Preface

This volume recognizes a growing body of research that focuses on second language acquisition (SLA) and second language teaching (SLT), and acknowledges the contribution of such research to an increased understanding of the pedagogies, practices and perspectives within these interrelated fields. As such, this volume brings together different aspects of learning, teaching and researching a second language. Chapters include topics ranging from emotional communication, pragmatic competence, transformative pedagogy, inclusion and functional diversity, reflective teaching and research skills in language teacher education and innovative methodologies in SLA research. The chapters provide a cross-section of international perspectives in as much as the authors are drawn from seven countries across four continents. Working in a variety of educational contexts, the authors address a global audience to offer insights into current theories, research, policies and practices within SLA and SLT. This volume is aimed at students, researchers and practitioners working in these areas in order to reflect on challenges, enhance practice and identify potential research directions.

Chapter 1 introduces the rationale for this volume as it explores the intersection between second language acquisition and teaching. Christine Savvidou outlines a disciplinary shift from a traditional view of SLA and SLT as distinct and separate areas of research to a contemporary understanding of them as interrelated research areas that function within the same interdisciplinary space. The author proposes that within this space, there exist innovative pedagogies, practices and perspectives that are grounded in diverse teaching and learning contexts. It is this space that this volume sets out to explore.

Chapters 2 and 3 both focus on issues of pedagogy within SLA and specifically on how second languages are learned, what challenges are faced and how learning may best be supported.

In Chapter 2, Anna De Marco examines how the expression and the perception of emotional states represents a challenge for second language (L2) learners. The author presents an overview of the interface between prosody and pragmatic competence in L2 in relation to the expression and perception of emotions. She goes on to outline some of the outcomes of the research in the field, focusing on experimental studies conducted with L2 learners of Italian. The second part of the chapter examines the instructional practices aimed at helping L2 learners improve their perception and production of emotional communication.

Bernard Mulo Farenkia, in Chapter 3, compares the production of offer refusals between native and non-native French speakers in a Canadian context. Specifically, he examines the differences between L1 speakers and L2 learners of French with respect to the use of direct refusals, indirect refusals and adjuncts to refusals. Comparing the differences between L2 French learners with L1 English speakers, he goes on to examine traces of pragmatic transfer in L2 French refusals behavior. The author also considers the implications for teaching and concludes with suggestions and perspectives for future research.

Chapters 4, 5 and 6 focus on how best to support second language teaching. Issues of second language teacher education are explored at philosophical, conceptual and institutional levels.

Patrick Farren, in Chapter 4, discusses the concept of transformative pedagogy in the context of language teacher education. The author proposes a social–psychological model of teaching based on a critical, intercultural and moral–philosophical foundation. This model aims at developing a more encompassing teacher education that focuses on the professional identity of the language teacher as research practitioner and leader.

In Chapter 5, Carmen Maria Campoy-Cubillo examines issues of inclusion and specifically the relationship of the foreign language student with functional diversity within their educational and sociocultural context. The author proposes a theoretical multidimensional model to support students with different special needs in the language classroom. It is a model that encompasses the needs of students in terms of accessibility to learning and specific learning skills and competences on one hand, and learning support, institutional services, assessment protocols and teacher training on the other hand.

Marie-Immaculée Ndayimirije and Rachel Nsimire Bigawa, in Chapter 6, examine challenges facing language teacher education in Burundi. Working within a specific sociocultural context and institutional framework, the authors ask how teacher educators can best prepare student teachers in Burundi. The authors offer a critique of current training practices and propose initial teacher training courses that promote reflective teaching and research skills aimed at preparing student teachers for active participation as future EFL teachers.

The final chapter focuses on how research into SLA is developing using innovative research methodologies. In Chapter 7, Jiang Xiaoming examines the latest innovative research trends in the fields of psycholinguistics and SLA. Using bibliometric analyses of these research literatures, the author highlights the emergence of novel experimental methodologies, such as the application of neuroimaging and machine learning approaches to the psycholinguistic research. Such methodologies offer new opportunities for researching and extending the boundaries of SLA research in real-world contexts.

> **Christine Savvidou** University of Nicosia, Nicosia, Cyprus

> > **1**

**Chapter 1**

*Christine Savvidou*

**1. Introduction**

first language (L1).

within SLT.

**2. Background**

necessarily learn what is directly taught [8].

Introductory Chapter: Second

Practices and Perspectives

Language Acquisition - Pedagogies,

This edited volume aims at exploring second language acquisition (SLA) research and second language teaching (SLT) with the goal of highlighting recent developments within these interrelated fields. At its core, the book is premised on the assumption that the intersection between SLA and SLT represents an interdisciplinary space in which there exist specific pedagogies, practices and perspectives that inform the teaching and learning of a second language. It is worth pointing out, at this juncture, that for the purposes of this book, SLA and SLT are defined as the acquisition, use, learning and/or teaching of any language which is not the learner's

The rationale for this book emerges from fundamental questions of how learners

While it might be assumed that there is a natural relationship between SLA and SLT, these two fields have rather distinct histories [1]. On the one hand, early SLA research was preoccupied with identifying general patterns of linguistic development and the incremental and sequential steps that learners undergo as part of the L2 learning process [2, 3]. Rooted in such theories as interlanguage [4], error analysis [5] and contrastive analysis and transfer [6], early SLA research prompted the notion that 'Instruction that is not compatible with the way L2 acquisition takes place cannot be successful' [7]. In other words, SLT was based on what was considered to be a natural order in SLA. However, subsequent research has highlighted the limitations of instruction on learning with observations that L2 learners do not

The recognition that SLA research cannot not provide a panacea for modern SLT has led to a rich and diverse interdisciplinary space drawing on theories from linguistics, psychology, sociology and education and a shift towards more

use and learn a second language and what constitutes effective second language teaching in today's global context. Thus, within this context, the authors in this book set out to explore what it means to learn, teach or research a second language (L2); they also examine issues that define research, shape policy and inform the practice of SLT. As such, this book is aimed at language teaching professionals, linguists, teachers and teacher educators with the purpose of providing insights into the field of SLA and contributing to more effective teaching and teacher education

#### **Chapter 1**

## Introductory Chapter: Second Language Acquisition - Pedagogies, Practices and Perspectives

*Christine Savvidou*

#### **1. Introduction**

This edited volume aims at exploring second language acquisition (SLA) research and second language teaching (SLT) with the goal of highlighting recent developments within these interrelated fields. At its core, the book is premised on the assumption that the intersection between SLA and SLT represents an interdisciplinary space in which there exist specific pedagogies, practices and perspectives that inform the teaching and learning of a second language. It is worth pointing out, at this juncture, that for the purposes of this book, SLA and SLT are defined as the acquisition, use, learning and/or teaching of any language which is not the learner's first language (L1).

The rationale for this book emerges from fundamental questions of how learners use and learn a second language and what constitutes effective second language teaching in today's global context. Thus, within this context, the authors in this book set out to explore what it means to learn, teach or research a second language (L2); they also examine issues that define research, shape policy and inform the practice of SLT. As such, this book is aimed at language teaching professionals, linguists, teachers and teacher educators with the purpose of providing insights into the field of SLA and contributing to more effective teaching and teacher education within SLT.

#### **2. Background**

While it might be assumed that there is a natural relationship between SLA and SLT, these two fields have rather distinct histories [1]. On the one hand, early SLA research was preoccupied with identifying general patterns of linguistic development and the incremental and sequential steps that learners undergo as part of the L2 learning process [2, 3]. Rooted in such theories as interlanguage [4], error analysis [5] and contrastive analysis and transfer [6], early SLA research prompted the notion that 'Instruction that is not compatible with the way L2 acquisition takes place cannot be successful' [7]. In other words, SLT was based on what was considered to be a natural order in SLA. However, subsequent research has highlighted the limitations of instruction on learning with observations that L2 learners do not necessarily learn what is directly taught [8].

The recognition that SLA research cannot not provide a panacea for modern SLT has led to a rich and diverse interdisciplinary space drawing on theories from linguistics, psychology, sociology and education and a shift towards more

'usage-based learning', which refers to the observation of actual language in actual communicative events [9]. Despite this shift, it is argued that such research remains 'pure' with the study of SLA for its own sake [10].

Meanwhile, the early history of SLT also has a distinct history drawing on cognitive psychology and educational research. As such, the development of SLT in the latter half of the last century was preoccupied with finding the most effective teaching methods. Indeed, this obsession with methods resulted in a pedagogical 'swinging of the pendulum' [11]. Since the mid-twentieth century, SLT has seen alternating shifts in pedagogy. For example, the focus on teaching grammatical explanation and translation shifted to teaching spoken language; the goal of achieving communicative competence shifted to acknowledging learners' needs, learning styles and motivation; teachers' insistence on the exclusive use of the target language in the L2 classroom shifted to integrating learners' native languages; the goal of achieving native-like proficiency shifted to acknowledging World Englishes [12, 13]. It is against this background that modern SLT now operates within what is known as the 'postmethods era' [14] in which ideas of principled pedagogy, contextbased teaching, technology-enhanced learning and values of citizenship now play a significant role.

In sum, developments in SLA and SLT highlight the need for an interdisciplinary space that goes beyond traditional notions of second language learning and teaching. This book, therefore, attempts to address this need by examining the pedagogies, practices and perspectives that occupy the space between SLA and SLT.

#### **3. Scope of the book**

The scope of this book encompasses the rich and diverse perspectives of language teaching professionals, academics and researchers from different disciplines and different countries. Each chapter presents distinct theoretical approaches and empirical evidence exploring an array of contemporary topics including L2 learners' linguistic development, L2 pragmatic and prosodic competence, multidimensional networks for inclusive L2 education, transformative pedagogy for L2 teachers and innovative and context-specific practices in second language teacher education. Such diversity reflects a global vision on the current state of SLA and promotes a view of SLA research rooted in transversality [15], based on the idea that there is no one theory that monopolises the field. Indeed, such multiple and diverse theories and approaches to SLA and SLT research reflect innovative and creative ways of understanding this interdisciplinary space.

As one explores the different chapters within this book, it becomes apparent how each one directly or indirectly discusses SLA in relation to the three themes pedagogies, practices and perspectives—around which this book is structured. In as much as these themes intersect, the chapters included in this volume also reflect one or more of the three themes. In relation to the theme of *pedagogies*, authors highlight the pedagogical approaches to second language learning based on an understanding of learners' L2 linguistic development, the use of the L2, learning needs, learning identities and the social and cultural backgrounds that impact second language learning. Within the theme of *practices*, authors discuss methods and approaches to SLT and propose techniques, strategies and conditions for effective second language learning and teaching. Finally, within the theme of *perspectives*, authors discuss local and global issues, policies and frameworks that support second language teaching and teacher education in relation to language learning rights and values.

**3**

**Author details**

Christine Savvidou

*Introductory Chapter: Second Language Acquisition - Pedagogies, Practices and Perspectives*

Finally, this book hopes to contribute to new understandings of SLA research, theory and practice that transcend traditional theoretical and research perspectives. While this edited book represents the significant research efforts of academics and leading professionals in this area, it does not intend to provide a definitive overview of this complex and interconnected area. It can, however, serve as a foundation for further research and inquiry into SLA. All in all, it is hoped that this book will enable readers to inquire into their own research and practice, challenge existing assumptions and add to their own professional knowledge and practice of SLA research and SLT. In this regard, is hoped that the pedagogies, practices and perspectives discussed in this book will provide both insights and inspiration to second language teaching professionals, linguists, teachers and teacher educators working

Department of Languages and Literature, University of Nicosia, Nicosia, Cyprus

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

\*Address all correspondence to: savvidou.c@unic.ac.cy

provided the original work is properly cited.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90562*

**4. Conclusion**

in a global context.

*Introductory Chapter: Second Language Acquisition - Pedagogies, Practices and Perspectives DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90562*

#### **4. Conclusion**

*Second Language Acquisition - Pedagogies, Practices and Perspectives*

'pure' with the study of SLA for its own sake [10].

significant role.

**3. Scope of the book**

understanding this interdisciplinary space.

and SLT.

'usage-based learning', which refers to the observation of actual language in actual communicative events [9]. Despite this shift, it is argued that such research remains

Meanwhile, the early history of SLT also has a distinct history drawing on cognitive psychology and educational research. As such, the development of SLT in the latter half of the last century was preoccupied with finding the most effective teaching methods. Indeed, this obsession with methods resulted in a pedagogical 'swinging of the pendulum' [11]. Since the mid-twentieth century, SLT has seen alternating shifts in pedagogy. For example, the focus on teaching grammatical explanation and translation shifted to teaching spoken language; the goal of achieving communicative competence shifted to acknowledging learners' needs, learning styles and motivation; teachers' insistence on the exclusive use of the target language in the L2 classroom shifted to integrating learners' native languages; the goal of achieving native-like proficiency shifted to acknowledging World Englishes [12, 13]. It is against this background that modern SLT now operates within what is known as the 'postmethods era' [14] in which ideas of principled pedagogy, contextbased teaching, technology-enhanced learning and values of citizenship now play a

In sum, developments in SLA and SLT highlight the need for an interdisciplinary space that goes beyond traditional notions of second language learning and teaching. This book, therefore, attempts to address this need by examining the pedagogies, practices and perspectives that occupy the space between SLA

The scope of this book encompasses the rich and diverse perspectives of language teaching professionals, academics and researchers from different disciplines and different countries. Each chapter presents distinct theoretical approaches and empirical evidence exploring an array of contemporary topics including L2 learners' linguistic development, L2 pragmatic and prosodic competence, multidimensional networks for inclusive L2 education, transformative pedagogy for L2 teachers and innovative and context-specific practices in second language teacher education. Such diversity reflects a global vision on the current state of SLA and promotes a view of SLA research rooted in transversality [15], based on the idea that there is no one theory that monopolises the field. Indeed, such multiple and diverse theories and approaches to SLA and SLT research reflect innovative and creative ways of

As one explores the different chapters within this book, it becomes apparent how each one directly or indirectly discusses SLA in relation to the three themes pedagogies, practices and perspectives—around which this book is structured. In as much as these themes intersect, the chapters included in this volume also reflect one or more of the three themes. In relation to the theme of *pedagogies*, authors highlight the pedagogical approaches to second language learning based on an understanding of learners' L2 linguistic development, the use of the L2, learning needs, learning identities and the social and cultural backgrounds that impact second language learning. Within the theme of *practices*, authors discuss methods and approaches to SLT and propose techniques, strategies and conditions for effective second language learning and teaching. Finally, within the theme of *perspectives*, authors discuss local and global issues, policies and frameworks that support second language teaching and teacher education in relation to language learning

**2**

rights and values.

Finally, this book hopes to contribute to new understandings of SLA research, theory and practice that transcend traditional theoretical and research perspectives. While this edited book represents the significant research efforts of academics and leading professionals in this area, it does not intend to provide a definitive overview of this complex and interconnected area. It can, however, serve as a foundation for further research and inquiry into SLA. All in all, it is hoped that this book will enable readers to inquire into their own research and practice, challenge existing assumptions and add to their own professional knowledge and practice of SLA research and SLT. In this regard, is hoped that the pedagogies, practices and perspectives discussed in this book will provide both insights and inspiration to second language teaching professionals, linguists, teachers and teacher educators working in a global context.

#### **Author details**

Christine Savvidou Department of Languages and Literature, University of Nicosia, Nicosia, Cyprus

\*Address all correspondence to: savvidou.c@unic.ac.cy

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

### **References**

[1] Ågren M. Second language teaching from the perspective of second language acquisition research. In: Salzburger Beiträge zur Lehrer/innen/bildung: Der Dialog der Fachdidaktiken mit Fachund Bildungswissenschaften; 2016. p. 89

[2] Larsen-Freeman D, Long MH. An Introduction to Second Language Acquisition Research. London, New York: Routledge; 2014

[3] Lightbown PM, Spada N. How languages are learned. In: Oxford Handbooks for Language Teachers. 4th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2013

[4] Selinker L. Interlanguage. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching. 1972;**10**(1-4):209-232

[5] Corder SP. Error Analysis and Interlanguage. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1982

[6] Lado R. Language Teaching: A Scientific Approach. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1964

[7] Ellis R, Shintani N. Exploring Language Pedagogy through Second Language Acquisition Research. London, New York: Routledge; 2013

[8] VanPatten B, Williams J. Early theories in second language acquisition. In: Theories in Second Language Acquisition: An Introduction. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum; 2007. pp. 17-35

[9] Tomasello M. Constructing a Language. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; 2009

[10] Cook V. Second Language Learning and Language Teaching. New York, London: Routledge; 2016

[11] Celce-Murcia M, UCLA. Language Teaching Methods from the Greeks to Gattegno1 2. Mextesol Journal 2013;**37**(2):1-9

[12] Crystal D. English as a Global Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2012

[13] Farrell TS, Martin S. To teach standard English or world Englishes? A balanced approach to instruction. In: English Teaching Forum, Vol. 47, No. 2. Washington, DC: US Department of State. Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs, Office of English Language Programs; 2009. pp. 2-7

[14] Kumaravadivelu B. Understanding Language Teaching: From Method to Postmethod. New Jersey: Routledge; 2006

[15] Kruger F. Posthumanism and educational research for sustainable futures. Journal of Education. 2016;**65**:77-94

**5**

**Chapter 2**

Language

*Anna De Marco*

emotional communication.

**1. Introduction**

**Abstract**

Teaching the Prosody of Emotive

The expression and the perception of emotional states in a foreign language represent a difficult task for the learners. One of the reasons is the fact that, more than other aspects related to speech, the expression of emotional states in second language requires full control of the prosodic resources that contribute to their realization. The aim of this chapter is to give an overview of the main tenets of the interface between prosody and pragmatic competence in L2 and in particular the expression and perception of emotions. The chapter will also outline some of the outcomes of the research in the field, focusing on experimental studies that have been conducted with learners of Italian as L2. The second part of the chapter will be devoted on the instructional practice aimed at developing the awareness of pragmatic-prosodic aspects of emotive communication in speech. Teaching practices such as a training focused on the expression of emotions (anger, joy, sadness, disgust, fear, and surprise) and video dubbing projects have proven to be useful tools to improve the performance of learners both in production and in perception of prosodic patterns of

Communication in a Second

**Keywords:** emotion, Italian L2, teaching practices, prosody, pragmatics

because they represent a substantial part of our intentions and attitudes.

