpersonal perception accuracy, and relationship satisfaction in dating couples. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 1999;*25*(*4*):403-412

[17] Spanier GB. Measuring dyadic adjustment: New scales for assing the quality of marriages and similar dyads. Journal of Marriage and the Family. 1976;*31*(*1*):15-36

[18] George EE, George DM. *The Compatibility Code*. Englewood, CO: Hugo House; 2011

[19] Erikson, E. H. (December 21, 1970). The quest for identity. *Newsweek*, 84-89.

[20] Erikson EH. *Identity, Youth and Crisis*. New York: Norton; 1968

*The Influence of Self- and Partner-Enhancement, Perceptual Congruence and Personal Identity… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93913*

[21] Linville PW. Self-complexity and affective extremity: Don't put all of your eggs in one cognitive basked. Social Cognition. 1985;*3*:94-120

[22] Eply N, Dunning D. The mixed blessings of self-knowledge in behavioral prediction: Enhanced discrimination but exacerbated bias. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 2006;*32*:641-655

[23] Sedikides C. Assessment, enhancement, and verification determinants of the self-evaluation process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1993;*65*(*2*):317-338

[24] Sedikides C, Green JD. What I don't recall can't hurt me: Information negativity versus information inconsistency as determinants of memorial self-defense. Social Cognition. 2004;*22*(*1*):4-29

[25] Suls J, Lemos K, Stewart HL. Selfesteem, construal, and comparisons with the self, friends, and peers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2002;*82*:252-261

[26] Taylor SE, Brown JD. Positive illusions and well-being revisited: Separating fact from fiction. Psychological Bulletin. 1994;*116*(*1*):21-27

[27] Zuckerman EW, Jost JT. What makes you think you're so popular? Self-evaluation maintenance and the subjective side of the "friendship paradox". Social Psychology Quarterly. 2001;*64*(*3*):207-233

[28] Lewinsohn PM, Mischel W, Chaplin W, Barton R. Social competence and depression: The role of illusory self-predictions. Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 1980;*89*(*2*):203-212

[29] Försterling F, Morgenstern M. Accuracy of self-assessment and task performance: Does it pay to know

the truth? Journal of Educational Psychology. 2002;*94*(*3*):576-585

[30] Chaucer, G. (1387). *Canterbury Tales*. Note: unpublished manuscript at the time of Chaucer's death.

[31] Gagné FM, Lydon JE. Bias and accuracy in close relationships: An integrative review. Personality and Social Psychology Review. 2004;*8*(*4*):322-338

[32] Solomon BC, Vazire S. You are so beautiful . . . To me: Seeing beyond biases and achieving accuracy in romantic relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2014;*107*(*3*):516-528

[33] Bandura A. Human agency in social cognitive theory. American Psychologist. 1989;*44*:1175-1184

[34] Neff LA, Karney BR. Judgments of a relationship partner: Specific accuracy but. Global enhancement. Journal of Personality. 2002;*70*:1079-1112

[35] George DM, Luo S, Webb J, Pugh J, Martinez A, Foulston J. Couple similarity on stimulus characteristics and marital satisfaction. Personality and Individual Differences. 2015;*86*:126-131

[36] Endo Y, Heine SJ, Lehman DR. Culture and positive illusions in close relationships: How my relationships are better than yours. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 2000;*26*:1571-1586

[37] MacDonald TK, Ross M. Assessing the accuracy of predictions about dating relationships: How and why do lovers' predictions differ from those made by observers? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 1999;*25*:1417-1429

[38] Bryant CM, Conger RD, Donnellan MB. The big five and enduring marriages. The Journal of Research in Personality. 2004;*38*:481-504

[39] Slatcher RB, Vazire S. Effects of global and contextualized personality on relationship satisfaction. Journal of Research in Personality. 2009;*43*:624-633

[40] Carlsmith MM, Ellsworth PC, Aronson E. *Methods of Research in Social Psychology*. Menlo Park, CA: Addison Wesley; 1976

[41] Troy A. Determining the factors of intimate-relationship satisfaction: Interpersonal communication, sexual communication, and communication affect. Colgate University Journal of the Sciences. 2000;*32*:221-230

[42] Brimhall AS, Butler MH. Intrinsic vs. extrinsic religious motivation and the marital relationship. The American Journal of Family Therapy. 2007;*35*:235-249

[43] Giblin PR. Marital Spirituality: a quantitative study. Journal of Religion and Health. 1997;*36*(*4*):321-332

[44] Hatch RC, James DE, Schumm WR. Spiritual intimacy and marital satisfaction. Family Relations. 1986;*35*(*4*):539-545

[45] Orathinkal J, Vansteenwegen A. Religiosity and marital satisfaction. Contemporary Family Therapy: An International Journal. 2006;*28*(*4*):497-504

[46] Anderson CA, Deuser WE, DeNeve K. Hot temperatures, hostile aggression. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 1995;*21*:434-448

[47] Lovibond SH, Lovibond PF. *Manual for the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales*. 2nd ed. Sydney: Psychology Foundation; 1995

[48] Moore DS, McCabe GP, Craig BA. *Introduction to the Practice of Statistics*. 9th edition ed. New York: W. H. Freeman; 2017

[49] George DM, Mabb R, Walsh M. *Spirituality: Its Measure and Correlates with Students from Christian and Secular Colleges*. Alberta: Unpublished Manuscript, Canadian University College at Lacombe; 1996

[50] Cervone D, Shadel WG, Jencius S. Social-cognitive theory of personality assessment. Personality and Social Psychology Review. 2001;*5*:33-51

[51] Szinovacz ME, Egley LC. Comparing one-partner and couple data on sensitive marital behaviors: The case of marital violence. *Journal of Marriage and the Family*. 1995:995-1010

[52] Luo S, Klohnen EC. Assortative mating and marital quality in newlyweds: A couple-centered approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2005;*88*(*2*):304-326

[53] Luo S, Chen H, Yue G, Guangjian Z, Zhaoyang R, Xu D. Predicting marital satisfaction from self, partner, and couple characteristics: Is it me, you, or us? Journal of Personality. 2008;*76*(*5*):1231-1265

#### **Chapter 16**

The Changing Concept of Self and Identity in Aging Working Women from Shelter Homes: Case Studies on Rebuilding of Interpersonal Relationships

*Nivedita Das*

## **Abstract**

Violence against women has been the subject of study in many countries and in different cultures. The fact that women enjoy a secondary position in many societies is proved through different studies, in spite of the changes in the laws of the countries. How differently a woman is treated at home and work front too is a known subject of research. There are numerous women out there who have been forced into the work force without any option left for them to decide otherwise. May be they don't enjoy the recognition they deserve and the only motivating force for them is the preservation of their individual dignity. There is no certainty about their future yet they are successful in many ways. Here are three women who have dared to raise a voice against the injustice done to them and have ended up in shelter homes for having a mind which thinks differently than the imposed social norms and customs set by the society and have used their voice to get help to preserve their dignity. From uncertainty about life and hopelessness to gaining confidence, having a strong resiliency to hoping for a better future for the future generation, they have seen it all and have extraordinary inspiring life stories to share with the ordinary women.

**Keywords:** women empowerment, self-concept of women, violence against women

#### **1. Introduction**

When we talk about women's identity and their role in the workforce we normally refer to women with designations and well defined job descriptions that are certain about their roles in their homes and offices. A woman plays many roles in her lifetime and each role that she plays requires her to be perfect. An idea about their roles and job details helps them to perfect their roles accordingly. But there are numerous ladies out there who have been forced into the work force without any option left for them to decide otherwise. May be they don't enjoy the recognition they deserve and the only motivating force for them is the preservation of their individual dignity. There is no certainty about their future yet they are successful in many ways. I have been privileged to work with lesser privileged women who are

the bread winners of their family after being severely traumatised by the violence done to them or are leading a life of a single working woman in a male dominated society without realising their unique strength. My visit to some State runs short stay/shelter homes and my interaction with those destitute women in 2003 was the beginning of my beautiful journey with these beautiful souls. I was the district member of the advisory committee of the Odisha State Social Welfare Board which comes under the Women and Child Development Department. What struck me there was their unfailing spirit to celebrate life in spite of the difficulties that they have faced in their lives. That led me to work for them more seriously trying to understand the underlying psychological principles of their successful lives. To be able to work more closely with them I have been involved with a residential home for such women in Odisha since 2008. Recognizing the need to prevent women from exploitation and to support their survival and rehabilitation, the scheme of Short Stay Home/Shelter homes for women and girls was introduced as a social defence mechanism in India, by the then Department of Social Welfare in 1969. The scheme is meant to provide temporary accommodation, maintenance and rehabilitative services to women and girls rendered homeless due to family discord, crime, violence, mental stress, social ostracism or are being forced into prostitution and are in danger. Another scheme with the similar objectives namely Swadhar –A Scheme for Women in Difficult Circumstances was launched by the Department of Women and Child Development in 2001–2002. The scheme through the provisions of shelter, food, clothing, counselling, training, clinical and legal aid aims to rehabilitate such women in difficult circumstance. The shelters provide a physical space for women, where they could escape violence temporarily, stay safe and make decisions about their lives. Furthermore, communicating with other victims of violence helps them to overcome the feeling of isolation and the perception of being the only woman that has a violent partner. Violence against women prevails in increasing numbers in India as well as in other parts of the world.