Only recently, in Italy, scholars have devoted themselves to the research on prosodic competence in L2, and the works dealing with this competence from a pedagogical perspective are even smaller. Indeed, emotional competence is one of the most overlooked aspects of communicative competence in teaching a native and a nonnative language. In a linguistic scenario that is ever more diversified in our

This chapter is the result of the experience working with students of Italian L2 and, in particular, of the observation of their need to improve the competence of language use, that is, communicative competence. This competence involves different communicative dimensions even the most "hidden" and "subtle" ones but no less essential for the purposes of effective communication, such as the paraverbal (e.g., prosody) and nonverbal (facial expressions, gestures, postures) aspects which give form and meaning to our words and specify our utterances in ways that escape our awareness. Very often, when we find ourselves talking with a nonnative speaker, especially when we misinterpret each other, these paraverbal and non-verbal aspects come to light and call into question our complex competence as speakers

#### **Chapter 2**

## Teaching the Prosody of Emotive Communication in a Second Language

*Anna De Marco*

#### **Abstract**

The expression and the perception of emotional states in a foreign language represent a difficult task for the learners. One of the reasons is the fact that, more than other aspects related to speech, the expression of emotional states in second language requires full control of the prosodic resources that contribute to their realization. The aim of this chapter is to give an overview of the main tenets of the interface between prosody and pragmatic competence in L2 and in particular the expression and perception of emotions. The chapter will also outline some of the outcomes of the research in the field, focusing on experimental studies that have been conducted with learners of Italian as L2. The second part of the chapter will be devoted on the instructional practice aimed at developing the awareness of pragmatic-prosodic aspects of emotive communication in speech. Teaching practices such as a training focused on the expression of emotions (anger, joy, sadness, disgust, fear, and surprise) and video dubbing projects have proven to be useful tools to improve the performance of learners both in production and in perception of prosodic patterns of emotional communication.

**Keywords:** emotion, Italian L2, teaching practices, prosody, pragmatics

#### **1. Introduction**

This chapter is the result of the experience working with students of Italian L2 and, in particular, of the observation of their need to improve the competence of language use, that is, communicative competence. This competence involves different communicative dimensions even the most "hidden" and "subtle" ones but no less essential for the purposes of effective communication, such as the paraverbal (e.g., prosody) and nonverbal (facial expressions, gestures, postures) aspects which give form and meaning to our words and specify our utterances in ways that escape our awareness. Very often, when we find ourselves talking with a nonnative speaker, especially when we misinterpret each other, these paraverbal and non-verbal aspects come to light and call into question our complex competence as speakers because they represent a substantial part of our intentions and attitudes.

Only recently, in Italy, scholars have devoted themselves to the research on prosodic competence in L2, and the works dealing with this competence from a pedagogical perspective are even smaller. Indeed, emotional competence is one of the most overlooked aspects of communicative competence in teaching a native and a nonnative language. In a linguistic scenario that is ever more diversified in our

**4**

*Second Language Acquisition - Pedagogies, Practices and Perspectives*

[11] Celce-Murcia M, UCLA. Language Teaching Methods from the Greeks to Gattegno1 2. Mextesol Journal

[12] Crystal D. English as a Global Language. Cambridge: Cambridge

[13] Farrell TS, Martin S. To teach standard English or world Englishes? A balanced approach to instruction. In: English Teaching Forum, Vol. 47, No. 2. Washington, DC: US Department of State. Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs, Office of English Language Programs; 2009. pp. 2-7

[14] Kumaravadivelu B. Understanding Language Teaching: From Method to Postmethod. New Jersey: Routledge;

[15] Kruger F. Posthumanism and educational research for sustainable futures. Journal of Education.

2013;**37**(2):1-9

2006

2016;**65**:77-94

University Press; 2012

[1] Ågren M. Second language teaching from the perspective of second language acquisition research. In: Salzburger Beiträge zur Lehrer/innen/bildung: Der Dialog der Fachdidaktiken mit Fachund Bildungswissenschaften; 2016.

[2] Larsen-Freeman D, Long MH. An Introduction to Second Language Acquisition Research. London, New

[3] Lightbown PM, Spada N. How languages are learned. In: Oxford Handbooks for Language Teachers. 4th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press;

[4] Selinker L. Interlanguage. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching.

[5] Corder SP. Error Analysis and Interlanguage. Oxford: Oxford

[6] Lado R. Language Teaching: A Scientific Approach. New York:

[7] Ellis R, Shintani N. Exploring Language Pedagogy through Second Language Acquisition Research. London, New York: Routledge; 2013

[8] VanPatten B, Williams J. Early theories in second language acquisition. In: Theories in Second Language Acquisition: An Introduction. Mahwah,

NJ: Erlbaum; 2007. pp. 17-35

University Press; 2009

London: Routledge; 2016

[9] Tomasello M. Constructing a Language. Cambridge, MA: Harvard

[10] Cook V. Second Language Learning and Language Teaching. New York,

1972;**10**(1-4):209-232

University Press; 1982

McGraw-Hill; 1964

York: Routledge; 2014

p. 89

**References**

2013

eyes, the conspicuous presence of students with different cultural and linguistic backgrounds draws the attention of educational institutions toward the need to adopt language teaching approaches that should be able to cope with the multilingual and multicultural complexity of our schools.

The first part of the chapter will be devoted to give an overview of the main tenets of the interface between prosody and pragmatic competence in L2, and it will introduce the reader to some of the outcomes of the research in the field, focusing on experimental studies that have been conducted with learners of Italian as L2.

The second part of the chapter will focus on the instructional practice to show how it is possible to improve the emotional competence of L2 learners through some teaching activities in the language classroom.

#### **2. Theories on emotive speech**

The study of the vocal expression of emotions is based on the analysis of complex structures that regulate the communication process: the voice constitutes a fundamental unit of measure within the emotional phenomenon. As D'Urso and Trentin explain: "the relationship between voice and emotion is based on the assumption that the physiological reactions typical of an emotional state, modifying the breathing, the phonation and the articulation of the sounds, produce appreciable variations in the acoustic indices detectable in the production of discourse" ([1], p. 58). The human voice, among its multiple potentialities, is able to convey different meanings and nuances through its own modulation. These prosodic modifications, which represent suprasegmental entities, merge with the segmental characteristics typical of each language. When we express an emotion, the meaning of our communicative act is conveyed not only by the voice and individual characteristics but also by the choice of the lexicon, by the way we organize our speech, and, of course, by the way we articulate sounds. As Poggi and Magno Caldognetto [2] maintain, there are four segmental resources that regulate the linguistic nature of emotional speech:

*Lexical resources*: That is, words (verbs, adjectives, adverbs, nouns) and interjections whose semantic and pragmatic content indicates a clear reference to specific states of mind (I feel guilty; I am sad, angry, etc.). In particular, interjections (damn, gosh) convey the emotional message without explaining its cause, which must necessarily be inferred from the context.

*Syntactic resources*: Emotional speech also influences the structure and organization of the utterances and is expressed through the alteration of the canonical order of the sentence. An example is the left dislocation, whose use implies the choice to focus a certain element of the discourse.

*Morphological resources*: The structure of words can undergo further transformation in emotional production. For example, it is very common to use diminutives and endearment words in relation to positive emotions, such as joy, and offensive words in the case of negative emotions, such as anger.

*Phonological resources*: In emotional speech, the articulation of sounds is altered by the subjective experience in a given context. Such alterations can be attributed, for example, to speaking while smiling or to other relevant aspects of nonverbal communication.

#### **3. A cross-cultural perspective on emotive speech**

Much of the research on emotional speech has attempted to identify common trends in the interpretation of vocal expressions of emotions at an intercultural

**7**

*Teaching the Prosody of Emotive Communication in a Second Language*

level. This approach should provide an indirect proof of the existence of universal (or specifically cultural) elements in emotional communication. However, there is a series of studies—less numerous—focused on the analysis of acoustic parameters

of having conducted a systematic analysis, also examining cultures distant from each other. In this regard, we recall a study conducted in 2001 [3] which involved subjects from nine different countries (European, North-American, and Asians), in order to test their ability to recognize emotions expressed in another language (German). The body of emotional stimuli—conveyed through a nonsense sentence and pronounced by professional actors—included five emotions: joy, sadness, fear, anger, and disgust (along with neutral productions). The results showed an index of accuracy in identifying emotions equal to 50%. However, the percentage of correct decoding has not proven to be homogeneous in all the samples considered, since the Indonesian group has reached the lowest percentage, while the sample of German listeners recorded the highest percentage (in-group advantage), followed by the American group. The authors have attempted to explain the phenomenon, hypothesizing that linguistic closeness played an important role in the decoding process (language distance hypothesis). This accounted for the much higher percentage obtained by the British and the Dutch than the speakers of Romance languages (Italian and French) and above all with respect to the Indonesians (not belonging to

In addition to linguistic factors, sharing the same social codes and similar communication styles also plays an important role in the recognition of emotions. As Elfenbein and Ambady ([4], p. 204) explain: "It is possible that recognition is higher when the emotions are both expressed and perceived by members of the same cultural group" (see in-group advantage hypothesis). In this regard, Elfenbein and Ambady have suggested that the contact and the interaction between cultures, as well as the sharing of some cultural traits, can favor the decoding of emotions (cultural proximity hypothesis). On the basis of this hypothesis, "members of cultures who share ideas of individualism or collectivism, power structure, and gender roles, need to be more successful at decoding each other's emotional expressions than members of cultures that are less similar" ([5], p. 409). In fact, according to the authors, the variability of the recognition indices is due not only exclusively to ethnic, geographical, or linguistic factors but also to the absence of mutual involvement between the cultures considered. To support this finding, some research has shown that the index of accuracy in the recognition of emotions at the crosslinguistic level is higher when the contact (even by telephone) between the cultures examined is greater [4]. Similarly, members of linguistic minorities within a given country would be able to decode more accurately the vocal expressions produced by members belonging to the majority culture than the latter in the reverse situation.

Research on vocal expression and the perception of emotions in a second language are not numerous. The interest in this aspect of communication in L2 is relatively recent; however, the acoustic-perceptive investigations have highlighted some problems related to the management of emotional speech in a second lan-

As we pointed out above and as suggested by Dewaele, the typological and cultural distance from the target language can influence the ability of learners to manage emotional speech in L2: "SLA research shows that learners from 'distant'

guage, with an emphasis on linguistic, cultural, and social factors.

The research conducted by Scherer and other scholars has undoubtedly the merit

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87210*

and their variation at the interlinguistic level.

the Indo-European family).

**4. Emotions in L2: state of the art**

#### *Teaching the Prosody of Emotive Communication in a Second Language DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87210*

*Second Language Acquisition - Pedagogies, Practices and Perspectives*

gual and multicultural complexity of our schools.

teaching activities in the language classroom.

resources that regulate the linguistic nature of emotional speech:

must necessarily be inferred from the context.

words in the case of negative emotions, such as anger.

**3. A cross-cultural perspective on emotive speech**

focus a certain element of the discourse.

**2. Theories on emotive speech**

eyes, the conspicuous presence of students with different cultural and linguistic backgrounds draws the attention of educational institutions toward the need to adopt language teaching approaches that should be able to cope with the multilin-

The first part of the chapter will be devoted to give an overview of the main tenets of the interface between prosody and pragmatic competence in L2, and it will introduce the reader to some of the outcomes of the research in the field, focusing on experimental studies that have been conducted with learners of Italian as L2. The second part of the chapter will focus on the instructional practice to show how it is possible to improve the emotional competence of L2 learners through some

The study of the vocal expression of emotions is based on the analysis of complex structures that regulate the communication process: the voice constitutes a fundamental unit of measure within the emotional phenomenon. As D'Urso and Trentin explain: "the relationship between voice and emotion is based on the assumption that the physiological reactions typical of an emotional state, modifying the breathing, the phonation and the articulation of the sounds, produce appreciable variations in the acoustic indices detectable in the production of discourse" ([1], p. 58). The human voice, among its multiple potentialities, is able to convey different meanings and nuances through its own modulation. These prosodic modifications, which represent suprasegmental entities, merge with the segmental characteristics typical of each language. When we express an emotion, the meaning of our communicative act is conveyed not only by the voice and individual characteristics but also by the choice of the lexicon, by the way we organize our speech, and, of course, by the way we articulate sounds. As Poggi and Magno Caldognetto [2] maintain, there are four segmental

*Lexical resources*: That is, words (verbs, adjectives, adverbs, nouns) and interjections whose semantic and pragmatic content indicates a clear reference to specific states of mind (I feel guilty; I am sad, angry, etc.). In particular, interjections (damn, gosh) convey the emotional message without explaining its cause, which

*Syntactic resources*: Emotional speech also influences the structure and organization of the utterances and is expressed through the alteration of the canonical order of the sentence. An example is the left dislocation, whose use implies the choice to

*Morphological resources*: The structure of words can undergo further transformation in emotional production. For example, it is very common to use diminutives and endearment words in relation to positive emotions, such as joy, and offensive

*Phonological resources*: In emotional speech, the articulation of sounds is altered by the subjective experience in a given context. Such alterations can be attributed, for example, to speaking while smiling or to other relevant aspects of nonverbal

Much of the research on emotional speech has attempted to identify common trends in the interpretation of vocal expressions of emotions at an intercultural

**6**

communication.

level. This approach should provide an indirect proof of the existence of universal (or specifically cultural) elements in emotional communication. However, there is a series of studies—less numerous—focused on the analysis of acoustic parameters and their variation at the interlinguistic level.

The research conducted by Scherer and other scholars has undoubtedly the merit of having conducted a systematic analysis, also examining cultures distant from each other. In this regard, we recall a study conducted in 2001 [3] which involved subjects from nine different countries (European, North-American, and Asians), in order to test their ability to recognize emotions expressed in another language (German). The body of emotional stimuli—conveyed through a nonsense sentence and pronounced by professional actors—included five emotions: joy, sadness, fear, anger, and disgust (along with neutral productions). The results showed an index of accuracy in identifying emotions equal to 50%. However, the percentage of correct decoding has not proven to be homogeneous in all the samples considered, since the Indonesian group has reached the lowest percentage, while the sample of German listeners recorded the highest percentage (in-group advantage), followed by the American group. The authors have attempted to explain the phenomenon, hypothesizing that linguistic closeness played an important role in the decoding process (language distance hypothesis). This accounted for the much higher percentage obtained by the British and the Dutch than the speakers of Romance languages (Italian and French) and above all with respect to the Indonesians (not belonging to the Indo-European family).

In addition to linguistic factors, sharing the same social codes and similar communication styles also plays an important role in the recognition of emotions. As Elfenbein and Ambady ([4], p. 204) explain: "It is possible that recognition is higher when the emotions are both expressed and perceived by members of the same cultural group" (see in-group advantage hypothesis). In this regard, Elfenbein and Ambady have suggested that the contact and the interaction between cultures, as well as the sharing of some cultural traits, can favor the decoding of emotions (cultural proximity hypothesis). On the basis of this hypothesis, "members of cultures who share ideas of individualism or collectivism, power structure, and gender roles, need to be more successful at decoding each other's emotional expressions than members of cultures that are less similar" ([5], p. 409). In fact, according to the authors, the variability of the recognition indices is due not only exclusively to ethnic, geographical, or linguistic factors but also to the absence of mutual involvement between the cultures considered. To support this finding, some research has shown that the index of accuracy in the recognition of emotions at the crosslinguistic level is higher when the contact (even by telephone) between the cultures examined is greater [4]. Similarly, members of linguistic minorities within a given country would be able to decode more accurately the vocal expressions produced by members belonging to the majority culture than the latter in the reverse situation.

#### **4. Emotions in L2: state of the art**

Research on vocal expression and the perception of emotions in a second language are not numerous. The interest in this aspect of communication in L2 is relatively recent; however, the acoustic-perceptive investigations have highlighted some problems related to the management of emotional speech in a second language, with an emphasis on linguistic, cultural, and social factors.

As we pointed out above and as suggested by Dewaele, the typological and cultural distance from the target language can influence the ability of learners to manage emotional speech in L2: "SLA research shows that learners from 'distant' cultures experience significantly greater difficulties in identifying emotion in the L2 and in judging the intensity of that emotion than do fellow learners from 'closer' cultures with similar levels of proficiency" ([6], p. 375). In this regard, the first studies in L2 [7, 8] have shown that the competence linked to the vocal communication of emotions depends to a large extent on the degree of familiarity and knowledge of the cultural context of the target language [9].

Difficulties also exist on a purely prosodic level. A study conducted by Holden and Hogan [10] explored the perception of paralinguistic intonational trends in Russian and English learners, with the aim of evaluating "the emotional and attitudinal 'confusion' that may arise in the use of foreign intonation in L2" ([10], p. 70). The authors started from the consideration that the differences existing between the two linguistic systems in relation to pitch range are often the cause of misunderstanding in the interactions between Russian learners of English and native English speakers, highlighting the tendency of the latter to interpret intonation variations judged as neutral by native Russian speakers, as signs of anger or irritation.

For this reason, the groups involved were asked to evaluate different types of utterances (interrogative and exclamative) based on their emotional value, in order to verify "if there would be a significant change in the judgment of selection of 10 emotions and attitudes with a change of intonation, while keeping other phonetic factors constant" ([10], p. 67). The utterances were manipulated to reproduce the English intonation in Russian sentences and vice versa. Participants were also asked to evaluate the differences between original and manipulated productions.

Results showed that in relation to positive emotions, native English speakers judged the pitch of their own language "higher" than that of native Russian speakers in polar questions. Furthermore, native English speakers have shown themselves to be more sensitive to the intonation of the Russians than to the latter, who on the contrary have shown a lower sensitivity to the variations in tone of the English language. However, in relation to pitch range, both groups "reacted more negatively to the greater pitch range of Russian intonation in exclamations and yes-no questions" ([10], p. 84), giving the original statements in Russian a greater negative value than to the English originals, defined instead as more "passive" in the WH questions. As Ladd points out ([11], p. 94): "English and Russian listeners interpreted differences in sentences in broadly the same way, regardless of their specific cultural norms about what count about 'neutral'".

On the perception of paralinguistic intonation patterns in a second language, the study by Chen [12] focused on learners of Dutch of English origin (with a low level of competence) and on Dutch learners of English (with an advanced level of competence), in order to verify whether the prosodic variations linked to biological codes convey universally shared meanings on an emotional level. The adopted methodology was taken up by Chen et al. [13]. Even in this case, the groups involved have demonstrated a lingual-specific sensitivity to the paralinguistic intonation patterns produced in a foreign language (in this case a second language). Comparing the two studies, the author found out that "L2 English listeners differ from L1 Dutch listeners differ from L1 English listeners" ([12], p. 163). According to the author, the influence of L1 could have played an important role in the interpretation of prosodic variations:

First, there is strong evidence from both L2 English and L2 Dutch listeners that L1 transfer plays an important role in interpreting paralinguistic intonational meaning in L2, as in interpreting linguistic intonational meaning in L2. Also, there is an indication that L2 listeners may activate their knowledge about intonational universals embodied in the biological codes (in particular, Gussenhoven's Effort Code), which accounts for L2 Dutch listeners' native-like behavior in the perception of "emphatic" as signaled by pitch register.