It becomes pertinent to focus on the social setup and the belief patterns of the society of which these women are part of and have grown up to believe that men are important members of the society, men are to take major decisions in the family, women should worship their husbands after marriage as they are Gods for their wives (there is a day in the year called *Savitri Puja* they observe by fasting and worshipping their Husband Gods believing that by doing so their husbands will live for long). The dowry system still prevails in spite of many legal reforms where demanding dowry is a punishable offence. The birth of a male child is still celebrated over the birth of a female child in rural Odisha as it is believed that a son only has funeral rights and after death, parents will get *Moksha or* liberation if their pyre is lit by their son. Fortunately things are changing in urban Odisha and people are treating their daughters equally as with their sons. But unfortunately there are areas where education is still important only for boys and highly educated girls are considered as a curse to the family, women don't get to marry their choices, dowry decides the happiness of the girl in her in law's house after marriage, giving birth to girl child is scorned upon, widowed women are considered as bad omen on auspicious occasions, it is desirable for a young girl to be able to cook for her father and brothers if she doesn't have a mother or any elderly lady in the family, even if she is as young as 8 or 10 years old, women raising a voice for claiming their own rights is considered as a sin. Growing up in such social set up has made the women more tolerant of the injustices done to them. But when it becomes too much for them, they try to find their own mental balance by questioning the system and leave their houses to maintain their individual dignity. For these battered women their own houses have failed to be their safe havens. In most cases they are considered as rebels and have been declared to be mentally unsound by their own family members

*The Changing Concept of Self and Identity in Aging Working Women from Shelter Homes... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95317*

and end up in rescue homes/shelter homes. Though there is provision of providing counselling by mental health professionals in such homes to these devastated women, they take time to gather their pieces and to start thinking for their future life which they never did as they were never allowed to participate in decision making regarding their own lives in their own family by the male members. Their sense of self is always blurred and their self introduction always featured the names of their fathers or husbands. Their beaten self has emerged as a winner for these women because of their optimistic outlook and hope for a better future and most importantly for their resiliency they could bounce back into life with positivity which calls for special mention and admiration. Not much qualitative research has been done to study the positive psychological variables at play in such population which can throw light on the character strengths and virtues of these women and can implicate for training in such direction like self efficacy in such rescue homes as it is a state like concept.

#### **2. Aim**

Women in India still feel the gender differences in all areas of their lives and when a battered woman seeks help, it is the family members who don't come forward to help her. In spite of all the odds women face and even if they are victims of violence and injustice; there are some psychological variables at play which help them to bounce back into life. Since most of the success stories of such victorious women are not documented to emphasize on the importance of the character strengths and virtues which help in maintaining the balance in difficult life situations, this is a humble attempt to portray the real life case studies of three strong women, who can be examples of showing high resiliency, gratitude and epitomising hope and optimism. They are the women who stayed in rescue/shelter homes for a brief period when life became tough for them, fought with the injustice and for their own dignity and rights, and moved on with their own lives setting examples for others.

#### **3. Method**

To collect the information from subjects that are taken here as case studies have been followed up staying in different short stay/rescue homes in Odisha and I have been working for such women as a volunteer for the last 14 years in the coastal districts of Odisha, a backward state of the Indian subcontinent, situated in the eastern region on the coast of Bay of Bengal. The subjects were carefully chosen and they are the ones who were followed up over a period of time. It seems perfect to cite their life stories as case studies because of the way they have handled their lives with a little bit of therapeutic intervention and a lot of self determination which can be referred to as a high level of self efficacy.

#### **4. Case presentation**

Sometimes the age factor is so embedded in our culture that we don't get surprised when an illiterate person reports his/her age to be half of the age that he/she appear to be. The first two case study women mentioned here are above sixty years of age, though they have reported their age to be lesser than their real age. In rural Odisha, especially those who are not literate have no idea about their age as none of them have birth certificates and birth certificates became compulsory only in the 90s. They have a way of referring to their age as" one Kodi" or "two Kodi" or "three Kodi, where 'kodi' refers to twenty years. So it jumps from forty years to sixty years or eighty years and the safest way we follow to know their age is by asking the age of their youngest kid and then calculate the age of all kids by asking the age difference between them. In the case studies I have kept their ages as reported by them. Thus the two women in case study 1 and case study 2 are above 60, but the case study 3 woman is now 47 years old and is taken here as a case study for the confidence and resilience she has shown which can be emulated by other shelter home women. All these women after moving out from a shelter home normally continue to lead an independent and fulfilling life till their end.