**9**

*Teaching the Prosody of Emotive Communication in a Second Language*

In relation to the level of competence, Chen suggested that from the first phases of acquisition, the learners were able to catch some differences on the paralinguistic level between L1 and L2, to then improve this knowledge in the more advanced

The study by de Abreu and Mathon [14] focused on the perception of spontaneous emotional speech, which investigated the role of prosody in encouraging or hindering the recognition of emotions by a group of Portuguese French L2 learners. The stimuli consisted of some portions of spontaneous speech drawn from a corpus of prank calls made by a radio host against public institutions and service encounters, in order to trigger a reaction of anger in the victims. The linguistic content of the statements has been obscured by introducing white noise, "in order to keep only the prosodic information" ([14], p. 2). The subjects, native French speakers and Portuguese learners of L2 French with an intermediate level of competence, were involved in two tasks: the first aimed at the recognition of the statements of anger (decision task), and the second asked to evaluate the productions in terms of intensity (evaluation task). The recognition rates recorded for both groups (50% for the Portuguese and 62% for the French) led the authors to claim that "prosodic information represents enough information to allow subjects recognizing anger" ([14], p. 4). However, some differences emerged in the interpretations of anger utterances. In some cases, Portuguese learners evaluated utterances that contained pauses, repetitions, and errors as emotional productions other than anger ("not anger") unlike the French. In other words: "it seems that Portuguese do not consider a sentence said with anger when there are disfluencies, unlike French listeners" ([14], p. 4). In terms of production, Komar [15] proposed a contrastive analysis of emotional speech produced by Slovenian speakers in English and by native English speakers. The elicitation of emotions was entrusted to the reading of a dialog in English. The results highlighted the tendency of Slovenes to use a "flat," less dynamic intonation than natives, mainly due to the diversity of the two intonation

There are two main reasons for Slovenes sounding flat in English. First, the Slovenes produce the falling tones in a much narrower pitch range than the English, and second, the step up in pitch from the end of the falling pre-tonic segment and the beginning of the falling tone is significantly smaller compared to the step-up in

These two factors, together with the state of anxiety and discomfort felt when one is not competent in a language, could be responsible for some communicative failures in interactions with native English speakers, who, according to the author, would be inclined to judge the less dynamic intonation of the Slovenes as a sign of disinterest and scarce participation (or rudeness). On a perceptive level, some studies have shown that access to the verbal and vocal content of the emotional message is not as automatic in L2 as it is in the native language [16–18]. In this regard, Chua Shi and Schirmer [19] have explored the process of integrating linguistic content with prosodic indexes in native and nonnative speakers of English of different origins. The stimuli consisted of a series of terms with positive, negative, and neutral valence, pronounced in a happy, neutral, or sad tone. In two separate experiments, the participants expressed a judgment about the emotional value of the stimulus based exclusively on the lexical content; later, they focused on the tone of the voice, thus excluding the linguistic level. The results showed some similarities between the two groups, in particular with regard to response times: "More importantly, both native and non-native listeners responded faster and more accurately when verbal and vocal emotional expressions were congruent as compared to when they were incongruent" ([19], p. 1376). In the case of incongruent verbal and vocal stimuli, the participants' reaction was similar, regardless of the level of competence possessed.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87210*

systems. As Komar explains ([15], p. 4):

pitch made by the English speakers.

stages of the interlanguage.

*Second Language Acquisition - Pedagogies, Practices and Perspectives*

the cultural context of the target language [9].

about what count about 'neutral'".

of "emphatic" as signaled by pitch register.

cultures experience significantly greater difficulties in identifying emotion in the L2 and in judging the intensity of that emotion than do fellow learners from 'closer' cultures with similar levels of proficiency" ([6], p. 375). In this regard, the first studies in L2 [7, 8] have shown that the competence linked to the vocal communication of emotions depends to a large extent on the degree of familiarity and knowledge of

Difficulties also exist on a purely prosodic level. A study conducted by Holden and Hogan [10] explored the perception of paralinguistic intonational trends in Russian and English learners, with the aim of evaluating "the emotional and attitudinal 'confusion' that may arise in the use of foreign intonation in L2" ([10], p. 70). The authors started from the consideration that the differences existing between the two linguistic systems in relation to pitch range are often the cause of misunderstanding in the interactions between Russian learners of English and native English speakers, highlighting the tendency of the latter to interpret intonation variations judged as neutral by native Russian speakers, as signs of anger or irritation.

For this reason, the groups involved were asked to evaluate different types of utterances (interrogative and exclamative) based on their emotional value, in order to verify "if there would be a significant change in the judgment of selection of 10 emotions and attitudes with a change of intonation, while keeping other phonetic factors constant" ([10], p. 67). The utterances were manipulated to reproduce the English intonation in Russian sentences and vice versa. Participants were also asked

Results showed that in relation to positive emotions, native English speakers judged the pitch of their own language "higher" than that of native Russian speakers in polar questions. Furthermore, native English speakers have shown themselves to be more sensitive to the intonation of the Russians than to the latter, who on the contrary have shown a lower sensitivity to the variations in tone of the English language. However, in relation to pitch range, both groups "reacted more negatively to the greater pitch range of Russian intonation in exclamations and yes-no questions" ([10], p. 84), giving the original statements in Russian a greater negative value than to the English originals, defined instead as more "passive" in the WH questions. As Ladd points out ([11], p. 94): "English and Russian listeners interpreted differences in sentences in broadly the same way, regardless of their specific cultural norms

On the perception of paralinguistic intonation patterns in a second language, the study by Chen [12] focused on learners of Dutch of English origin (with a low level of competence) and on Dutch learners of English (with an advanced level of competence), in order to verify whether the prosodic variations linked to biological codes convey universally shared meanings on an emotional level. The adopted methodology was taken up by Chen et al. [13]. Even in this case, the groups involved have demonstrated a lingual-specific sensitivity to the paralinguistic intonation patterns produced in a foreign language (in this case a second language). Comparing the two studies, the author found out that "L2 English listeners differ from L1 Dutch listeners differ from L1 English listeners" ([12], p. 163). According to the author, the influence of L1 could have played an important role in the interpretation of prosodic

First, there is strong evidence from both L2 English and L2 Dutch listeners that L1 transfer plays an important role in interpreting paralinguistic intonational meaning in L2, as in interpreting linguistic intonational meaning in L2. Also, there is an indication that L2 listeners may activate their knowledge about intonational universals embodied in the biological codes (in particular, Gussenhoven's Effort Code), which accounts for L2 Dutch listeners' native-like behavior in the perception

to evaluate the differences between original and manipulated productions.

**8**

variations:

In relation to the level of competence, Chen suggested that from the first phases of acquisition, the learners were able to catch some differences on the paralinguistic level between L1 and L2, to then improve this knowledge in the more advanced stages of the interlanguage.

The study by de Abreu and Mathon [14] focused on the perception of spontaneous emotional speech, which investigated the role of prosody in encouraging or hindering the recognition of emotions by a group of Portuguese French L2 learners. The stimuli consisted of some portions of spontaneous speech drawn from a corpus of prank calls made by a radio host against public institutions and service encounters, in order to trigger a reaction of anger in the victims. The linguistic content of the statements has been obscured by introducing white noise, "in order to keep only the prosodic information" ([14], p. 2). The subjects, native French speakers and Portuguese learners of L2 French with an intermediate level of competence, were involved in two tasks: the first aimed at the recognition of the statements of anger (decision task), and the second asked to evaluate the productions in terms of intensity (evaluation task). The recognition rates recorded for both groups (50% for the Portuguese and 62% for the French) led the authors to claim that "prosodic information represents enough information to allow subjects recognizing anger" ([14], p. 4). However, some differences emerged in the interpretations of anger utterances. In some cases, Portuguese learners evaluated utterances that contained pauses, repetitions, and errors as emotional productions other than anger ("not anger") unlike the French. In other words: "it seems that Portuguese do not consider a sentence said with anger when there are disfluencies, unlike French listeners" ([14], p. 4). In terms of production, Komar [15] proposed a contrastive analysis of emotional speech produced by Slovenian speakers in English and by native English speakers. The elicitation of emotions was entrusted to the reading of a dialog in English. The results highlighted the tendency of Slovenes to use a "flat," less dynamic intonation than natives, mainly due to the diversity of the two intonation systems. As Komar explains ([15], p. 4):

There are two main reasons for Slovenes sounding flat in English. First, the Slovenes produce the falling tones in a much narrower pitch range than the English, and second, the step up in pitch from the end of the falling pre-tonic segment and the beginning of the falling tone is significantly smaller compared to the step-up in pitch made by the English speakers.

These two factors, together with the state of anxiety and discomfort felt when one is not competent in a language, could be responsible for some communicative failures in interactions with native English speakers, who, according to the author, would be inclined to judge the less dynamic intonation of the Slovenes as a sign of disinterest and scarce participation (or rudeness). On a perceptive level, some studies have shown that access to the verbal and vocal content of the emotional message is not as automatic in L2 as it is in the native language [16–18]. In this regard, Chua Shi and Schirmer [19] have explored the process of integrating linguistic content with prosodic indexes in native and nonnative speakers of English of different origins. The stimuli consisted of a series of terms with positive, negative, and neutral valence, pronounced in a happy, neutral, or sad tone. In two separate experiments, the participants expressed a judgment about the emotional value of the stimulus based exclusively on the lexical content; later, they focused on the tone of the voice, thus excluding the linguistic level. The results showed some similarities between the two groups, in particular with regard to response times: "More importantly, both native and non-native listeners responded faster and more accurately when verbal and vocal emotional expressions were congruent as compared to when they were incongruent" ([19], p. 1376). In the case of incongruent verbal and vocal stimuli, the participants' reaction was similar, regardless of the level of competence possessed.

In light of this, the authors have suggested that "the integration of verbal and emotional expressions occurs as readily in one's second language as it does in one's native language" ([19], p. 1376). Graham et al. [20] verified the ability of a group of native and nonnative English speakers to recognize some emotional productions made by native English speakers. The results showed that learners with a higher level of competence were not able to recognize more accurately the proposed stimuli. According to the authors, the ability to decode cannot be acquired in the absence of an intensive exposure to the cultural context of the target language or without a didactic intervention aimed at developing these skills.

Bhatara et al. [21] explored the relationship between competence in L2 and the ability to recognize positive and negative emotions in the target language, specifically American English. The subjects involved were of French origin, with a variable level of competence (established on the basis of the participants' self-assessment). The perceptive experiment involved listening to some utterances in English made by professional actors and the decoding of the emotions expressed through a multiplechoice test. Afterward, the participants were asked to evaluate (on a scale) the pleasantness, the power, the alertness, and the intensity of the emotional stimuli. In addition to whole utterances, the stimuli also included simple vocalizations (or affect bursts). The results showed that learners with a high level of competence were not facilitated in the recognition of emotions, especially positive ones (joy, pride, interest, and relief). According to the authors, the increase in the proficiency of the English language could have compromised the perception and recognition of positive emotional states rather than facilitating it, concluding that: "increasing understanding of the L2 may be accompanied by a slight decrease in ability to understand subtle differences between positive emotions among other speakers" ([21], p. 11).

The correlation between the level of competence of the L2 (perceived by the learner) and the ability to recognize emotions therefore appears to be in doubt. However, recent studies [22] have shown that a high level of competence in the target language corresponds to greater accuracy in decoding positive audiovisual stimuli; moreover, cultural distance seems to influence recognition rates (as already reported in cross-linguistic studies).

In the Italian context, the studies that have investigated this particular aspect of communication in the acquisition process of the Italian L2 are still rather small. Recent studies [23] analyzed the emotional speech produced by Chinese learners of Italian with a high level of competence (C1 level of CEFR). A sample of native Italian speakers was also involved in the experiment. Emotions were elicited through a card task, i.e., a verbal interaction activity between two participants involved in a card game. As the authors explain, this procedure was adopted in order to elicit "emotional linguistic reactions in the players and arouse five different emotions (anger, anxiety, disgust, fear and surprise)" ([23], p. 82). The emotional productions collected were analyzed using Praat, taking into consideration the following parameters: duration and number of syllables, full pauses and silent pauses, and maximum and minimum values of f0. Based on these measurements, time, articulation rate, and pitch range (in semitones) were calculated. The analyses also considered the presence of affect bursts.

In relation to native Italian, the results confirmed the well-known distinction between high and low activation emotions. The expressions of anger, fear, and surprise were characterized by high f0 values and a wide tonal extension; on the contrary the expression of disgust presented lower values, being a low activation emotion. The emotional speech of the Chinese did not show, however, this variability: "as a matter of fact, F0 height and tonal range are quite steady in the whole corpus. The only exception is represented by anger and fear that are expressed with

**11**

*Teaching the Prosody of Emotive Communication in a Second Language*

slightly higher values. These data seem to suggest that Chinese learners vary their pitch account to distinguish different emotional states in the case of native Italian speakers" ([23], p. 83). Production in nonnative Italian was generally characterized by a slowing of speech rate (due to the attempt to articulate single words with greater precision). The use of a modulated intonation and variable in the expression of emotions seems therefore to be a common tendency in learners of a second language. This data was also reported in some pilot studies [24, 25] conducted on Indonesian and Polish students, whose productions highlighted similar intonation contours in all the emotions investigated (joy, anger, sadness, fear, surprise, disgust, and neutral speech). Furthermore, the perceptive investigations conducted in these studies have suggested the hypothesis that the emotional speech produced by the learners in Italian L2 may be not very effective in terms of communication, leading

The role of L1 transfer in emotional speech in Italian L2 was explored in a recent pilot study [26], which involved native Italian speakers (three males and two females) and Russian (two females) and Persian (one male and one female) Erasmus students with a B2 level of competence. All the students involved in the study were following an Italian (grammar and communication course), within the same class, at the University of Calabria, and they had lived in Italy for 9 months at the time of the experiment. The elicitation of emotions has been entrusted to the reading of a text, which has been inserted a standard phrase: "It is not possible" (adapted by [27, 28]), translated into the three native languages. To favor the identification of the subject, they were invited to express the required vocal emotion and equivalent facial expression simultaneously. The participants had the opportunity to repeat their performances several times, in order to reduce any inhibitions or

The learners were invited to express their emotions in their language and later in Italian. The parameters investigated were divided into two macro-categories: temporal (computed in milliseconds of the total duration of the target sentence and of the speech rate); intonation, i.e., the pattern and the values of the fundamental frequency (f0), initial frequency (onset), final frequency (offset), the average frequency, and the melodic excursion of the utterance (calculated in semitones). From the results emerged that in relation to the temporal parameters (total duration and speech rate), with equal number of syllables, all the emotional statements produced by the learners in their native language were shorter than those articulated in Italian L1, with the sole exception of the neutral utterance. This pattern has suggested the hypothesis that Russians and Persians, when they express themselves in Italian, fail to adequately control the elocution parameter, especially when the behavior of emotion differs significantly from that of the native Italian, thus determining emotional productions "different" from those expected. Indeed, it was observed that the emotional utterances produced by the learners in Italian L2 did not differ from those produced in their L1. The effect of transfer is, therefore, confirmed. In relation to the intonation parameters, the F0 excursion of the emotional utterances produced by the native Italian tended to be more extended than that produced in L2. The analysis of the utterances produced in the learners' L1 showed, both in Russian and in Persian, a more reduced tonal excursion than native Italian, resulting in a clearly more monotonous production. In fact, a less dynamic intonation characterized the productions in Italian of both groups (to a greater extent, the statements produced by the Russian participants showed a narrower frequency range than the Persians, which instead managed to better modulate the intonation, in some

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87210*

to misunderstanding with native speakers [25].

insecurities due to the presence of the microphone.

**4.1 The role of transfer in Italian L2**

*Teaching the Prosody of Emotive Communication in a Second Language DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87210*

slightly higher values. These data seem to suggest that Chinese learners vary their pitch account to distinguish different emotional states in the case of native Italian speakers" ([23], p. 83). Production in nonnative Italian was generally characterized by a slowing of speech rate (due to the attempt to articulate single words with greater precision). The use of a modulated intonation and variable in the expression of emotions seems therefore to be a common tendency in learners of a second language. This data was also reported in some pilot studies [24, 25] conducted on Indonesian and Polish students, whose productions highlighted similar intonation contours in all the emotions investigated (joy, anger, sadness, fear, surprise, disgust, and neutral speech). Furthermore, the perceptive investigations conducted in these studies have suggested the hypothesis that the emotional speech produced by the learners in Italian L2 may be not very effective in terms of communication, leading to misunderstanding with native speakers [25].

#### **4.1 The role of transfer in Italian L2**

*Second Language Acquisition - Pedagogies, Practices and Perspectives*

didactic intervention aimed at developing these skills.

In light of this, the authors have suggested that "the integration of verbal and emotional expressions occurs as readily in one's second language as it does in one's native language" ([19], p. 1376). Graham et al. [20] verified the ability of a group of native and nonnative English speakers to recognize some emotional productions made by native English speakers. The results showed that learners with a higher level of competence were not able to recognize more accurately the proposed stimuli. According to the authors, the ability to decode cannot be acquired in the absence of an intensive exposure to the cultural context of the target language or without a

Bhatara et al. [21] explored the relationship between competence in L2 and the ability to recognize positive and negative emotions in the target language, specifically American English. The subjects involved were of French origin, with a variable level of competence (established on the basis of the participants' self-assessment). The perceptive experiment involved listening to some utterances in English made by professional actors and the decoding of the emotions expressed through a multiplechoice test. Afterward, the participants were asked to evaluate (on a scale) the pleasantness, the power, the alertness, and the intensity of the emotional stimuli. In addition to whole utterances, the stimuli also included simple vocalizations (or affect bursts). The results showed that learners with a high level of competence were not facilitated in the recognition of emotions, especially positive ones (joy, pride, interest, and relief). According to the authors, the increase in the proficiency of the English language could have compromised the perception and recognition of positive emotional states rather than facilitating it, concluding that: "increasing understanding of the L2 may be accompanied by a slight decrease in ability to understand subtle differences between positive emotions among other speakers"

The correlation between the level of competence of the L2 (perceived by the learner) and the ability to recognize emotions therefore appears to be in doubt. However, recent studies [22] have shown that a high level of competence in the target language corresponds to greater accuracy in decoding positive audiovisual stimuli; moreover, cultural distance seems to influence recognition rates (as already

In the Italian context, the studies that have investigated this particular aspect of communication in the acquisition process of the Italian L2 are still rather small. Recent studies [23] analyzed the emotional speech produced by Chinese learners of Italian with a high level of competence (C1 level of CEFR). A sample of native Italian speakers was also involved in the experiment. Emotions were elicited through a card task, i.e., a verbal interaction activity between two participants involved in a card game. As the authors explain, this procedure was adopted in order to elicit "emotional linguistic reactions in the players and arouse five different emotions (anger, anxiety, disgust, fear and surprise)" ([23], p. 82). The emotional productions collected were analyzed using Praat, taking into consideration the following parameters: duration and number of syllables, full pauses and silent pauses, and maximum and minimum values of f0. Based on these measurements, time, articulation rate, and pitch range (in semitones) were calculated. The analyses also

In relation to native Italian, the results confirmed the well-known distinction between high and low activation emotions. The expressions of anger, fear, and surprise were characterized by high f0 values and a wide tonal extension; on the contrary the expression of disgust presented lower values, being a low activation emotion. The emotional speech of the Chinese did not show, however, this variability: "as a matter of fact, F0 height and tonal range are quite steady in the whole corpus. The only exception is represented by anger and fear that are expressed with

**10**

([21], p. 11).

reported in cross-linguistic studies).

considered the presence of affect bursts.