#### **5. Case study 1**

She was the second daughter of her parents and had a younger brother who was pampered by all. As the parents were very poor they could not afford to send all their kids to school. Her brother was allowed to continue schooling though she was better than her younger brother in studies while he struggled through the classes. The eldest daughter was married off at a very young age with huge amount of dowry and she, as the second daughter, was considered as a burden to the family and was forced to do the household chores from a very young age. She felt unwanted and unloved and looked sad always as a teen. She wished to be a boy instead, as she thought boys will always be loved by their parents even if they are no good in other aspects of life. When she was 19 years old she was discovered to be pregnant by her grandmother, who she was sharing her bed with, as she noticed her bulging stomach and morning sickness. She was almost beaten to death by her father but did not reveal the name of the person who was responsible for her pregnancy. Her mother pleaded her to leave home as she feared for her life and was also worried about facing the social ostracism because of her daughter's pregnancy before marriage. They also thought that their elder daughter will be thrown out from her in law's house if they come to know about the younger daughter's plight. She was sent to stay with her aunt who was instructed to take her for an abortion in her village. This was back in 1985 when medical help was not good in villages in rural Odisha. Her aunt took her to a quack who expressed his inability to terminate the pregnancy but suggested to sell the new born to a childless couple. She started worrying for her unborn child and went back to her own village to ask her lover to marry her who was a married man already with two kids. He called her a liar and denied having any relationship with her. She didn't budge from his house and kept sitting there in front of his house for two days. She was abused physically and mentally by the man's family members and was rescued by a social worker in an almost unconscious state. The lady who rescued her was a teacher in a primary school and brought her home. By this time almost the whole village had come to know what had happened to her and started ridiculing her as if she was only to be blamed for the whole thing and wanted the family of the married man not to be disturbed. She was forced to stay with her parents and her parents were not willing to take her back home. When she reached home she was singled out and was flogged again by her mother and the next day she had a miscarriage. After few days she was sent to that aunt of hers again where she had to stay permanently or till they could find her a suitable groom. She was happier there as no one knew about her history in that village except her aunt. After staying with her aunt she joined a village tailoring unit to learn some stitching so that she can be independent financially and earn some money for her own expenses. As she continued stitching she made few friends in that area and

#### *The Changing Concept of Self and Identity in Aging Working Women from Shelter Homes... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95317*

also started believing in herself again. She was happy to take care of her ailing aunt who by now had become sick and old. After her aunt's death she was forced to leave that house as the aunt's brother wanted to sell the house and her aunt was a childless widow. She went on to stay in a shelter home, one of the oldest shelter homes of Odisha, where she was requested to teach stitching to the other inmates who are also abandoned by their own families. She is looked upon as a mature and confident lady who is capable of taking care of distressed women with her gentle approach. She gets a minimum amount of salary for her services by the organization which she spends on the children of her younger brother who is not having a constant source of income. Though her brother's family wants her to come and stay with them she doesn't want to go as she feels her presence here in the organisation is more important and she exudes confidence while quoting that these women who come to stay in the shelter home have to learn a lot in life and her assuring smile indicates that she is there for them and it gave a sense of relief to the young woman who was standing close to her and was a new entrant in the home.

Here are some excerpts from the interview that echoed the importance of optimism and meaning in life for the overall well-being of a person. Asked about what she values in life, she said "its relationship with the right kind of people". In response to what is it that she wants the other women to learn in life, she said focussing on a bigger reason and other's problems will make them learn the biggest lessons of life automatically and their own problems will be reduced into dust. She said it's the journey after deciding the goal will teach them the most… she blurted out "…for me I have reached a point in life where I don't feel helpless anymore". The meaning of her life is the total of her experiences that she experienced in her life through her relationships, work and more importantly self analysis as she puts it.

#### **6. Case study 2**

This woman came to the short stay home when she was almost 50 years old. She was married when she was 22 years old. Her husband used to work as a sweeper in a private organisation and also used to do some odd jobs like a daily wage labourer. He used to drink everyday at night and beat her black and blue. As her parents were very poor and never supported her when she complained about the beatings by her husband, saying it is normal for a man to beat to 'control' their wives. She chose to put up with her situation. She delivered a son after few years of marriage. But the beatings never stopped. The child grew up in an environment where he witnessed his father coming home drunk and beating his mother and his mother keeping quiet and silently taking care of them. As the child grew up he got into bad company and started smoking at a young age. Then drinking followed. Meanwhile her husband was not keeping well and was admitted into the hospital for stomach ulcer. After months of treatment he passed away. Her son was not doing anything and as the wife of an employee who died before retirement, she got her husband's job. She used to finish all the household work and then leave for her job. Her son used to roam around doing nothing. Then he started taking money from her on the pretext of starting a small shop. But one day she discovered that no money has been spent on any shop building. He has blown it all on drugs and alcohol. When she confronted him he got violent and abused her verbally. She was saddened by her son's behaviour and thought of addressing it more seriously as she didn't want him to follow his father's path. But at that night her son came with one of his friends and forcefully took her gold ornaments that she was wearing. He didn't come home for the next few days. Then he emerged after few days, drunk. He fought with her and asked for money and pushed her and punched her. When she protested he tried to