The role of L1 transfer in emotional speech in Italian L2 was explored in a recent pilot study [26], which involved native Italian speakers (three males and two females) and Russian (two females) and Persian (one male and one female) Erasmus students with a B2 level of competence. All the students involved in the study were following an Italian (grammar and communication course), within the same class, at the University of Calabria, and they had lived in Italy for 9 months at the time of the experiment. The elicitation of emotions has been entrusted to the reading of a text, which has been inserted a standard phrase: "It is not possible" (adapted by [27, 28]), translated into the three native languages. To favor the identification of the subject, they were invited to express the required vocal emotion and equivalent facial expression simultaneously. The participants had the opportunity to repeat their performances several times, in order to reduce any inhibitions or insecurities due to the presence of the microphone.

The learners were invited to express their emotions in their language and later in Italian. The parameters investigated were divided into two macro-categories: temporal (computed in milliseconds of the total duration of the target sentence and of the speech rate); intonation, i.e., the pattern and the values of the fundamental frequency (f0), initial frequency (onset), final frequency (offset), the average frequency, and the melodic excursion of the utterance (calculated in semitones). From the results emerged that in relation to the temporal parameters (total duration and speech rate), with equal number of syllables, all the emotional statements produced by the learners in their native language were shorter than those articulated in Italian L1, with the sole exception of the neutral utterance. This pattern has suggested the hypothesis that Russians and Persians, when they express themselves in Italian, fail to adequately control the elocution parameter, especially when the behavior of emotion differs significantly from that of the native Italian, thus determining emotional productions "different" from those expected. Indeed, it was observed that the emotional utterances produced by the learners in Italian L2 did not differ from those produced in their L1. The effect of transfer is, therefore, confirmed. In relation to the intonation parameters, the F0 excursion of the emotional utterances produced by the native Italian tended to be more extended than that produced in L2. The analysis of the utterances produced in the learners' L1 showed, both in Russian and in Persian, a more reduced tonal excursion than native Italian, resulting in a clearly more monotonous production. In fact, a less dynamic intonation characterized the productions in Italian of both groups (to a greater extent, the statements produced by the Russian participants showed a narrower frequency range than the Persians, which instead managed to better modulate the intonation, in some

cases approaching the target language). In this case, it was difficult to attribute the lack of dynamism of the learners' speech to a real prosodic transfer, as, as already mentioned, such behavior can be justified by the discomfort felt when speaking a foreign language and even more so in contexts that invest the emotional sphere.

From a recent study [29], a heterogeneous picture emerged in relation to the L1 of the learners involved (Russians, Tunisians, and Spaniards). The acoustic verification of the emotional productions made by the students in their L1 and in Italian showed a clear evidence of transfer, especially in the speech of the Tunisians, who tended to reproduce in Italian intonational contours very similar to those of their native language. In the productions of the Russians and the Spaniards, instead, the contours, partially overlapping and rather monotonous, lost part of their auditory distinctiveness. According to the authors, the productions in L2, in some ways confused and very often not congruent on a pragmatic level, represent an indication of the difficulty faced by learners when they realize in a different language a complex paralinguistic phenomenon such as emotions.

#### **5. Teaching to express and perceive emotions in L2: a prosodic training**

In this section, we will deal with the implementation of a training for the classroom practice. Learners involved in this study are Persian and Russian students who participated in the research described in the previous paragraph. The structure of the training is partly structured following the didactic approach of the task which is defined by Nunan as follows:

*A piece of classroom work that involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is focused on mobilizing their grammatical knowledge in order to express meaning and in which the intention is to convey meaning rather than to manipulate form. The task should also have a sense of completeness, being able to stand alone as a communicative act in its own right with a beginning, middle and an end. ([30], p. 4)*

During the lesson, students concentrate on the meaning and not on the linguistic form and are involved in tasks that simulate or reproduce what happens outside the school context. However, reflection on the language may arise during the work in class and therefore from the need of the learners to reach the communicative objective they have set for themselves. Given the experimental nature and the prosodic focus of the activities, we have planned tasks of different nature that the students have prepared to face a reflection on the paraverbal and non-verbal elements of the emotions that were the object of the training. The first activity involving learners on the theme of emotions is a meta-pragmatic activity. The next phase of the experimentation focused on the presentation of linguistic and communicative inputs of an emotional nature. The learners viewed some film clips showing examples of emotional states (verbal and non-verbal) and were involved in role-play activities. Other non-verbal activities prepared the learners for the actual task which consisted in the planning and realization of a dubbing. Previous studies [31–34] have shown that video technologies are a didactic tool with a strong motivational component, able to involve and stimulate learning in an environment free from anxieties and apprehensions. To assess the effectiveness of the training, we adopted a cross-analysis of learners' production and perception skills—through acoustic analysis and auditory tests—before and after the training. This allowed us to highlight any improvement following the didactic intervention and to formulate further hypotheses. The auditory tests and the acoustic analysis were carried out according to the procedures described above.

**13**

message.

*Teaching the Prosody of Emotive Communication in a Second Language*

Phase 1: Meta-pragmatic activities: brainstorming

ence is often the origin of misunderstandings and misinterpretations. Phase 2: Exposure to linguistic inputs and focus on prosodic aspects

Now let us see in detail the articulation of the training which took place over

The aim of the initial phase was to provide language learners with space for a reflection on the language. The meta-pragmatic activity was aimed at an exchange of impressions and information on the modalities of expression of emotions in the learners' countries of origin in order to identify the main criticalities experienced by the learners in the interactions with the natives. This reflection also allowed learners to check the correspondence between the emotional labels proposed in Italian and those used in their L1. In this phase emerged the first criticality experienced by the learners of both groups in the interactions with the natives, due to the Italian habit of amplifying the volume of the voice, during the verbal exchange. Especially in Persian culture, this vocal variation is interpreted as a display of anger. This differ-

This phase, which we can consider a phase of preparation for the actual tasks, has been focused on exposure to linguistic input, taken from Italian films and from the corpus of emotions produced by the natives. In particular, in the case of films, other non-verbal aspects (facial expression, gestures, postures, distance between interlocutors, etc.) involved in the expression of emotions were also identified. Subsequently, we gave the students a description of the mode of expression from a vocal point of view, focusing on the prosodic features [28, 34]. For example, as far as anger is concerned, we have given some information on the physiological alteration (irregular breathing, increased heart rate, etc.) and on the effects observable in speech (sustained speed, increase in intensity, etc.). The objective was to develop the awareness of the psychophysical changes and the effects on the vocal aspects triggered by the emotional states considered above. One of the activities proposed to the learners, who were working in a multilingual environment, was the vision of the clips without the audio, after which they were asked to guess the messages and then to try to realize the acoustic characteristics of the emotional expression

The third phase of the training included the performance of some exercises related to non-verbal communication. Learners were divided into pairs and placed back to back. Afterward, they had to reproduce an emotional state by repeating the sequence of numbers from 1 to 4 (to avoid any interference of a semantic nature), letting the other person guess the reproduced emotional state. Some emotions have been expressed more easily (e.g., anger, sadness, and joy); others, however, have raised some difficulties (e.g., disgust and fear), both in production and recognition. In general, learners have learned to "play" with the intonation and the voice, managing to capture the emotional nuances, beyond the linguistic content of the

Learners were then involved in a series of playful activities such as interpreting certain dialogic parts characterized by a specific emotional context (e.g., an unexpected encounter between two friends, in which emotional states emerged, i.e., joy, sadness, anger, etc.) and then improvising a similar dialog resorting to some expressions used by the protagonists (see Appendix). The theatrical component of these activities gave the students the opportunity to use other non-verbal components during simulations. In order to enhance the focus on prosodic aspects, students carried out shadowing exercises, in which they were asked to listen to the emotional stimulus produced in Italian and to replicate it (in the shortest possible time) in terms of rhythm and intonation. In this last phase, learners had the opportunity to

put into practice the suggestions provided in the previous phase.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87210*

4 weeks and was divided into four phases.

conveyed by the messages themselves.

Phase 3: Non-verbal communication practice

#### *Teaching the Prosody of Emotive Communication in a Second Language DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87210*

*Second Language Acquisition - Pedagogies, Practices and Perspectives*

paralinguistic phenomenon such as emotions.

defined by Nunan as follows:

cases approaching the target language). In this case, it was difficult to attribute the lack of dynamism of the learners' speech to a real prosodic transfer, as, as already mentioned, such behavior can be justified by the discomfort felt when speaking a foreign language and even more so in contexts that invest the emotional sphere. From a recent study [29], a heterogeneous picture emerged in relation to the L1 of the learners involved (Russians, Tunisians, and Spaniards). The acoustic verification of the emotional productions made by the students in their L1 and in Italian showed a clear evidence of transfer, especially in the speech of the Tunisians, who tended to reproduce in Italian intonational contours very similar to those of their native language. In the productions of the Russians and the Spaniards, instead, the contours, partially overlapping and rather monotonous, lost part of their auditory distinctiveness. According to the authors, the productions in L2, in some ways confused and very often not congruent on a pragmatic level, represent an indication of the difficulty faced by learners when they realize in a different language a complex

**5. Teaching to express and perceive emotions in L2: a prosodic training**

In this section, we will deal with the implementation of a training for the classroom practice. Learners involved in this study are Persian and Russian students who participated in the research described in the previous paragraph. The structure of the training is partly structured following the didactic approach of the task which is

*A piece of classroom work that involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is focused on mobilizing their grammatical knowledge in order to express meaning and in which the intention is to convey meaning rather than to manipulate form. The task should also have a sense of completeness, being able to stand alone as a communicative act* 

During the lesson, students concentrate on the meaning and not on the linguistic form and are involved in tasks that simulate or reproduce what happens outside the school context. However, reflection on the language may arise during the work in class and therefore from the need of the learners to reach the communicative objective they have set for themselves. Given the experimental nature and the prosodic focus of the activities, we have planned tasks of different nature that the students have prepared to face a reflection on the paraverbal and non-verbal elements of the emotions that were the object of the training. The first activity involving learners on the theme of emotions is a meta-pragmatic activity. The next phase of the experimentation focused on the presentation of linguistic and communicative inputs of an emotional nature. The learners viewed some film clips showing examples of emotional states (verbal and non-verbal) and were involved in role-play activities. Other non-verbal activities prepared the learners for the actual task which consisted in the planning and realization of a dubbing. Previous studies [31–34] have shown that video technologies are a didactic tool with a strong motivational component, able to involve and stimulate learning in an environment free from anxieties and apprehensions. To assess the effectiveness of the training, we adopted a cross-analysis of learners' production and perception skills—through acoustic analysis and auditory tests—before and after the training. This allowed us to highlight any improvement following the didactic intervention and to formulate further hypotheses. The auditory tests and the acoustic

*in its own right with a beginning, middle and an end. ([30], p. 4)*

analysis were carried out according to the procedures described above.

**12**

Now let us see in detail the articulation of the training which took place over 4 weeks and was divided into four phases.

Phase 1: Meta-pragmatic activities: brainstorming

The aim of the initial phase was to provide language learners with space for a reflection on the language. The meta-pragmatic activity was aimed at an exchange of impressions and information on the modalities of expression of emotions in the learners' countries of origin in order to identify the main criticalities experienced by the learners in the interactions with the natives. This reflection also allowed learners to check the correspondence between the emotional labels proposed in Italian and those used in their L1. In this phase emerged the first criticality experienced by the learners of both groups in the interactions with the natives, due to the Italian habit of amplifying the volume of the voice, during the verbal exchange. Especially in Persian culture, this vocal variation is interpreted as a display of anger. This difference is often the origin of misunderstandings and misinterpretations.

Phase 2: Exposure to linguistic inputs and focus on prosodic aspects

This phase, which we can consider a phase of preparation for the actual tasks, has been focused on exposure to linguistic input, taken from Italian films and from the corpus of emotions produced by the natives. In particular, in the case of films, other non-verbal aspects (facial expression, gestures, postures, distance between interlocutors, etc.) involved in the expression of emotions were also identified. Subsequently, we gave the students a description of the mode of expression from a vocal point of view, focusing on the prosodic features [28, 34]. For example, as far as anger is concerned, we have given some information on the physiological alteration (irregular breathing, increased heart rate, etc.) and on the effects observable in speech (sustained speed, increase in intensity, etc.). The objective was to develop the awareness of the psychophysical changes and the effects on the vocal aspects triggered by the emotional states considered above. One of the activities proposed to the learners, who were working in a multilingual environment, was the vision of the clips without the audio, after which they were asked to guess the messages and then to try to realize the acoustic characteristics of the emotional expression conveyed by the messages themselves.

Phase 3: Non-verbal communication practice

The third phase of the training included the performance of some exercises related to non-verbal communication. Learners were divided into pairs and placed back to back. Afterward, they had to reproduce an emotional state by repeating the sequence of numbers from 1 to 4 (to avoid any interference of a semantic nature), letting the other person guess the reproduced emotional state. Some emotions have been expressed more easily (e.g., anger, sadness, and joy); others, however, have raised some difficulties (e.g., disgust and fear), both in production and recognition. In general, learners have learned to "play" with the intonation and the voice, managing to capture the emotional nuances, beyond the linguistic content of the message.

Learners were then involved in a series of playful activities such as interpreting certain dialogic parts characterized by a specific emotional context (e.g., an unexpected encounter between two friends, in which emotional states emerged, i.e., joy, sadness, anger, etc.) and then improvising a similar dialog resorting to some expressions used by the protagonists (see Appendix). The theatrical component of these activities gave the students the opportunity to use other non-verbal components during simulations. In order to enhance the focus on prosodic aspects, students carried out shadowing exercises, in which they were asked to listen to the emotional stimulus produced in Italian and to replicate it (in the shortest possible time) in terms of rhythm and intonation. In this last phase, learners had the opportunity to put into practice the suggestions provided in the previous phase.

Phase 4: The dubbing task

The actual task consisted in the realization of the dubbing. In our study, we selected some scenes (see Appendix) taken from an Italian film, *L'ultimo bacio* ("The Last Kiss" by Gabriele Muccino), containing specific emotional contexts (anger, sadness, joy, fear, and disgust). This phase consisted, in turn, of several moments in order to elaborate the task. During the preparation phase, we invited learners to carefully observe the scenes, initially projected without the audio, and to focus on the facial expressions and the gestures of the actors. Each learner proposed a personal interpretation of the video in an emotional key and tried to guess which of the primary emotions was expressed in the video. The same activity was replicated following the projection of the film with the original audio. This activity encouraged learners to exchange their impressions with respect to the hypotheses that they had previously formulated. The students were then divided into pairs, and each of them was assigned a scene to be interpreted, and they were asked to write the relating script. In this phase, the learners have been given a description of the emotions from a vocal point of view (speech rate, voice volume, intonation, etc.), analyzing together with the learners the characteristics of the actors' speech and its variability according to the emotional context. Later, the students were invited to individually and collectively experiment the lines of the dialogs assigned to each of them. Their interpretative effort focused on the emotions that were realized paying attention to gestures, facial expressions, and composite vocal modulations. Shootings were done with a digital camera, and audio recording was done using a professional recorder with internal microphone, to facilitate the dynamism of the scenes. At the end of the shoot, the material obtained was processed through a video editing software (Windows Movie Maker). With the active collaboration of the students, the assembly of the scenes was carried out; finally, the films obtained were screened in class, and the projection was followed by a meta-pragmatic discussion on the use of the voice and the body in the expression of emotions.

Acoustic analysis ad auditory assessment: results

The data collected in the first and last phase of the training were subject to an acoustic analysis. Furthermore, before the training began, an auditory test was presented to both groups containing the six considered emotions (together with the neutral speech), performed by a native Italian speaker, in order to highlight any initial critical points. The hypotheses formulated at the outset were confirmed by the results obtained, highlighting the presence of concrete difficulties in the management of emotional speech by the subjects involved, both in terms of production and in terms of their auditory recognition. The acoustic analysis revealed some elements worthy of reflection. First of all, among all the investigated parameters, the most resistant index seems to be the intonation contour. Moreover, the analysis of learners' emotional speech in their L1 confirmed the hypothesis of the influence of the prosodic structures of the native language on those of the target language. In the melodic contour the emotions produced in L2, different phenomena of prosodic transfer can be noticed; the native language of the learners acts as a powerful filter that slows down, and sometimes blocks, the acquisition of the new intonation patterns. For example, the intonation contour of sadness realized by the Russian learners in L2, at least before the training, is similar to the one they produce in their native language, while the melodic excursion related to surprise never reaches hearing adequacy in the L2 of Persian learners, being less modulated than that of native Italian, but approximate to the melodic excursion of native Persian. In **Figure 1** we report by way of example the intonation contour relating to the sadness produced in Italian by a Russian learner. Before the training, the contour, placed in a wide tonal space, settles on high F0 values (EM: 11 ST); after the training we can see not only a re-dimensioning of the melodic excursion (7.7 ST) but also the correct positioning

**15**

**Figure 2.**

**Figure 1.**

*Teaching the Prosody of Emotive Communication in a Second Language*

of the final contour; in this last case, the hearing result is obviously improved. However, it should be pointed out that emotional intonations only partially

*Waveform and intonation contour of the sentence* non è possibile *("it's not possible") conveying sadness produced by a Russian learner before the training (upper figure) and after the training (lower figure).*

Learners are able to better control temporal parameters, duration, and speech rate and consequently to adapt them to the new linguistic model (**Figures 2** and **3**).

*Speech rate. Comparison of Russian learners' productions before (it-L2pre) and after (it-L2post) the training.* 

improve, and not all, under the action of training.

*The figure also shows the variation of speech rate in learners' L1 (R-L1).*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87210*

*Teaching the Prosody of Emotive Communication in a Second Language DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87210*

#### **Figure 1.**

*Second Language Acquisition - Pedagogies, Practices and Perspectives*

The actual task consisted in the realization of the dubbing. In our study, we selected some scenes (see Appendix) taken from an Italian film, *L'ultimo bacio* ("The Last Kiss" by Gabriele Muccino), containing specific emotional contexts (anger, sadness, joy, fear, and disgust). This phase consisted, in turn, of several moments in order to elaborate the task. During the preparation phase, we invited learners to carefully observe the scenes, initially projected without the audio, and to focus on the facial expressions and the gestures of the actors. Each learner proposed a personal interpretation of the video in an emotional key and tried to guess which of the primary emotions was expressed in the video. The same activity was replicated following the projection of the film with the original audio. This activity encouraged learners to exchange their impressions with respect to the hypotheses that they had previously formulated. The students were then divided into pairs, and each of them was assigned a scene to be interpreted, and they were asked to write the relating script. In this phase, the learners have been given a description of the emotions from a vocal point of view (speech rate, voice volume, intonation, etc.), analyzing together with the learners the characteristics of the actors' speech and its variability according to the emotional context. Later, the students were invited to individually and collectively experiment the lines of the dialogs assigned to each of them. Their interpretative effort focused on the emotions that were realized paying attention to gestures, facial expressions, and composite vocal modulations. Shootings were done with a digital camera, and audio recording was done using a professional recorder with internal microphone, to facilitate the dynamism of the scenes. At the end of the shoot, the material obtained was processed through a video editing software (Windows Movie Maker). With the active collaboration of the students, the assembly of the scenes was carried out; finally, the films obtained were screened in class, and the projection was followed by a meta-pragmatic discus-

sion on the use of the voice and the body in the expression of emotions.

The data collected in the first and last phase of the training were subject to an acoustic analysis. Furthermore, before the training began, an auditory test was presented to both groups containing the six considered emotions (together with the neutral speech), performed by a native Italian speaker, in order to highlight any initial critical points. The hypotheses formulated at the outset were confirmed by the results obtained, highlighting the presence of concrete difficulties in the management of emotional speech by the subjects involved, both in terms of production and in terms of their auditory recognition. The acoustic analysis revealed some elements worthy of reflection. First of all, among all the investigated parameters, the most resistant index seems to be the intonation contour. Moreover, the analysis of learners' emotional speech in their L1 confirmed the hypothesis of the influence of the prosodic structures of the native language on those of the target language. In the melodic contour the emotions produced in L2, different phenomena of prosodic transfer can be noticed; the native language of the learners acts as a powerful filter that slows down, and sometimes blocks, the acquisition of the new intonation patterns. For example, the intonation contour of sadness realized by the Russian learners in L2, at least before the training, is similar to the one they produce in their native language, while the melodic excursion related to surprise never reaches hearing adequacy in the L2 of Persian learners, being less modulated than that of native Italian, but approximate to the melodic excursion of native Persian. In **Figure 1** we report by way of example the intonation contour relating to the sadness produced in Italian by a Russian learner. Before the training, the contour, placed in a wide tonal space, settles on high F0 values (EM: 11 ST); after the training we can see not only a re-dimensioning of the melodic excursion (7.7 ST) but also the correct positioning

Acoustic analysis ad auditory assessment: results

Phase 4: The dubbing task

**14**

*Waveform and intonation contour of the sentence* non è possibile *("it's not possible") conveying sadness produced by a Russian learner before the training (upper figure) and after the training (lower figure).*

of the final contour; in this last case, the hearing result is obviously improved. However, it should be pointed out that emotional intonations only partially improve, and not all, under the action of training.

Learners are able to better control temporal parameters, duration, and speech rate and consequently to adapt them to the new linguistic model (**Figures 2** and **3**).

#### **Figure 2.**

*Speech rate. Comparison of Russian learners' productions before (it-L2pre) and after (it-L2post) the training. The figure also shows the variation of speech rate in learners' L1 (R-L1).*

#### **Figure 3.**

*Speech rate. Comparison of Persian learners' productions before (it-L2pre) and after (it-L2post) the training. The figure also shows the variation of speech rate in learners' L1 (P-L1).*

#### **Figure 4.**

*Percentages of mean recognition accuracy of emotional sentences produced by learners before (it-L2pre) and after (it-L2post) the training.*

These two parameters therefore show greater ductility, and presumably these are the ones that contribute to improving the auditory responses of the subsequent experimental phase. For example, the speech rate, anger, surprise, joy, and disgust found in Russian learners before teaching training show a strong conditioning by their native language, an effect that is, however, reduced after the training phase (**Figure 2**). The overall improvement was proven by the decoding of native speakers1 : learners' emotional productions after the training have been recognized by native speakers much more than the pre-training productions (**Figure 4**). On the level of auditory

**17**

cultural systems.

*Teaching the Prosody of Emotive Communication in a Second Language*

recognition, the learners have shown a marked improvement in their decoding skills, correctly recognizing the emotions that initially caused major problems (although

The results of this study lead us to some more general considerations regarding

These are therefore two essentially different communicative styles that are often the cause of misunderstandings due to the reciprocal tendency to interpret emotional speech according to its own cultural and linguistic parameters, considering them universally shared. As we have observed at length in the course of our discussion of the emotional phenomenon, vocal productions that manifest certain emotional values in a given culture can, in another, characterize contexts that are not specifically emotional or neutral. The difficulties encountered by the Persian learners in the interpretation of some verbal and non-verbal behaviors of Italians amply demonstrate this aspect. We therefore hypothesize that the transfer is not only of a prosodic nature, but that it has deeper roots, closely linked to the behavioral patterns that we have learned to manage and decode since our infancy and that are part of an adult's cultural and emotional memory. In this perspective, the management of emotional speech in an L2 is not limited to the correct use of the intonation structures of the target language, but involves deeper levels, perhaps less sensitive to the educational intervention. Moreover, the transfer acts as a sort of filter that the learner uses to elaborate the hypotheses on the target language being not the mere passage of a structure from one language to another. The development of an emotional competence in the target language represents, as we know, a delicate and personal path. However, we believe that focused instruction, similar to what we have proposed, can positively contribute to the process of interaction between very different linguistic and

As a matter of fact, the training carried out in this study, beyond the cultural and typological distance existing between the native languages involved in the experiment, has nevertheless produced positive effects. A long-term verification

possible interpretations on the acquisition of prosody in L2, including some observed transfer phenomena. Although the linguistic distance between L1 and L2 potentially constitutes an obstacle to the acquisition of new prosodic structures and their decoding, cultural distance plays in many cases a very important role in the elaboration of the perception and production of emotional states. From a verbal report conducted with the Russian and the Persian learners, extremely different communication profiles emerged with respect to the target language, and their perception of emotion is interpreted and adapted according to the cultural norms. In particular, the strong discomfort of the Persians arises from a different interpretation of the non-verbal signals of the Italian natives; for example, in Persian culture, prolonged eye contact is often decoded as an act of defiance; the voice volume of the conversation tends to remain rather calm, and the use of gestures is moderate. In the Italian culture, a communicative exchange is instead based on maintaining a visual contact, interpreted as a sign of attention, sincerity, and participation; moreover, in a normal conversation, participants continually resort to gestures and facial expressions to emphasize the message, and the volume of the voice adapts to the general emphasis and tends to rise considerably. All this is interpreted by Iranian speakers as an act of aggression; on the other hand, the Italians themselves could interpret the non-verbal behavior of the Persians as signs of coldness and low emotional

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87210*

**6. Conclusions**

participation.

the Persian group encountered some difficulties).

<sup>1</sup> The vocal productions of the learners (before and after the training) and those of an Italian speaker were included in an online auditory test and submitted to a sample of 26 Italian listeners (12 men and 14 women, aged 18–66 years, mean age: 35 years). The initial page of the test provided a brief introduction on the object of the research and a series of indications on the modalities of execution. The test consisted in listening to the stimulus and selecting the response within a set of options (joy, anger, disgust, fear, sadness, surprise, and neutral). The listeners had the opportunity to listen to the audio file several times and to add comments and personal opinions. Stimuli were played randomly.

recognition, the learners have shown a marked improvement in their decoding skills, correctly recognizing the emotions that initially caused major problems (although the Persian group encountered some difficulties).

#### **6. Conclusions**

*Second Language Acquisition - Pedagogies, Practices and Perspectives*

*The figure also shows the variation of speech rate in learners' L1 (P-L1).*

These two parameters therefore show greater ductility, and presumably these are the ones that contribute to improving the auditory responses of the subsequent experimental phase. For example, the speech rate, anger, surprise, joy, and disgust found in Russian learners before teaching training show a strong conditioning by their native language, an effect that is, however, reduced after the training phase (**Figure 2**). The overall improvement was proven by the decoding of native speakers1

*Percentages of mean recognition accuracy of emotional sentences produced by learners before (it-L2pre) and* 

*Speech rate. Comparison of Persian learners' productions before (it-L2pre) and after (it-L2post) the training.* 

emotional productions after the training have been recognized by native speakers much more than the pre-training productions (**Figure 4**). On the level of auditory

<sup>1</sup> The vocal productions of the learners (before and after the training) and those of an Italian speaker were included in an online auditory test and submitted to a sample of 26 Italian listeners (12 men and 14 women, aged 18–66 years, mean age: 35 years). The initial page of the test provided a brief introduction on the object of the research and a series of indications on the modalities of execution. The test consisted in listening to the stimulus and selecting the response within a set of options (joy, anger, disgust, fear, sadness, surprise, and neutral). The listeners had the opportunity to listen to the audio file several times

and to add comments and personal opinions. Stimuli were played randomly.

: learners'

**16**

**Figure 3.**

**Figure 4.**

*after (it-L2post) the training.*

The results of this study lead us to some more general considerations regarding possible interpretations on the acquisition of prosody in L2, including some observed transfer phenomena. Although the linguistic distance between L1 and L2 potentially constitutes an obstacle to the acquisition of new prosodic structures and their decoding, cultural distance plays in many cases a very important role in the elaboration of the perception and production of emotional states. From a verbal report conducted with the Russian and the Persian learners, extremely different communication profiles emerged with respect to the target language, and their perception of emotion is interpreted and adapted according to the cultural norms. In particular, the strong discomfort of the Persians arises from a different interpretation of the non-verbal signals of the Italian natives; for example, in Persian culture, prolonged eye contact is often decoded as an act of defiance; the voice volume of the conversation tends to remain rather calm, and the use of gestures is moderate. In the Italian culture, a communicative exchange is instead based on maintaining a visual contact, interpreted as a sign of attention, sincerity, and participation; moreover, in a normal conversation, participants continually resort to gestures and facial expressions to emphasize the message, and the volume of the voice adapts to the general emphasis and tends to rise considerably. All this is interpreted by Iranian speakers as an act of aggression; on the other hand, the Italians themselves could interpret the non-verbal behavior of the Persians as signs of coldness and low emotional participation.

These are therefore two essentially different communicative styles that are often the cause of misunderstandings due to the reciprocal tendency to interpret emotional speech according to its own cultural and linguistic parameters, considering them universally shared. As we have observed at length in the course of our discussion of the emotional phenomenon, vocal productions that manifest certain emotional values in a given culture can, in another, characterize contexts that are not specifically emotional or neutral. The difficulties encountered by the Persian learners in the interpretation of some verbal and non-verbal behaviors of Italians amply demonstrate this aspect. We therefore hypothesize that the transfer is not only of a prosodic nature, but that it has deeper roots, closely linked to the behavioral patterns that we have learned to manage and decode since our infancy and that are part of an adult's cultural and emotional memory. In this perspective, the management of emotional speech in an L2 is not limited to the correct use of the intonation structures of the target language, but involves deeper levels, perhaps less sensitive to the educational intervention. Moreover, the transfer acts as a sort of filter that the learner uses to elaborate the hypotheses on the target language being not the mere passage of a structure from one language to another. The development of an emotional competence in the target language represents, as we know, a delicate and personal path. However, we believe that focused instruction, similar to what we have proposed, can positively contribute to the process of interaction between very different linguistic and cultural systems.

As a matter of fact, the training carried out in this study, beyond the cultural and typological distance existing between the native languages involved in the experiment, has nevertheless produced positive effects. A long-term verification still remains to be carried out, in order to determine whether the phenomena under investigation have been actually acquired.

### **Thanks**

I would like to thank Emanuela Paone for the careful and extensive revisions, suggestions, and the helpful comments on the chapter.

### **Appendix**

Screenplay: "The Last Kiss" by Gabriele Muccino, 2000.

La Confessione

The confession Anna irrompe nello studio del marito psicologo (Emilio), mentre questi è impegnato con una paziente.

Anna breaks into the studio of her husband, the psychologist (Emilio), while he is engaged with a patient.

A.: *Eccoci qua!* A.: Here we are! E.: *Cos'è successo?* What happened? A.: *Secondo te niente di importante, vero*? A.: In your opinion, nothing relevant, isn't it? E.: *Sto lavorando.* I'm working. A.: *Lo vedo.* I see it. E.: *E allora esci e ripassa tra quaranta minuti, quando avrò finito.* And then go out and come back in 45 minutes, when I'm done. A: *Ti devo parlare*. I have to talk to you. E.: *E non potresti parlarmi tra quaranta minuti o stasera, quando torno a casa, di grazia?* So couldn't you talk to me in 45 minutes or tonight, when I get home? A.: *NO!* NO! E.: (rivolgendosi alla paziente) *È mia moglie, non si preoccupi.* (turning to the patient) She's my wife, don't worry. A.: *Te la devo dire subito questa cosetta, di grazia!* (arrabbiata) I have to tell you this *little thing* right away, goodness! (angry) (Emilio si alza e si avvicina minaccioso alla moglie) (Emilio gets up and approaches her wife threateningly) A: (sarcastica) *Dio, che paura! Sto provocando una reazione!* (sarcastically) God, what a fear! I'm provoking a reaction! E.: *Ma tu hai bevuto, eh?* But you've been drinking, haven't you? A.: Ah, now I've been drinking, huh? Tonight, I leave you, my dear, you understand what I said? I'll leave you forever! E.: *Adesso fuori! Fuori!* (urla) Out now! Out! (yell out)

**19**

**Author details**

Anna De Marco

University of Calabria, Italy

provided the original work is properly cited.

\*Address all correspondence to: demarco.anna@gmail.com

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

*Teaching the Prosody of Emotive Communication in a Second Language*

A.: TI HO TRADITO! Hai capito che ho detto? TI HO TRADITO!

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87210*

(rivolgendosi alla paziente).

I said? I CHEATED ON YOU!

(addressing the patient).

Arrivederci e tante scuse per il disturbo

I HAVE BETRAYED YOU! You understand what

Goodbye and many apologies for the trouble

*Teaching the Prosody of Emotive Communication in a Second Language DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87210*

*Second Language Acquisition - Pedagogies, Practices and Perspectives*

suggestions, and the helpful comments on the chapter.

Screenplay: "The Last Kiss" by Gabriele Muccino, 2000.

E.: *E allora esci e ripassa tra quaranta minuti, quando avrò finito.* And then go out and come back in 45 minutes, when I'm done.

E.: *E non potresti parlarmi tra quaranta minuti o stasera, quando torno a casa,*

So couldn't you talk to me in 45 minutes or tonight, when I get home?

E.: (rivolgendosi alla paziente) *È mia moglie, non si preoccupi.*

A.: *Te la devo dire subito questa cosetta, di grazia!* (arrabbiata) I have to tell you this *little thing* right away, goodness! (angry)

(turning to the patient) She's my wife, don't worry.

(Emilio si alza e si avvicina minaccioso alla moglie) (Emilio gets up and approaches her wife threateningly) A: (sarcastica) *Dio, che paura! Sto provocando una reazione!* (sarcastically) God, what a fear! I'm provoking a reaction!

Tonight, I leave you, my dear, you understand what

investigation have been actually acquired.

**Thanks**

**Appendix**

La Confessione The confession

nato con una paziente.

is engaged with a patient. A.: *Eccoci qua!* A.: Here we are! E.: *Cos'è successo?* What happened?

> E.: *Sto lavorando.* I'm working. A.: *Lo vedo.* I see it.

A: *Ti devo parlare*. I have to talk to you.

E.: *Ma tu hai bevuto, eh?*

I said? I'll leave you forever! E.: *Adesso fuori! Fuori!* (urla) Out now! Out! (yell out)

But you've been drinking, haven't you? A.: Ah, now I've been drinking, huh?

*di grazia?*

A.: *NO!* NO!

A.: *Secondo te niente di importante, vero*? A.: In your opinion, nothing relevant, isn't it?

still remains to be carried out, in order to determine whether the phenomena under

I would like to thank Emanuela Paone for the careful and extensive revisions,

Anna irrompe nello studio del marito psicologo (Emilio), mentre questi è impeg-

Anna breaks into the studio of her husband, the psychologist (Emilio), while he

**18**

A.: TI HO TRADITO! Hai capito che ho detto? TI HO TRADITO! Arrivederci e tante scuse per il disturbo (rivolgendosi alla paziente). I HAVE BETRAYED YOU! You understand what I said? I CHEATED ON YOU! Goodbye and many apologies for the trouble (addressing the patient).

#### **Author details**

Anna De Marco University of Calabria, Italy

\*Address all correspondence to: demarco.anna@gmail.com

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

### **References**

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[2] Poggi I, Magno Caldognetto E. Il parlato emotivo. Aspetti cognitivi, linguistici e fonetici. In: Leoni FA, Cutugno F, Pettorino M, Savy R, editors. Atti del Convegno Il parlato italiano. Napoli, Cd-Rom: D'auria Editore; 2004

[3] Scherer KR, Banse R, Wallbott HG. Emotion inferences from vocal expression correlate across languages and cultures. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology. 2001;**32**(1):76-92

[4] Elfenbein HA, Ambady N. Is there an in-group advantage in emotion recognition? Psychological Bulletin. 2002;**128**(2):243-249

[5] Thompson WF, Balkwill LL. Decoding speech prosody in five languages. Semiotica. 2006;**2006**(158):407-424

[6] Dewaele JM. Investigating the psychological and emotional dimensions in instructed language learning: Obstacles ad possibilities. The Modern Language Journal. 2005;**89**(3):367-380

[7] Rintell E. But how did you feel about that? The learner's perception of emotion in speech. Applied Linguistics. 1984;**5**:255-264

[8] Rintell E. That's incredible: Stories of emotion told by second language and native speakers. In: Scarcella R, Andersen E, Krashen S, editors. Developing Communicative Competence in a Second Language. Heinle and Heinle Publishers: Boston; 2011. pp. 75-94

[9] Kim S, Dorner LM. "I won't talk about this here in America"*:* Sociocultural context of Korean English learners' emotion speech in English. L2 Journal. 2013;**5**(2):43-67

[10] Holden K, Hogan J. The emotive impact of foreign intonation: An experiment in switching English and Russian intonation. Language and Speech. 1993;**36**:67-88

[11] Ladd DR. Simultaneous Structure in Phonology. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2014

[12] Chen A. Universal and Language-Specific Perception of Paralinguistic Intonational Meaning. Utrecht: LOT; 2005

[13] Chen A, Gussenhoven C, Rietveld T. Language-specificity in the perception of paralinguistic intonational meaning. Language and Speech. 2004;**47**(4):311-349

[14] De Abreu S, Mathon C. Can you hear I'm angry? Perception of anger in a spontaneous French corpus by Portuguese learners of French as a foreign language. In: Proceedings of the Phonetics Teaching and Learning Conference (PTLC); 27-30 July 2005; University College of London: London. p. 2005

[15] Komar S. The impact of tones and pitch range on the expression of attitudes in Slovene speakers of English. In: Proceedings of PTLC 2005; 27-30 July 2005. London: University College London; 2005

[16] Anooshian JL, Hertel PT. Emotionality in free recall: Language specificity in bilingual memory. Cognition and Emotion. 1994;**8**:503-554

[17] Harris CL. Bilingual speakers in the lab: Psychophysiological measures of emotional reactivity. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development. 2004;**25**:223-247

**21**

*Teaching the Prosody of Emotive Communication in a Second Language*

[25] De Marco A, Paone E. Uno studio sui correlati acustici delle emozioni vocali in apprendenti di italiano L2. In: Elia A, Iacobini C, Voghera M, editors. Livelli di analisi e fenomeni di interfaccia. Atti del XLVII Congresso Internazionale SLI. Roma: Bulzoni; 2016

[26] De Marco A, Sorianello P, Paone E.