suffocate her by throttling her. The neighbours came and rescued the woman who was coughing incessantly. She couldn't speak for the next two days and her neck got swollen. But her son was unmoved and stayed in the same house expecting his mother to cook for him and take care of him while he continued with his evil ways. The woman's employers enquired about her absence and got to know about her serious condition. They took her out to a gentle man who was working in a program meant for destitute women. As there was threat to her life they wanted her to stay there and take legal action against her son. After a few days the son was arrested for attempting to murder his mother and was sent to a rehabilitation centre meant for drug addicts and alcoholics. She didn't know that it was so easy to get the protection and didn't feel alone for the first time in her life even if she was not staying with her own family members. She keeps saying that now it is very important to believe in one's worth and not to be afraid of anything. If anyone has to be afraid of then it should be the one who is doing wrong. It is our duty to be happy as she puts it and says that she always hoped to see her son different from that of his father. She hasn't lost hope. She goes to visit him once in a month with lots of gifts. Now she is working as a sweeper cum gardener in the same shelter home where she is staying. In addition to that she is the one who is in charge of coordinating with the doctors whenever there is any medical emergency. Her strength of personality, as other women said, makes other women look up to her for help and guidance in times of difficulty. She has started reading out short educational stories and informative articles on various issues to other inmates during their leisure time. When she took me to the house where her son and daughter in law are staying she met a lady who used to be her neighbour. The old neighbour pointed out to her that she looked happy and healthy and different from those days when she used to stay in the same house where her son lives now and teased her saying that she should take her along.

#### **7. Case study 3**

I met her for a session after she was handed over to the staff of a short stay home by the senior psychiatrist of the mental health department of a State run hospital. The doctor felt she doesn't need hospitalization and her family members were not responding to their calls. She seemed to be from a very good, well to do family and spoke perfect English. She excused herself for being shabbily dressed and felt very conscious for the way she was dressed and kept on repeating that she doesn't look like that on normal days and she is very ashamed of her condition. She was a beautiful 45 year old lady and agreed to stay in the short stay home which functions like a stepping stone for women who want to do something in their lives but never got the opportunity because of financial problems or no parental support or are the victims of domestic violence. This lady seemed to be mature enough and could adjust well with the other inmates quickly. It is normally those from the lower socio-economic backgrounds with very little education that are found in such rescue homes/shelter homes. But here she was, a graduate and her father was the Director of the Veterinary Hospital. She opened up in the first session itself and kept crying and seemed as if she was in shock. Her life story seemed nothing less than a cinema story, only difference being her story is real and she lived every bit of it and has fought with the situation, with the injustice done to her and with her parents and finally is settled in a job as a teacher in a school for mentally retarded and autistic children. This is how her life has been as she described as follows:

She was taken to the mental health department of the hospital by her father and as the doctors advised him to keep her in the hospital under observation; her father went out on the pretext of getting bed sheet and pillow for her and never returned.

#### *The Changing Concept of Self and Identity in Aging Working Women from Shelter Homes... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95317*

In Odisha it is still a social stigma to have mental disorders of any kind and people try to hide it unless and until it becomes out of control. For them the 'stamp' of being "mad" gets attached to the person after visiting a psychiatrist is still looked down upon and is something to be ashamed of. As the doctors found her perfectly okay to go home they tried to contact her family members but couldn't trace them. As days passed she couldn't think of ways to get out of the hospital as per the rules of the hospital she cannot be left alone and allowed to go home alone. The senior psychiatrist was sure about one thing that she doesn't need hospitalization and if she is not rescued from there she will get seriously ill and it will harm her more. On one of those days when the doctor was on duty, thought of giving it a try by taking his own initiative. He called the staff of a shelter home and enquired if she can be taken in from the hospital as she is perfectly fine. She was welcomed with love and from day one she made sure that she will be staying there till she is capable enough to take care of herself. She had made up her mind that she's going to take charge of her life from that moment onwards and while having sessions with her, she told me about what she has gone through in her life.