L'acquisizione delle emozioni nell'italiano non-nativo: Un percorso didattico longitudinale. In: Gudmundson A, Álvarez López L, Bardel C, editors. Romance Languages Multilingualism and Language Acquisition. Frankfurt:

Peter Lang; 2017. pp. 57-85

[27] Anolli L, Ciceri R. La voce delle emozioni: verso una semiosi della comunicazione vocale non-verbale delle emozioni. Milano: Franco Angeli; 1992

[28] Anolli L, Wang L, Mantovani F, De Toni A. The voice of emotion in Chinese and Italian young adults. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology.

[29] Sorianello P, De Marco A. Sulla realizzazione prosodica delle emozioni in italiano nativo e non nativo. In: Savy R, Alfano I, editors. La fonetica nell'apprendimento delle lingue. Milano: Officinaventuno; 2016. pp. 155-178

[30] Nunan D. Task-Based Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge

[31] Brooke S. Video production in the foreign language classroom: Some practical ideas. The Internet TESL Journal. 2014;**10**(10). Available from: http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Brooke-

[32] Dubreil S. When students become directors: Redefining the role of the learner in the foreign language classroom. In: Lomicka L, Cooke-Plagwitz J, editors. Language Instruction: Teaching with Technology. Vol. 1. Boston: Heinle; 2003. pp. 129-137

2008;**39**(5):565-598

University Press; 2004

Video.html

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87210*

[19] Chua Shi M, Schirmer A. Perceiving verbal and vocal emotions in a second language. Cognition and Emotion.

[20] Graham CR, Hamblin AW, Feldstein S. Recognition of emotion in English voices by speakers of Japanese, Spanish and English. IRAL-International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language

[21] Bhatara A, Laukka P, Boll-Avetisyan N, Granjon L, Elfenbein HA, Bänziger

[18] Harris C, Gleason JB, Aycicegi A. When is a first language more emotional? Psychophysiological evidence from bilingual speakers. In: Pavlenko A, editor. Bilingual Minds: Emotional Experience, Expression, and Representation. Clevedon, UK:

Multilingual Matters; 2006

2011;**25**:1376-1392

Teaching. 2001;**39**:19-37

pone.0156855

2015;**2**(1):62-86

pp. 81-84

T. Second language ability and emotional prosody perception. PLoS One. 2016;**11**(6). DOI: 10.1371/journal.

[22] Lorette P, Dewaele JM. Emotion recognition ability in English among L1 and LX users of English. International Journal of Language and Culture.

[23] Maffia M, Pellegrino E, Pettorino M. Labeling expressive speech in L2 Italian: The role of prosody in auto-and external annotation. In: Campbell AW, Gibbon D, Hirst D, editors. Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Speech Prosody; Berlin, 20-23 May 2014; Speech Prosody Special Interest Group (SProSIG). Urbana: Illinois. 2014.

[24] De Marco A, Paone E. The

Cambridge: Cambridge Scholar Publishing; 2015. pp. 443-470

acquisition of emotional competence in L2 learners of Italian through specific instructional training. In: Gesuato S, Bianchi F, Cheng W, editors. Teaching, Learning and Investigating Pragmatics. *Teaching the Prosody of Emotive Communication in a Second Language DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87210*

[18] Harris C, Gleason JB, Aycicegi A. When is a first language more emotional? Psychophysiological evidence from bilingual speakers. In: Pavlenko A, editor. Bilingual Minds: Emotional Experience, Expression, and Representation. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters; 2006

[19] Chua Shi M, Schirmer A. Perceiving verbal and vocal emotions in a second language. Cognition and Emotion. 2011;**25**:1376-1392

[20] Graham CR, Hamblin AW, Feldstein S. Recognition of emotion in English voices by speakers of Japanese, Spanish and English. IRAL-International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching. 2001;**39**:19-37

[21] Bhatara A, Laukka P, Boll-Avetisyan N, Granjon L, Elfenbein HA, Bänziger T. Second language ability and emotional prosody perception. PLoS One. 2016;**11**(6). DOI: 10.1371/journal. pone.0156855

[22] Lorette P, Dewaele JM. Emotion recognition ability in English among L1 and LX users of English. International Journal of Language and Culture. 2015;**2**(1):62-86

[23] Maffia M, Pellegrino E, Pettorino M. Labeling expressive speech in L2 Italian: The role of prosody in auto-and external annotation. In: Campbell AW, Gibbon D, Hirst D, editors. Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Speech Prosody; Berlin, 20-23 May 2014; Speech Prosody Special Interest Group (SProSIG). Urbana: Illinois. 2014. pp. 81-84

[24] De Marco A, Paone E. The acquisition of emotional competence in L2 learners of Italian through specific instructional training. In: Gesuato S, Bianchi F, Cheng W, editors. Teaching, Learning and Investigating Pragmatics. Cambridge: Cambridge Scholar Publishing; 2015. pp. 443-470

[25] De Marco A, Paone E. Uno studio sui correlati acustici delle emozioni vocali in apprendenti di italiano L2. In: Elia A, Iacobini C, Voghera M, editors. Livelli di analisi e fenomeni di interfaccia. Atti del XLVII Congresso Internazionale SLI. Roma: Bulzoni; 2016

[26] De Marco A, Sorianello P, Paone E. L'acquisizione delle emozioni nell'italiano non-nativo: Un percorso didattico longitudinale. In: Gudmundson A, Álvarez López L, Bardel C, editors. Romance Languages Multilingualism and Language Acquisition. Frankfurt: Peter Lang; 2017. pp. 57-85

[27] Anolli L, Ciceri R. La voce delle emozioni: verso una semiosi della comunicazione vocale non-verbale delle emozioni. Milano: Franco Angeli; 1992

[28] Anolli L, Wang L, Mantovani F, De Toni A. The voice of emotion in Chinese and Italian young adults. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology. 2008;**39**(5):565-598

[29] Sorianello P, De Marco A. Sulla realizzazione prosodica delle emozioni in italiano nativo e non nativo. In: Savy R, Alfano I, editors. La fonetica nell'apprendimento delle lingue. Milano: Officinaventuno; 2016. pp. 155-178

[30] Nunan D. Task-Based Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2004

[31] Brooke S. Video production in the foreign language classroom: Some practical ideas. The Internet TESL Journal. 2014;**10**(10). Available from: http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Brooke-Video.html

[32] Dubreil S. When students become directors: Redefining the role of the learner in the foreign language classroom. In: Lomicka L, Cooke-Plagwitz J, editors. Language Instruction: Teaching with Technology. Vol. 1. Boston: Heinle; 2003. pp. 129-137

**20**

*Second Language Acquisition - Pedagogies, Practices and Perspectives*

learners' emotion speech in English. L2

[10] Holden K, Hogan J. The emotive impact of foreign intonation: An experiment in switching English and Russian intonation. Language and

[11] Ladd DR. Simultaneous Structure in Phonology. Oxford: Oxford University

[12] Chen A. Universal and Language-Specific Perception of Paralinguistic Intonational Meaning. Utrecht: LOT;

[13] Chen A, Gussenhoven C, Rietveld T. Language-specificity in the perception of paralinguistic intonational meaning. Language and

Speech. 2004;**47**(4):311-349

[14] De Abreu S, Mathon C. Can you hear I'm angry? Perception of anger in a spontaneous French corpus by Portuguese learners of French as a foreign language. In: Proceedings of the Phonetics Teaching and Learning Conference (PTLC); 27-30 July 2005; University College of London: London.

[15] Komar S. The impact of tones and pitch range on the expression of attitudes in Slovene speakers of English. In: Proceedings of PTLC 2005; 27-30 July 2005. London: University College

[16] Anooshian JL, Hertel PT.

Emotionality in free recall: Language specificity in bilingual memory.

[17] Harris CL. Bilingual speakers in the lab: Psychophysiological measures of emotional reactivity. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development. 2004;**25**:223-247

Cognition and Emotion. 1994;**8**:503-554

Journal. 2013;**5**(2):43-67

Speech. 1993;**36**:67-88

Press; 2014

2005

p. 2005

London; 2005

[1] D'urso V, Trentin R. Introduzione Alla Psicologia Delle Emozioni. Bari:

[2] Poggi I, Magno Caldognetto E. Il parlato emotivo. Aspetti cognitivi, linguistici e fonetici. In: Leoni FA, Cutugno F, Pettorino M, Savy R, editors. Atti del Convegno Il parlato italiano. Napoli, Cd-Rom: D'auria Editore; 2004

[3] Scherer KR, Banse R, Wallbott HG. Emotion inferences from vocal expression correlate across languages and cultures. Journal of Cross-Cultural

[4] Elfenbein HA, Ambady N. Is there an in-group advantage in emotion recognition? Psychological Bulletin.

Psychology. 2001;**32**(1):76-92

[5] Thompson WF, Balkwill LL. Decoding speech prosody in five languages. Semiotica. 2006;**2006**(158):407-424

[6] Dewaele JM. Investigating the psychological and emotional dimensions in instructed language learning: Obstacles ad possibilities. The Modern Language Journal.

[7] Rintell E. But how did you feel about that? The learner's perception of emotion in speech. Applied Linguistics.

[8] Rintell E. That's incredible: Stories of emotion told by second language and native speakers. In: Scarcella R, Andersen E, Krashen S, editors. Developing Communicative Competence in a Second Language. Heinle and Heinle Publishers: Boston;

[9] Kim S, Dorner LM. "I won't talk about this here in America"*:*

Sociocultural context of Korean English

2002;**128**(2):243-249

2005;**89**(3):367-380

1984;**5**:255-264

2011. pp. 75-94

**References**

Laterza; 1998

[33] Burston J. Video dubbing projects in the foreign language curriculum. CALICO Journal. 2005;**23**(1):79-92

[34] McNulty A, Lazarevic B. Best practices in using video technology. Teaching English with Technology. 2012;**12**(3):49-61

**23**

**Chapter 3**

**Abstract**

canadian context

**1. Introduction**

remarks and perspectives for future research.

**2. Theoretical background**

*Bernard Mulo Farenkia*

Offer Refusals in L2 French

This study examines the production of offer refusals in native and non-native French. Data were obtained through written discourse completion tasks by a group of Canadian learners of French as a second language, a group of L1 French speakers, and a group of English native speakers. The aim was to compare offer refusal strategies in French L1, French L2, and English L1 and to locate traces of pragmatic transfer in L2 French refusal behavior. Significant differences were found between the French L1 speakers and the French L2 learners with respect to the use of direct refusals, indirect refusals, and adjuncts to refusals. For instance, it was found that the French L2 learners use a very limited repertoire of linguistic realizations to express the inability to accept offers. At the level of indirect refusals, the results reveal some similarities between the L2 French learners, the L1 French speakers, and the L1 English speakers: the three groups use reasons more often than any other strategy in their refusal utterances. Differences emerge, however, in the linguistic realization of this pragmatic category. Implications of the findings for L2 French pedagogy were also discussed.

**Keywords:** interlanguage pragmatics, offer refusals, L2 French, variation,

This chapter focuses on strategies used by a group of Canadian university students to decline offers in French as a second language. Three groups of participants were involved in the study: 19 French L1 speakers, 12 French L2 speakers/learners, and 32 English L1 speakers. The analysis aimed at comparing the strategies used by French L2 learners with those employed by French L1 speakers and English L1 speakers. The study also examines traces of pragmatic transfers, that is, the impact of the source language of the learners (English) on the refusal patterns produced by the French leaners. The chapter is structured as follows. Section 2 presents the theoretical background, in which the speech act of refusing is defined and a brief literature review is presented. The methodology is outlined in Section 3, and the findings are presented and discussed in Section 4. The chapter concludes with

A speaker may produce a refusal to express his/her will not "to engage in an action proposed by the interlocutor" ([1], p. 121). Refusals are usually negative responses to requests, invitations, offers, suggestions. A refusal represents a high degree of threat to the hearer's face and to social harmony. Refusals can be realized

## **Chapter 3** Offer Refusals in L2 French

*Bernard Mulo Farenkia*

### **Abstract**

*Second Language Acquisition - Pedagogies, Practices and Perspectives*

[33] Burston J. Video dubbing projects in the foreign language curriculum. CALICO Journal. 2005;**23**(1):79-92

[34] McNulty A, Lazarevic B. Best practices in using video technology. Teaching English with Technology.

2012;**12**(3):49-61

**22**

This study examines the production of offer refusals in native and non-native French. Data were obtained through written discourse completion tasks by a group of Canadian learners of French as a second language, a group of L1 French speakers, and a group of English native speakers. The aim was to compare offer refusal strategies in French L1, French L2, and English L1 and to locate traces of pragmatic transfer in L2 French refusal behavior. Significant differences were found between the French L1 speakers and the French L2 learners with respect to the use of direct refusals, indirect refusals, and adjuncts to refusals. For instance, it was found that the French L2 learners use a very limited repertoire of linguistic realizations to express the inability to accept offers. At the level of indirect refusals, the results reveal some similarities between the L2 French learners, the L1 French speakers, and the L1 English speakers: the three groups use reasons more often than any other strategy in their refusal utterances. Differences emerge, however, in the linguistic realization of this pragmatic category. Implications of the findings for L2 French pedagogy were also discussed.

**Keywords:** interlanguage pragmatics, offer refusals, L2 French, variation, canadian context

#### **1. Introduction**

This chapter focuses on strategies used by a group of Canadian university students to decline offers in French as a second language. Three groups of participants were involved in the study: 19 French L1 speakers, 12 French L2 speakers/learners, and 32 English L1 speakers. The analysis aimed at comparing the strategies used by French L2 learners with those employed by French L1 speakers and English L1 speakers. The study also examines traces of pragmatic transfers, that is, the impact of the source language of the learners (English) on the refusal patterns produced by the French leaners. The chapter is structured as follows. Section 2 presents the theoretical background, in which the speech act of refusing is defined and a brief literature review is presented. The methodology is outlined in Section 3, and the findings are presented and discussed in Section 4. The chapter concludes with remarks and perspectives for future research.

#### **2. Theoretical background**

A speaker may produce a refusal to express his/her will not "to engage in an action proposed by the interlocutor" ([1], p. 121). Refusals are usually negative responses to requests, invitations, offers, suggestions. A refusal represents a high degree of threat to the hearer's face and to social harmony. Refusals can be realized in many different ways, depending on the language or cultural setting in which the exchange occurs and on whether the speaker intends to achieve a harmonious or conflictive outcome of the verbal exchange. Refusals may appear as single acts/ moves (e.g., single direct refusals (*I cannot, I am unable to; no*) or single indirect refusals such as justifications (*I am very busy*), promises (*next time*, etc.) or as multiple moves consisting of head acts (*no I cannot. I am very busy; I am sorry I cannot make it*), or heads acts and supportive acts that come before or after the head act (*thanks for the offer but I cannot accept it*). In short, refusals may be described as single speech acts or as speech act sets or communicative acts (cf. [2]). Given the real danger of face threat inherent in refusals, language users are expected to be very cautious in the choice of linguistic realization patterns of refusals. In second language acquisition, this expectation seems even more problematic for the L2 speaker.

A number of interesting studies have been carried out on refusals, from a crosscultural pragmatic (cf. [3]) or interlanguage pragmatic perspective (cf. [4–6] for a discussion of previous studies on refusals). Studies on refusals from a variational pragmatic perspective include Ren's [7] comparative study of refusals in Mainland and Taiwan Chinese and Mulo Farenkia's [8] comparative study of invitation refusals in Hexagonal (France) French and Cameroon French.

Whereas a considerable body of research in second language acquisition has focused on various speech acts and target languages (cf. [3], pp. 44–55), there are very few studies on refusals in L2 French. These include Bakkum's [9] analysis of request and suggestion refusals by Dutch advanced French learners. It is important to note that the production of other speech acts in French L2 has been the focus of several studies. These include Kraft and Geluykens' [10] analysis of complaint strategies in L2 French by German learners of French, Schaeffer's [11] analysis of complaints in L2 French by English-speaking learners, Mulo Farenkia's [12] study of compliments in L2 French by English-speaking Canadian learners of French, Warga's work [13] on requests in L2 French by Austrian learners of French, and Warga and Schölmberger's [14] study of apologies by Austrian learners of French in a study abroad situation. The present study of offer refusals adds to this growing body of research on how learners become proficient in the pragmatics of French.

Our study is situated within the framework of interlanguage pragmatics, that is, the study of "how non-native-speaking (…) learners of a language acquire pragmatic competence in their target language" ([15], p. 261). Our goal is to examine how a group of Canadian students who are native speakers of English produce offer refusals in French, their target language. Acquiring an appropriate refusal behavior in L2 French learning is considered as a part of the general goal of L2 French learners, which is to be able to communicate effectively in an "L2-speaking environment where the leaner's target linguistic behavior is, ultimately, that of the [native speaker]" ([15], p. 261).

#### **3. Method**

#### **3.1 Participants**

A total of 63 students participated in the present study: 19 French L1 speakers (native speakers of French), 3 males and 16 females, aged between 18 and 23, University students in Toulouse (France); 12 intermediate French learners at Cape Breton University (Canada), three males and nine females, aged between 20 and 25, and native speakers of Canadian English; and 32 English L1 speakers, first and second year students at Cape Breton University, 16 females and 16 males, aged between 18 and 23, and native speakers of Canadian English.

**25**

*Offer Refusals in L2 French*

**3.2 Instrument**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87189*

three scenarios employed were described as follows:

a.**Situation 1**: *financial assistance from a friend*

b.**Situation 2:** *ride from a stranger*

the offer. You say to him/her."

c.**Situation 3**: *job offer from the boss*

to him/her."