She was the second daughter of her parents and has a younger brother also. Her elder sister is not married. She is convent educated and was in college doing her graduation when life took a sharp turn for her. She was very good in studies and was very sociable. She fell in love with a man who was known for his *tantric* pujas. When her parents got to know about her interest in that man, they stopped her from going to college. She was locked up in a room and was not allowed to meet her friends even. After two years they thought she must have forgotten about the man and allowed her to go to temple once in a week only. But the man somehow got to know about her and came prepared to take her away from the temple. They eloped and got their marriage registered. She was very simple and naive. He took her to a remote area and kept her again in a locked up room. She felt like a sex slave as she was not allowed to open the doors and windows of the house. Here also she was in a cage like her parents' place. She was very young at that time and kept crying and stopped eating. One day she fainted in the morning and couldn't stand on her own feet. Seeing all this, the man got frightened and put her in a car and brought her to her parents' house and dropped her in front of the gate in an unconscious state and fled. The family members of this woman were so worried about losing their name in the society that they kept quiet about it and hushed her up. Here again she was made to stay put inside the house and was not allowed to meet anyone. Not even when guests came to their house. After 3 years her father enrolled her in a computer course. She never got treated well by her own family members. The computer course that she got admitted into after 5 years of leaving college was the only incident that brought a smile to her face. In the computer centre one of the lecturers wanted to marry her as she was very pretty looking. He followed her to her house and met her parents and begged for her hand in marriage. The parents were reluctant to agree but after knowing about her past he wanted to marry her as she was legally divorced by then from her first husband. After their marriage they moved into their house. The husband got a job in London as he was a software engineer. He kept working from home for a few months and kept postponing his trip to London. But he blew all the money in buying cars and a house. He also developed the habit of drinking. After few months he suddenly left his job. As they had a son, this woman wanted to contribute by doing a job. She took a part time job and also did Nursery Teachers' Training course. Then she got the job of a teacher in a reputed school. Her husband had become an alcoholic and used to take money from her and when she questioned about him being absent from home for days together he used to beat her. Once he hit her so hard and his son also that her face got deformed. She gathered all her courage and lodged a complaint in the police station. She stayed in the police station

with her son for the whole night for her own protection and the next morning he was arrested. After a few days, he got released and came home to take revenge. Her in-laws also never supported their own son and asked their daughter-in-law to leave him and come and stay with them. In Odisha it is still not desirable for a woman to leave her husband's house, no matter what the situation is. The woman's parents never got to know about the difficulties their daughter was facing. Again she was hit by her husband very badly and this time it happened in the school where she was working. She was completely devastated and felt humiliated. She went to the police again and got him arrested. But the husband was furious this time and threatened her with dire consequences. She came home with her son and completely lost it and went on sobbing inconsolably. She called her mother to come and take her and couldn't speak more on the phone. Her parents got her back home saying that everything will be fine after a few days and wanted her to go back to her husband, as they believe that a married woman's place is always her husband's house. But as her condition worsened and her crying didn't stop she was referred to the psychiatrist. She couldn't even say her name to the doctors as she was in a state of shock. That is when the parents felt it was a disgrace to the family to let their daughter stay in the mental hospital ward and left her there and never came to take her back. The elder sister of this woman is unmarried and she started taking care of her son's study who is now going to college. She stayed in the hospital till she came to this rescue home.

The psychiatrist gave a certificate to her that she is in good condition to go home and hospitalization is not required. So she was brought to the short stay/rescue home and made good progress in a few days. She was ready after two sessions to go out looking for jobs. She is also a certified physiotherapist. Getting a job was not a problem for her. She got the job of a physiotherapist in a nearby hospital which was very close to the short stay home where she was staying. Meanwhile her parents were contacted and were requested to meet her. They came to meet her with home cooked food and dresses for her. But they denied her when she expressed her desire to see her own son. She shed tears silently and believed that maybe it's good for the son not to see her. Her parents requested her not to come to their place as her brother's wife is pregnant and they didn't want her to see her. Meanwhile, the husband came back looking for her and wanted to take her signature for a joint account she had with him. She strongly protested. After a few months the husband died of an accident. She informed me about his death in a very flat tone as if she was unaffected by the news. But then she said now that the husband is dead, she is clear about what she wants to do in life. After six months of stay in the short stay home and the hospital job she moved into a rented house and took up the job of a special educator in a school and is serving the mentally retarded, autistic and cerebral palsy students. When asked about her fear she bravely states that now she fears nobody and it was the social system she was scared of, what others would say was the fear that her parents transmitted to her. By staying alone she has learned to fight. Even now, whenever she talks to her mother over the phone and gives her opinion on something her mother quickly asks her if she is still taking the psychiatric medicines thinking that she is still "mad'. In one of the sessions she told me laughingly that in our society our own parents want us to keep quiet about the injustice and make us feel guilty about things which we haven't done. She doesn't blame her parents as she empathises with them saying that after all they have to stay in the same society which judges a woman but never a man, even if it is always the woman who is a victim of the injustice and violence done to her by man. She has plans for her son and wants to sponsor his studies. He too wants to be an engineer. She smiles so confidently and looks so hopeful; I kept wondering if she is the same woman I met when she was brought from the mental hospital, crying incessantly. These days she sends her school kids' pictures and never forgets to send a good morning

message with a smiley and thank you. It's her gratitude, I feel, which has helped her overcome the low phase of her life. Now she is always a bubbly, laughing, talkative lady, full of energy.

#### **8. Discussion and conclusion**

Women learn to suffer silently and bear the injustice perpetrated on them as they are expected to make other members in the family happy by sacrificing their own needs. Male dominance in all matters including finances and the male violence manifested in different ways in the different stages of a woman's life are the causes of the suffering of women in the male dominated patriarchal societies. A woman sees the father and brother as the provider and protector when she is a child and then the dependency gets transferred to the husband and in her old age she relies on her son for her financial, emotional and social needs. The ruthless customs of patriarchal society and the male arrogance leave women with no other option but to seek outside help and leave their own home for their own safety. The causes of a woman leaving her own house can be blamed for poor education, poor living conditions, strained family relationships specially oppression, violence, sexual abuse, subordination and devaluation of women by the men in their own families. Violence against women within the family is a global phenomenon. However, its intensity is much greater in India. The most pathetic aspect of such atrocities is domestic violence.

When a woman is tortured and violated and finds her own family members as perpetrators, life becomes a big confusion for them. As they get ready to step out of the house which is not quite encouraged in patriarchal societies, they are trying to find a new identity which is devoid of their husband's name or father's name and she is not quite sure if she has any identity of her own. But one thing she respects at that moment while taking the big bold step of leaving the house is that it's her individual dignity and that helps her to find new meaning in life. The meaning of life that we are talking about for these women here means their significance, relevance or value in their own eyes.. Out of many attempts made by many to handle this question of meaning in life, it is Martela & Steger (2016) whose take on meaning seems to be appropriately handling the question that these women must be facing consciously or otherwise. Yalom talks about cosmic and terrestrial meaning. Cosmic meaning comes up with religious or spiritual connotations, because it sees meaning as a part of a bigger picture that is superior to that of the individual. Whereas, terrestrial meaning comes up with an answer to the question- what is the meaning of my life? Thus the debate regarding cosmic and terrestrial meaning, as put by Yalom, is between the external and internal. As the woman in case study 1 puts it that focussing on a bigger reason and other's problems will make them learn the biggest lessons of life automatically and their own problems will be reduced into dust it makes me wonder if we believe meaning is something imposed on us or we are free to create it for ourselves. These women suddenly become responsible for creating meaning of their life, though unknowingly. And it is the Hope which keeps them ticking in such trying times. Their families generally do not take them back without legal intervention after they come to the shelter homes as victims of violence. As it is, these women are in a very vulnerable state, yet they adjust in a new situation which becomes their home until their case is resolved. Adjusting with the emotional turmoil and to a new environment with unknown people is not an easy task for these battered women. Sociological data and demographic features are available on destitute women both in global and national context but no bold serious attempt has been undertaken to understand the dynamic process of adaptation of these women. Whatever scanty attempt has been made is made in

clinical terms. However, positive psychologists are attempting to explain behaviour in terms of virtues and strengths. Positive psychology takes interest in positive subjective experiences, positive traits, and the adaptation methods used by individuals when life seems meaningless. It also answers despite all hurdles in life how people manage to improve the quality of life and live with dignity. In these women resilience, a positive psychological construct, emerges as a strong component of their personality. Resilience refers to patterns of positive adaption or development manifested in the context of adverse experiences or situations in life. It refers to a class of phenomena characterized by good outcomes in spite of serious threats to adaptation or development. The trauma theory of resilience suggests that exposure to psychological or physical trauma may have long- lasting negative consequences for children and adults [1, 2]. Trauma is often discussed along with resilience. Some theorists suggest that the two can co-occur. A child may exhibit signs of being highly traumatized and resilient at the same time [3]. With these women it can be observed that they themselves were unaware about their self worth until it became unbearable for them to deal with the abuse, both physical and mental abuse. The resilience they showed is only after facing the traumatic situations in life. It is the resiliency of these women and their optimistic outlook about life makes them adapt to a new situation in life successfully.

Psychosocial adaptation is defined as the process of putting oneself in harmony with the changing circumstances of life so as to enhance one's sense of well-being and long-term survivorship. Behavioural scientists in general and psychologists in particular have examined the role of pertinent psycho-social variables in women's empowerment. Although a number of variables have been delineated, psychologists have focused on the empowerment process in terms of women's personality and self-concept variables [4]. The pertinent literature has shown that the positive self-concept of women and certain specific personality variables such as dominance and achievement orientation have contributed significantly towards successful adaptation of women.

The construct of hope offers the scope for understanding women's adaptation. Lynch [5] considered hope to be "the very heart and centre of a human being. It is the best resource of man, always there on the inside, making everything possible when he is in action, or waiting to be illuminated when he is ill." He defined hope as the fundamental knowledge that a difficult situation can be worked out and that goals can be reached. Hope in case of these women serves as an important ingredient which helps in their better adaptation to the current situation and helps them to flourish. It is a powerful construct in positive psychology.