**3.3 Data analysis**

*Vous voulez décliner cette offre. Vous lui dites.*

*pourrez. Vous voulez décliner l'offre. Vous lui dites.*

A discourse completion task questionnaire (see [16]) consisting of many different situations was employed to elicit refusals from the three groups of participants. The questionnaire comprised many situations in which the participants were asked to produce speech acts. Data were collected in Toulouse, France, in 2014 and in Sydney, Nova Scotia, Canada, in 2016. The French version of the DCT questionnaire was distributed to the L1 French respondents and the L2 French learners, while the English version of the questionnaire was distributed to the L1 English informants. Three of these situations elicited offer refusals, the focus of the present study. The

*Vous avez quelques difficultés financières ces derniers temps et l'un(e) de vos ami(e) s se propose de vous prêter deux mille francs, que vous rembourserez quand vous* 

"You are in a difficult financial situation and your friend offers to lend you

*Alors que vous attendez le taxi / bus à la sortie des cours, une voiture s'arrête devant vous. Le/la chauffeur(e) que vous ne connaissez pas vous propose de vous* 

"You are waiting for a cab/the bus after classes. A car stops and the driver, who you have never met before, offers to give you a ride home. You want to decline

*Vous travaillez à temps partiel dans une entreprise de la ville. Votre patron vous propose un poste à temps plein et nettement mieux rémunéré dans une autre ville.* 

"You are working part-time in an enterprise and your boss offers you a fulltime and better paid job in another town. You want to decline the offer. You say

In Situation 1, the speakers, that is, the person refusing the offer, the addressee, and the offerer, know each other very well: the relationship is a close one; in Situation 2, the participants do not know each other, that is, their relationship is distant. In Situation 3, the person making the offer has a higher socio-professional status.

The 63 informants provided 189 answers for the three questionnaire tasks: 57 responses by the L1 French participants, 36 responses by the French L2 informants, and 96 responses by the English L1 speakers. The offer refusals collected mostly consist of combinations of at least two utterances. Analysis of the data was based on schemes established in previous studies (cf. [3, 17]) in which refusals are examined with respect to number of moves involved in the same utterance, the use of head

some money. You want to decline the offer. You say to him/her."

*déposer où vous rendez. Vous voulez décliner l'offre. Vous lui dites.*

#### **3.2 Instrument**

*Second Language Acquisition - Pedagogies, Practices and Perspectives*

als in Hexagonal (France) French and Cameroon French.

in many different ways, depending on the language or cultural setting in which the exchange occurs and on whether the speaker intends to achieve a harmonious or conflictive outcome of the verbal exchange. Refusals may appear as single acts/ moves (e.g., single direct refusals (*I cannot, I am unable to; no*) or single indirect refusals such as justifications (*I am very busy*), promises (*next time*, etc.) or as multiple moves consisting of head acts (*no I cannot. I am very busy; I am sorry I cannot make it*), or heads acts and supportive acts that come before or after the head act (*thanks for the offer but I cannot accept it*). In short, refusals may be described as single speech acts or as speech act sets or communicative acts (cf. [2]). Given the real danger of face threat inherent in refusals, language users are expected to be very cautious in the choice of linguistic realization patterns of refusals. In second language acquisition, this expectation seems even more problematic for the L2 speaker. A number of interesting studies have been carried out on refusals, from a crosscultural pragmatic (cf. [3]) or interlanguage pragmatic perspective (cf. [4–6] for a discussion of previous studies on refusals). Studies on refusals from a variational pragmatic perspective include Ren's [7] comparative study of refusals in Mainland and Taiwan Chinese and Mulo Farenkia's [8] comparative study of invitation refus-

Whereas a considerable body of research in second language acquisition has focused on various speech acts and target languages (cf. [3], pp. 44–55), there are very few studies on refusals in L2 French. These include Bakkum's [9] analysis of request and suggestion refusals by Dutch advanced French learners. It is important to note that the production of other speech acts in French L2 has been the focus of several studies. These include Kraft and Geluykens' [10] analysis of complaint strategies in L2 French by German learners of French, Schaeffer's [11] analysis of complaints in L2 French by English-speaking learners, Mulo Farenkia's [12] study of compliments in L2 French by English-speaking Canadian learners of French, Warga's work [13] on requests in L2 French by Austrian learners of French, and Warga and Schölmberger's [14] study of apologies by Austrian learners of French in a study abroad situation. The present study of offer refusals adds to this growing body of research on how learners become proficient in the pragmatics of French. Our study is situated within the framework of interlanguage pragmatics, that is, the study of "how non-native-speaking (…) learners of a language acquire pragmatic competence in their target language" ([15], p. 261). Our goal is to examine how a group of Canadian students who are native speakers of English produce offer refusals in French, their target language. Acquiring an appropriate refusal behavior in L2 French learning is considered as a part of the general goal of L2 French learners, which is to be able to communicate effectively in an "L2-speaking environment where the leaner's target linguistic behavior is, ultimately, that of the [native

A total of 63 students participated in the present study: 19 French L1 speakers (native speakers of French), 3 males and 16 females, aged between 18 and 23, University students in Toulouse (France); 12 intermediate French learners at Cape Breton University (Canada), three males and nine females, aged between 20 and 25, and native speakers of Canadian English; and 32 English L1 speakers, first and second year students at Cape Breton University, 16 females and 16 males, aged

between 18 and 23, and native speakers of Canadian English.

**24**

speaker]" ([15], p. 261).

**3. Method**

**3.1 Participants**

A discourse completion task questionnaire (see [16]) consisting of many different situations was employed to elicit refusals from the three groups of participants. The questionnaire comprised many situations in which the participants were asked to produce speech acts. Data were collected in Toulouse, France, in 2014 and in Sydney, Nova Scotia, Canada, in 2016. The French version of the DCT questionnaire was distributed to the L1 French respondents and the L2 French learners, while the English version of the questionnaire was distributed to the L1 English informants. Three of these situations elicited offer refusals, the focus of the present study. The three scenarios employed were described as follows:

#### a.**Situation 1**: *financial assistance from a friend*

*Vous avez quelques difficultés financières ces derniers temps et l'un(e) de vos ami(e) s se propose de vous prêter deux mille francs, que vous rembourserez quand vous pourrez. Vous voulez décliner l'offre. Vous lui dites.*

"You are in a difficult financial situation and your friend offers to lend you some money. You want to decline the offer. You say to him/her."

#### b.**Situation 2:** *ride from a stranger*

*Alors que vous attendez le taxi / bus à la sortie des cours, une voiture s'arrête devant vous. Le/la chauffeur(e) que vous ne connaissez pas vous propose de vous déposer où vous rendez. Vous voulez décliner l'offre. Vous lui dites.*

"You are waiting for a cab/the bus after classes. A car stops and the driver, who you have never met before, offers to give you a ride home. You want to decline the offer. You say to him/her."

#### c.**Situation 3**: *job offer from the boss*

*Vous travaillez à temps partiel dans une entreprise de la ville. Votre patron vous propose un poste à temps plein et nettement mieux rémunéré dans une autre ville. Vous voulez décliner cette offre. Vous lui dites.*

"You are working part-time in an enterprise and your boss offers you a fulltime and better paid job in another town. You want to decline the offer. You say to him/her."

In Situation 1, the speakers, that is, the person refusing the offer, the addressee, and the offerer, know each other very well: the relationship is a close one; in Situation 2, the participants do not know each other, that is, their relationship is distant. In Situation 3, the person making the offer has a higher socio-professional status.

#### **3.3 Data analysis**

The 63 informants provided 189 answers for the three questionnaire tasks: 57 responses by the L1 French participants, 36 responses by the French L2 informants, and 96 responses by the English L1 speakers. The offer refusals collected mostly consist of combinations of at least two utterances. Analysis of the data was based on schemes established in previous studies (cf. [3, 17]) in which refusals are examined with respect to number of moves involved in the same utterance, the use of head

acts and supportive moves, level of directness of head acts, the use of internal mitigating or intensifying devices, etc.

The first step of the analysis consisted in segmenting the examples produced by the participants of the three groups and in classifying each occurrence or token as either a head act or an adjunct or supportive act. A head act is the main component or strategy used to realize refusals, independently of other elements in the conversational turn. It can be direct (direct refusal) or indirect (indirect refusal).

In the examples produced by the respondents, direct refusals are realized in many different ways. While some participants use "no," others prefer utterances that express their inability to accept the offer using utterances like 'I cannot," 'I cannot accept," and *je ne peux pas l'accepter* "I cannot accept it." In the three data sets, direct refusals are generally embedded in sequences made up of different types of speech acts with various pragmatic functions as in (1–3). In (1), the direct refusal *non* "no" is mitigated by a gratitude expression *merci* "thanks," which is then followed by a justification *je vais prendre le métro et le bus "*I will take the metro and the bus." In (2), the direct refusal is j*e ne peux pas l'accepter*. It is preceded by a gratitude expression (*Merci pour l'offre)* and followed by the reference to an alternative (*Je vais voir si je peux travailler plus à mon emploi*). In (3), the direct refusal is "no." It is followed by a gratitude expression "thank you" and then by a statement of the speaker's principle "I do not like to take money from people" which may also be considered as a justification of the direct refusal. In the three examples, the accompanying speech acts are intended to soften the illocutionary force of direct refusals and to save the face of the person who made the offer.

1.Non merci je vais prendre le métro et le bus (FL1-S21 ).

"No thanks I will take the metro and the bus."

2.*Merci pour l'offre! Je ne peux pas l'accepter. Je vais voir si je peux travailler plus à mon emploi (FL2-S1)*.

"Thanks for the offer! I cannot accept it. I will see if I can work more."

3.No, thank you. I do not like to take money from people (EL1-S1).

Indirect refusals also appear in many different forms. They can take the form of justifications as in (3), statements of preference as in (4), or statements of principles as in (5). In many examples of the corpus, indirect refusals are usually combined with different types of speech acts or refusal strategies as in (6).

4.*Je préfère rester dans ma ville, en plus c'est là où je fais mes études* (FL1-S3).

"I prefer to stay in my city moreover I am a student here."

5.*Je n'aime pas dépendre de quelqu'un surtout lorsqu'il s'agit d'argent* (FL1-S1).

"I do not like to depend on someone especially when it concerns money."

Adjuncts to refusals, also called supportive moves, are strategies or speech acts that normally accompany refusals but cannot realize refusals on their own. They are acts that come either before or after head acts. They cannot be used alone to

**27**

**Table 1.**

*Offer Refusals in L2 French*

professional relationship.

to decline the offer."

**4. Results and discussion**

respondents (cf. **Table 1**).

their frequencies.

**4.1 Overall distribution of refusal strategies**

the next section.

*obligé de décliner* (FL1-S3).

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87189*

decline an offer. Rather, their pragmatic function is to mitigate the head acts, in order to save the other's face and preserve social harmony as in (6), where the direct refusal *je suis toutefois obligé de decliner* is supported by a positive opinion about the job offer, namely, *c'est une belle perspective,* and a gratitude expression, namely *je vous remercie d'avoir pensé à moi*. These adjuncts are intended to inform the boss that despite the refusal, the speaker really appreciates the offer. In doing so, the speaker intends to mitigate the refusal and to dissipate any potential threat to their

6.*C'est une belle perspective, je vous remercie d'avoir pensé à moi, je suis toutefois* 

"It's a good offer. I thank you for having thought about me. However, I am obliged

The research questions addressed are the following: (1) How do L2 French learners refuse offers in comparison with L1 French and L1 English speakers? (2) What is the effect of social distance and social power on the choices of refusal strategies by L2 French learners? (3) Are there any elements of pragmatic transfer in the use of refusal strategies by L2 French learners? The results are presented and discussed in

We will start with the overall distribution of the three main refusal strategies (direct refusals, indirect refusals, and adjuncts to refusals) in the three groups of

There is a total of 163 refusal strategies in the French L1 data. The L2 French learners produced 126 refusal strategies, and the L1 English speakers used 243 refusal strategies. Indirect refusals are the most commonly used strategies by the participants of the three groups, with the L1 French speakers showing a higher number of indirect strategies than the L2 French learners and the L1 English speakers (French L1, *n* = 75 (46%), vs. French L2, *n* = 51 (40.5%), vs. English L1, *n* = 94 (38.7%)). Although adjuncts are the second most frequent strategies in the three data sets, the L1 English speakers used a higher percentage of adjuncts (37.8%) than the respondents of the two other groups (L2 French learners, 35.7%, and L1 French speakers, 32%). Direct refusals are the least employed strategies, and they are distributed equally across the three data sets. The results summarized in **Table 1** show that the participants of the three groups displayed the same preferences for head acts strategies, albeit with slight differences with respect to

**Refusal strategies L1 French L2 French L1 English** Direct refusals 36 (22%) 30 (23.8%) 57 (23.5%) Indirect refusals 75 (46%) 51 (40.5%) 94 (38.7%) Adjuncts to refusals 52 (32%) 45 (35.7%) 92 (37.8%) Total **163 (100%) 126 (100%) 243 (100%)**

*Distribution of refusal strategies in French L1, French L2, and English L1.*

<sup>1</sup> The examples are coded as follows: the three situations are coded as S1 (for the friend situation), S2 (for the stranger situation), and S3 (for the boss situation). French L1 is coded as FL1, French L2 is coded as FL2, and English L1 is coded as EL1. For instance: (FL1-S2) stands for examples of refusals to offers of a ride offer by a stranger in French L1.

#### *Offer Refusals in L2 French DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87189*

*Second Language Acquisition - Pedagogies, Practices and Perspectives*

1.Non merci je vais prendre le métro et le bus (FL1-S21

"No thanks I will take the metro and the bus."

*mon emploi (FL2-S1)*.

offers of a ride offer by a stranger in French L1.

mitigating or intensifying devices, etc.

acts and supportive moves, level of directness of head acts, the use of internal

sational turn. It can be direct (direct refusal) or indirect (indirect refusal).

The first step of the analysis consisted in segmenting the examples produced by the participants of the three groups and in classifying each occurrence or token as either a head act or an adjunct or supportive act. A head act is the main component or strategy used to realize refusals, independently of other elements in the conver-

In the examples produced by the respondents, direct refusals are realized in many different ways. While some participants use "no," others prefer utterances that express their inability to accept the offer using utterances like 'I cannot," 'I cannot accept," and *je ne peux pas l'accepter* "I cannot accept it." In the three data sets, direct refusals are generally embedded in sequences made up of different types of speech acts with various pragmatic functions as in (1–3). In (1), the direct refusal *non* "no" is mitigated by a gratitude expression *merci* "thanks," which is then followed by a justification *je vais prendre le métro et le bus "*I will take the metro and the bus." In (2), the direct refusal is j*e ne peux pas l'accepter*. It is preceded by a gratitude expression (*Merci pour l'offre)* and followed by the reference to an alternative (*Je vais voir si je peux travailler plus à mon emploi*). In (3), the direct refusal is "no." It is followed by a gratitude expression "thank you" and then by a statement of the speaker's principle "I do not like to take money from people" which may also be considered as a justification of the direct refusal. In the three examples, the accompanying speech acts are intended to soften the illocutionary force of direct refusals and to save the face of the person who made the offer.

2.*Merci pour l'offre! Je ne peux pas l'accepter. Je vais voir si je peux travailler plus à* 

Indirect refusals also appear in many different forms. They can take the form of justifications as in (3), statements of preference as in (4), or statements of principles as in (5). In many examples of the corpus, indirect refusals are usually combined with different types of speech acts or refusal strategies as in (6).

4.*Je préfère rester dans ma ville, en plus c'est là où je fais mes études* (FL1-S3).

5.*Je n'aime pas dépendre de quelqu'un surtout lorsqu'il s'agit d'argent* (FL1-S1). "I do not like to depend on someone especially when it concerns money."

<sup>1</sup> The examples are coded as follows: the three situations are coded as S1 (for the friend situation), S2 (for the stranger situation), and S3 (for the boss situation). French L1 is coded as FL1, French L2 is coded as FL2, and English L1 is coded as EL1. For instance: (FL1-S2) stands for examples of refusals to

Adjuncts to refusals, also called supportive moves, are strategies or speech acts that normally accompany refusals but cannot realize refusals on their own. They are acts that come either before or after head acts. They cannot be used alone to

"I prefer to stay in my city moreover I am a student here."

"Thanks for the offer! I cannot accept it. I will see if I can work more."

3.No, thank you. I do not like to take money from people (EL1-S1).

).

**26**

decline an offer. Rather, their pragmatic function is to mitigate the head acts, in order to save the other's face and preserve social harmony as in (6), where the direct refusal *je suis toutefois obligé de decliner* is supported by a positive opinion about the job offer, namely, *c'est une belle perspective,* and a gratitude expression, namely *je vous remercie d'avoir pensé à moi*. These adjuncts are intended to inform the boss that despite the refusal, the speaker really appreciates the offer. In doing so, the speaker intends to mitigate the refusal and to dissipate any potential threat to their professional relationship.

#### 6.*C'est une belle perspective, je vous remercie d'avoir pensé à moi, je suis toutefois obligé de décliner* (FL1-S3).

"It's a good offer. I thank you for having thought about me. However, I am obliged to decline the offer."

The research questions addressed are the following: (1) How do L2 French learners refuse offers in comparison with L1 French and L1 English speakers? (2) What is the effect of social distance and social power on the choices of refusal strategies by L2 French learners? (3) Are there any elements of pragmatic transfer in the use of refusal strategies by L2 French learners? The results are presented and discussed in the next section.

#### **4. Results and discussion**

#### **4.1 Overall distribution of refusal strategies**

We will start with the overall distribution of the three main refusal strategies (direct refusals, indirect refusals, and adjuncts to refusals) in the three groups of respondents (cf. **Table 1**).

There is a total of 163 refusal strategies in the French L1 data. The L2 French learners produced 126 refusal strategies, and the L1 English speakers used 243 refusal strategies. Indirect refusals are the most commonly used strategies by the participants of the three groups, with the L1 French speakers showing a higher number of indirect strategies than the L2 French learners and the L1 English speakers (French L1, *n* = 75 (46%), vs. French L2, *n* = 51 (40.5%), vs. English L1, *n* = 94 (38.7%)). Although adjuncts are the second most frequent strategies in the three data sets, the L1 English speakers used a higher percentage of adjuncts (37.8%) than the respondents of the two other groups (L2 French learners, 35.7%, and L1 French speakers, 32%). Direct refusals are the least employed strategies, and they are distributed equally across the three data sets. The results summarized in **Table 1** show that the participants of the three groups displayed the same preferences for head acts strategies, albeit with slight differences with respect to their frequencies.


**Table 1.** *Distribution of refusal strategies in French L1, French L2, and English L1.*

The analysis further reveals that the three groups of informants differed in many ways in the choice of direct and indirect refusal strategies and adjuncts to refusals.

#### **4.2 Realizations of refusal strategies**

#### *4.2.1 Direct refusal strategies*

Direct refusals are expressed in many different ways, as can be seen **Table 2**. Overall, four different direct refusal strategies emerge across the three language groups, albeit with differences.

While the L1 French speakers and the L2 French learners used four different direct strategies, the L1 English participants used three direct strategies. **Table 2** also shows that the most frequently used direct strategy in the three groups is "no." It represents 61% in the L1 French data set, 53.3% in the L2 French data, and 47.4% of the L1 English responses. The results indicate that the choice of the L2 French learners leans more toward that of the L1 French speakers.