The hope theory can be used to help in the better understanding of the adjustment process. Psychological adjustments are influenced by hope through the belief in one's self. Adjustment or coping is the ability to effectively respond to a stressor so as to reduce psychological and physical pain [6]. In hope theory stressor is the element that interferes with one's normal ongoing goal of being happy. When confronted with a stressor one must find alternative paths to attain the goal and be mobilized to use those paths. People with higher hope produce more strategies to deal with the stressor (pathways) than people with lower hope. Higher hope persons find more benefits in their ongoing dealings with stressors [7, 8]. As in the case of the woman in case study 3, we can see that in spite of what she faced in her life, it was her hope for a better future and belief in her own self, she could bounce back in her life after such difficulties and hardships.

The purpose of taking up these case studies was to illustrate that those battered women who do cope with life after being victims of violence and injustice by their own family members have a number of strategies to help them survive. It is obvious that these women have varied skills to manage in extremely adverse situations. Of

*The Changing Concept of Self and Identity in Aging Working Women from Shelter Homes... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95317*

course, these remarks should not be interpreted to mean that destitute women do not need assistance. Studies of women often fail to use data that emphasize their potential. The more information becomes available about the means they use to survive, the more probable it becomes that development assistance could be structured in a manner most likely to achieve the desired results. After all, the objective of development is to actually empower them psychologically.

#### **Additional information**

#### **Disclosures**

There is no personal or competing interest.

#### **Financial disclosure**

None. No financial support was received from any organization for the submitted article.

#### **Acknowledgements**

The author is thankful to the wonderful staff and residents of the Short stay homes/rescue homes in Odisha for their comprehensive care and support.

#### **Human subjects**

Consent was obtained from all participants in this study by explaining them the purpose and they were assured about the maintenance of their privacy. They all agreed to the publication of their case for academic purpose as they are assured about their privacy being maintained. Care has been taken to protect their personal information and the cases are used only for the purpose of academic activity.

#### **Author details**

Nivedita Das Department of Psychology, Utkal University, Vani Vihar, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India

\*Address all correspondence to: drnivedita573@gmail.com

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

#### **References**

[1] Bromfield, L., Lamont, A., Parker, R., & Horsfall, B. (2010). Issues for the safety and Well-being of children in families with multiple and complex problems: The co-occurrence of domestic violence, parental substance misuse, and mental health problems (NCPC Issues No. 33). Melbourne: National Child Protection Clearinghouse, Australian Institute of Family Studies.

[2] Gordon R. Thirty years of trauma work: Clarifying and broadening the consequences of trauma. Psychotherapy in Australia. 2007;*13*(*3*):12-19

[3] Harvey MR. Towards an ecological understanding of resilience in trauma survivors: Implications for theory, research. and practice. *Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma*. 2007;*14*(*1/2*):9-32. DOI: 10.1300/ j146v14n01\_02

[4] Bandura, A. (1997). *Self-efficacy: The exercise of control*. New York: Freeman. Self-efficacy: the exercise of control. (1997). *Choice Reviews Online*, 35(03), 35-1826-35-1826. Doi: 10.5860/choice. 35-1826

[5] Lynch WF. *Images of Hope*. Baltimore: Garamony/Trichemah; 1965

[6] Houston BK. Stress and coping. In: Snyder CR, Ford CE, editors. *Coping with negative life events: Clinical and social psychological perspectives*. New York: Plenum; 1988. pp. 373-399

[7] Affleckk G, Tennen H. Construing Benefits from Adversity: Adaptational significance and dispositional underpinnings. Journal of Personality. 1996;*64*(*4*):899-922. DOI: 10. 1111/ j.1467-6494.1996.tb00948.x

[8] Tennen H, Affleck G. Finding benefits in adversity. In: Snyder CR, editor. *Coping: The psychology of what works*. New York: Oxford University Press; 1999

## *Edited by Martha Peaslee Levine*

Relationships are a necessary part of life. This has always been true; community helped keep us safe as dangerous animals prowled outside our caves. We are now even more interconnected with each other. What do we know about interpersonal relationships? How do we develop the skills to connect with each other? Relationships can bring value and meaning to our lives, but, sometimes, they can have negative effects and impair our view of ourselves and others. We need to find ways to keep hope even if some relationships have scarred us. We need to recognize skills that we can use to form closer relationships in both our professional and personal lives. This book examines interpersonal relationships from many different angles. It will allow the reader to look at relationships in new ways and, perhaps, find tools to enhance and deepen connections within their lives.

Published in London, UK © 2022 IntechOpen © Liia Galimzianova / iStock

Interpersonal Relationships

Interpersonal Relationships

*Edited by Martha Peaslee Levine*