The second most frequent type of direct refusal consists in expressing the speaker's inability to accept the offer. We can see in **Table 2** that the three groups of participants behaved differently in using this direct strategy. While this strategy accounts for 45.6% and 36.7% of the L1 English and L2 French direct refusals, respectively, it accounts only for 22.3% of the direct refusals in L1 French. In other words, L2 French learners express their inability to accept offers much more frequently than the L1 French speakers but in a lesser extent than L1 English speakers.

The analysis of linguistic realizations of the "inability" strategy revealed some interesting results. In the L1 French and L2 French examples, statements of inability to accept the offer are realized using negative short or elliptic syntactic constructions such as *Je ne peux pas (accepter)* "I can't (accept)" and *Je ne peux pas l'accepter* "I can't (accept) (it)." The L1 French and L2 French participants also produce expanded negative syntactic structures in which they explicitly mention the object offered and declined, as can be seen in the following examples: *Je ne peux pas accepter votre proposition* (FL1-S3) "I can't accepter your offer" and *Je ne peux pas donner suite à votre demande* (FL1-S3) "I can't give a positive response to your offer/ request." While all the L2 French learners used the verb *pouvoir* in the present tense, some of the L1 French speakers used *pouvoir* in the future tense (e.g., *Je ne pourrai accepter/je ne pourrai pas* "I won't accept/I won't").

Overall, the L2 French learners have a limited repertoire of the patterns of "*je ne peux pas*" to express "inability," while the L1 French speakers have a larger and more diversified repertoire of constructions to express "inability" to accept the offer. The fact that the L2 French respondents mostly make use of short structure to express inability may be due to a similar behavior in their first language. As a matter of fact, the analysis shows that the L1 English speakers mostly use short structures such as "I can't (accept)" and "I will not." They also employ expanded structures, such as


**29**

"je ne besoin pas."

*Offer Refusals in L2 French*

(FL1-S1)*.*

*mon emploi* (FL2-S1)*.*

French data as *je n'ai besoin pas*<sup>2</sup>

la ville (FL1-S3).

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87189*

the direct refusal is preceded by an expression of gratitude.

"I can't take your money/the job," "I cannot accept the offer," "I am unable to accept the position," etc., but in a much lesser extent. Also noteworthy is the fact that realizations of the "inability" strategy are generally accompanied by other speech acts, as can be seen in the following three examples. In (7), the direct refusal is followed by three other strategies. In (8), the direct refusal is preceded by a gratitude expression and followed by the mention of an alternative plan to solve the problem. In (9),

7.Je ne peux pas accepter! T'inquiète pas je vais m'en sortir, merci quand même

8.*Merci pour l'offre! Je ne peux pas l'accepter. Je vais voir si je peux travailler plus à* 

The third strategy employed to refuse offers directly consists in expressing either lack of interest ("no interest") in the offer or lack of need ("no need") for the object or help offered. This strategy represents 8.6% of the L1 French direct refusals, 3.3% of the L2 French direct refusals, and 7% of the L1 English direct refusals. The "no interest/no need" strategy is realized in the L1 French corpus as *je ne suis pas intéressé par cette offre* (S3) "I am not interested in the offer," *ça ne m'intéresse pas* "I am not interested," and *je n'en ai pas besoin* "I don't need it," while it is realized in the L2

(FL2-S1) "I don't need it." In the English L1 data, it is

"I can't accept it. Don't worry (about me). I will be fine. Anyways, thanks."

"Thanks for the offer. I can't accept it. I will see if I can work more."

realized as "I don't want to borrow money" and "I don't need your charity."

10. **Je refuse de déménager**. Ce n'est. pas dans mes projets (FL1-S3).

11. C'est. une belle perspective, je vous remercie d'avoir pensé à moi. *Je suis* 

*It's a good idea. Thanks for thinking about me. I am however obliged to decline (the offer)*.

"I am interested. However, I have to decline (the offer) because I need stability in

<sup>2</sup> This example shows that the FL2 learner has difficulties in the use of the negation particle "ne pas": instead of "je n'en ai pas" or "je n'ai pas besion de", the FL2 learners mostly write "je n'ai pas besoi" or

12. Je suis très intéressée. *Cependant je me vois obligée de décliner* car pour ma vie de famille j'ai besoin de stabilité et je ne peux pas me permettre de changer

*I refuse to move (to another city). It is not part of my plans*.

my family and I cannot afford to move to another city."

*toutefois obligé de décliner* (FL1-S3).

The fourth direct strategy consists in employing performative utterances. This strategy occurs only in the L1 French and L2 French data sets. In the L1 French responses, the strategy appears either in a direct form as in (10) or in the form of a hedged performative, as in (11) and (12). In both examples, the illocutionary force is directly expressed by the performative verb *decliner* "to decline" and mitigated by means of the hedging expressions *je suis oblige de; je me vois obligé de* ("I obliged to").

9.Thank you for the opportunity, but I cannot accept that offer (EL1-S3).

**Table 2.** *Distribution of direct refusal strategies in French L1, French L2, and English L1.*

#### *Offer Refusals in L2 French DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87189*

*Second Language Acquisition - Pedagogies, Practices and Perspectives*

learners leans more toward that of the L1 French speakers.

*accepter/je ne pourrai pas* "I won't accept/I won't").

*Distribution of direct refusal strategies in French L1, French L2, and English L1.*

**4.2 Realizations of refusal strategies**

*4.2.1 Direct refusal strategies*

groups, albeit with differences.

The analysis further reveals that the three groups of informants differed in many ways in the choice of direct and indirect refusal strategies and adjuncts to refusals.

Direct refusals are expressed in many different ways, as can be seen **Table 2**. Overall, four different direct refusal strategies emerge across the three language

While the L1 French speakers and the L2 French learners used four different direct strategies, the L1 English participants used three direct strategies. **Table 2** also shows that the most frequently used direct strategy in the three groups is "no." It represents 61% in the L1 French data set, 53.3% in the L2 French data, and 47.4% of the L1 English responses. The results indicate that the choice of the L2 French

The second most frequent type of direct refusal consists in expressing the speaker's inability to accept the offer. We can see in **Table 2** that the three groups of participants behaved differently in using this direct strategy. While this strategy accounts for 45.6% and 36.7% of the L1 English and L2 French direct refusals, respectively, it accounts only for 22.3% of the direct refusals in L1 French. In other words, L2 French learners express their inability to accept offers much more frequently than the L1 French speakers but in a lesser extent than L1 English speakers. The analysis of linguistic realizations of the "inability" strategy revealed some interesting results. In the L1 French and L2 French examples, statements of inability to accept the offer are realized using negative short or elliptic syntactic constructions such as *Je ne peux pas (accepter)* "I can't (accept)" and *Je ne peux pas l'accepter* "I can't (accept) (it)." The L1 French and L2 French participants also produce expanded negative syntactic structures in which they explicitly mention the object offered and declined, as can be seen in the following examples: *Je ne peux pas accepter votre proposition* (FL1-S3) "I can't accepter your offer" and *Je ne peux pas donner suite à votre demande* (FL1-S3) "I can't give a positive response to your offer/ request." While all the L2 French learners used the verb *pouvoir* in the present tense, some of the L1 French speakers used *pouvoir* in the future tense (e.g., *Je ne pourrai* 

Overall, the L2 French learners have a limited repertoire of the patterns of "*je ne peux pas*" to express "inability," while the L1 French speakers have a larger and more diversified repertoire of constructions to express "inability" to accept the offer. The fact that the L2 French respondents mostly make use of short structure to express inability may be due to a similar behavior in their first language. As a matter of fact, the analysis shows that the L1 English speakers mostly use short structures such as "I can't (accept)" and "I will not." They also employ expanded structures, such as

**Type of direct refusal L1 French L2 French L1 English** No 22 (61.1%) 16 (53.3%) 27 (47.4%) Inability 8 (22.3%) 11 (36.7%) 26 (45.6%) No want/interest/need 3 (8.3%) 1 (3.3%) 4 (7%) Performative 3 (8.3%) 2 (6.7%) 0 Total **36 (100%) 30 (100%) 57 (100%)**

**28**

**Table 2.**

"I can't take your money/the job," "I cannot accept the offer," "I am unable to accept the position," etc., but in a much lesser extent. Also noteworthy is the fact that realizations of the "inability" strategy are generally accompanied by other speech acts, as can be seen in the following three examples. In (7), the direct refusal is followed by three other strategies. In (8), the direct refusal is preceded by a gratitude expression and followed by the mention of an alternative plan to solve the problem. In (9), the direct refusal is preceded by an expression of gratitude.


"Thanks for the offer. I can't accept it. I will see if I can work more."

9.Thank you for the opportunity, but I cannot accept that offer (EL1-S3).

The third strategy employed to refuse offers directly consists in expressing either lack of interest ("no interest") in the offer or lack of need ("no need") for the object or help offered. This strategy represents 8.6% of the L1 French direct refusals, 3.3% of the L2 French direct refusals, and 7% of the L1 English direct refusals. The "no interest/no need" strategy is realized in the L1 French corpus as *je ne suis pas intéressé par cette offre* (S3) "I am not interested in the offer," *ça ne m'intéresse pas* "I am not interested," and *je n'en ai pas besoin* "I don't need it," while it is realized in the L2 French data as *je n'ai besoin pas*<sup>2</sup> (FL2-S1) "I don't need it." In the English L1 data, it is realized as "I don't want to borrow money" and "I don't need your charity."

The fourth direct strategy consists in employing performative utterances. This strategy occurs only in the L1 French and L2 French data sets. In the L1 French responses, the strategy appears either in a direct form as in (10) or in the form of a hedged performative, as in (11) and (12). In both examples, the illocutionary force is directly expressed by the performative verb *decliner* "to decline" and mitigated by means of the hedging expressions *je suis oblige de; je me vois obligé de* ("I obliged to").

10. **Je refuse de déménager**. Ce n'est. pas dans mes projets (FL1-S3).

*I refuse to move (to another city). It is not part of my plans*.


"I am interested. However, I have to decline (the offer) because I need stability in my family and I cannot afford to move to another city."

<sup>2</sup> This example shows that the FL2 learner has difficulties in the use of the negation particle "ne pas": instead of "je n'en ai pas" or "je n'ai pas besion de", the FL2 learners mostly write "je n'ai pas besoi" or "je ne besoin pas."

In the two examples attested in the L2 French data set, the performatives are characterized by the use of the verbs *décliner* (to decline) and *refuser* (to refuse), and these verbs are modified my means of the modal verb "je dois" (I must/have to), as in (13) and (14). The mitigating devices employed in performative utterances by the L1 French speakers and L2 French learners seem to be motivated by their intention to be explicit enough while trying to save the face of their interlocutors/superiors.

13. *Malheureusement, je dois te décliner*<sup>3</sup> . Je ne peux pas déménager à une autre ville à ce temps (FL2-S3).

"Unfortunately, I have to decline (the offer). I cannot move to another city at this moment."

14. *Je suis très contente que vous m'offrez ce poste et j'apprécie beaucoup, par contre je dois refuser* (FL2-S3).

"I am very happy that you offer me the position and I really appreciate it, I however have to decline it."

#### *4.2.2 Indirect refusal strategies*

Indirect refusals may take different forms, as can be seen in **Table 3**. The results show similarities and differences regarding their use by the three groups of respondents.

**Table 3** shows that the L1 French speakers produced 75 tokens, the L2 French learners used 51 examples, while the L1 English speakers used 94 examples of indirect refusals. **Table 3** also establishes that the L1 French speakers used six different speech acts (reason/explanation, dissuasion, preference, principle, apology, and delayed response), the L2 French learners employed six different speech acts (reason/explanation, dissuasion, preference, principle, apology, and request), while the L1 English speakers chose seven different speech acts (reason/explanation, dissuasion, preference, principle, apology, alternative, and moralizing).

Reasons/explanations are by far the most preferred speech act by the respondents of the three groups when declining offers indirectly: the percentage of this speech act is much higher in the L2 French corpus (64.7%) than in the L1 French data set (60%) and the L1 English data set (43.6%). This result suggests that the L2 French learners felt more comfortable giving reasons for their refusals than the participants of the other two groups. The reasons and explanations provided by the respondents when declining offers are generally combined with other speech acts as in (15–17).

15. *C'est très gentil de ta part mais je ne peux pas accepter, cela me gêne et ce n'est pas ton rôle* (FL1-S1).

"That's very kind of you but I can't accept (the offer), it makes me uncomfortable and it's not your role" (to help me out).

16. *Merci, c'est très gentil, mais je ne suis pas confortable avec ceci* (FL2-S1).

"Thanks, that's very kind, but I am not comfortable with that."

**31**

(FL1-S3).

*Offer Refusals in L2 French*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87189*

another means to get money."

**Table 3.**

17. *Merci beaucoup! Mais, je ne suis pas confortable d'accepter de l'argent de vous. Je* 

**Type of indirect refusal L1 French L2 French L1 English** Reason/explanation 45 (60%) 33 (64.7%) 41 (43.6%) Dissuasion 18 (24%) 9 (17.7%) 23 (24.5%) Preference 6 (8%) 4 (7.9%) 1 (1%) Principle 3 (4%) 3 (5.9%) 12 (12.7%) Apology/Regret 2 (2.7%) 1 (1.9%) 12 (12.7%) Avoidance 1 (1.3%) 0 0 Request 0 1 (1.9%) 0 Alternative 0 0 4 (4.3%) Moralizing 0 0 1 (1%) Total **75 (100%) 51 (100%) 94 (100%)**

"Thanks a lot! But I am not comfortable accepting money from you. I will find

The content of the reasons given is not the same across the three situations. In Situation 1, one of the main reasons given to decline a loan from a friend is that such an offer makes the speaker uncomfortable. Expressions of embarrassment are different in three groups. As a matter of fact, the L1 French speakers mostly used constructions like *cela me gêne* it bothers me" and *je suis super gênée* "I am really not comfortable," whereas the L2 French learners preferred the construction *je ne suis pas comfortable*, which appears to be a literary translation of "I am not comfortable." The L1 English speakers used constructions such as *I do not feel right taking your* 

In Situation 2, the main reason given to decline the ride offered by a stranger is that the speaker wants to use public transportation or take a cab. Some respondents

In Situation 3, the respondents most commonly justify their refusals to the job offer by indicating that they do not want to leave the city in which they are currently. Other participants indicate that they are happy with the part-time job or that they have commitments (e.g., family, friends, etc.) that make it impossible to move, as in (21–22).

21. *C'est une superbe opportunité* **mais je ne peux pas partir de Toulouse**

*vais trouver un [sic] autre façon d'avoir de l'argent* (FL2-S1).

*Distribution of indirect refusal strategies in French L1, French L2, and English L1.*

*money*; *I do not want to cause conflict in our relationship*.

indicate that they are waiting for a drive, as in (18–20).

19. *Non, merci! Je vais prendre l'autobus* (FL2-S2).

"No thanks, I have already called a cab."

"No thanks! I will take the bus."

18. *Non merci, j'ai déjà appelé un taxi pour me ramener* (FL1-S2).

20. No, thank you. I'm already waiting for a drive (EL1-S2).

"It's a superb opportunity but I cannot leave Toulouse."

<sup>3</sup> In this example, the L2 French speaker literally says "I have to decline you" instead of "I have to decline the offer."

#### *Offer Refusals in L2 French DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87189*


**Table 3.**

*Second Language Acquisition - Pedagogies, Practices and Perspectives*

13. *Malheureusement, je dois te décliner*<sup>3</sup>

ville à ce temps (FL2-S3).

*dois refuser* (FL2-S3).

have to decline it."

*4.2.2 Indirect refusal strategies*

moment."

of respondents.

moralizing).

acts as in (15–17).

*ton rôle* (FL1-S1).

and it's not your role" (to help me out).

In the two examples attested in the L2 French data set, the performatives are characterized by the use of the verbs *décliner* (to decline) and *refuser* (to refuse), and these verbs are modified my means of the modal verb "je dois" (I must/have to), as in (13) and (14). The mitigating devices employed in performative utterances by the L1 French speakers and L2 French learners seem to be motivated by their intention to be explicit enough while trying to save the face of their interlocutors/superiors.

"Unfortunately, I have to decline (the offer). I cannot move to another city at this

14. *Je suis très contente que vous m'offrez ce poste et j'apprécie beaucoup, par contre je* 

"I am very happy that you offer me the position and I really appreciate it, I however

**Table 3** shows that the L1 French speakers produced 75 tokens, the L2 French learners used 51 examples, while the L1 English speakers used 94 examples of indirect refusals. **Table 3** also establishes that the L1 French speakers used six different speech acts (reason/explanation, dissuasion, preference, principle, apology, and delayed response), the L2 French learners employed six different speech acts (reason/explanation, dissuasion, preference, principle, apology, and request), while the L1 English speakers chose seven different speech acts (reason/explanation, dissuasion, preference, principle, apology, alternative, and

Reasons/explanations are by far the most preferred speech act by the respondents of the three groups when declining offers indirectly: the percentage of this speech act is much higher in the L2 French corpus (64.7%) than in the L1 French data set (60%) and the L1 English data set (43.6%). This result suggests that the L2 French learners felt more comfortable giving reasons for their refusals than the participants of the other two groups. The reasons and explanations provided by the respondents when declining offers are generally combined with other speech

15. *C'est très gentil de ta part mais je ne peux pas accepter, cela me gêne et ce n'est pas* 

"That's very kind of you but I can't accept (the offer), it makes me uncomfortable

<sup>3</sup> In this example, the L2 French speaker literally says "I have to decline you" instead of "I have to decline

16. *Merci, c'est très gentil, mais je ne suis pas confortable avec ceci* (FL2-S1).

"Thanks, that's very kind, but I am not comfortable with that."

Indirect refusals may take different forms, as can be seen in **Table 3**. The results show similarities and differences regarding their use by the three groups

. Je ne peux pas déménager à une autre

**30**

the offer."

*Distribution of indirect refusal strategies in French L1, French L2, and English L1.*

17. *Merci beaucoup! Mais, je ne suis pas confortable d'accepter de l'argent de vous. Je vais trouver un [sic] autre façon d'avoir de l'argent* (FL2-S1).

"Thanks a lot! But I am not comfortable accepting money from you. I will find another means to get money."

The content of the reasons given is not the same across the three situations. In Situation 1, one of the main reasons given to decline a loan from a friend is that such an offer makes the speaker uncomfortable. Expressions of embarrassment are different in three groups. As a matter of fact, the L1 French speakers mostly used constructions like *cela me gêne* it bothers me" and *je suis super gênée* "I am really not comfortable," whereas the L2 French learners preferred the construction *je ne suis pas comfortable*, which appears to be a literary translation of "I am not comfortable." The L1 English speakers used constructions such as *I do not feel right taking your money*; *I do not want to cause conflict in our relationship*.

In Situation 2, the main reason given to decline the ride offered by a stranger is that the speaker wants to use public transportation or take a cab. Some respondents indicate that they are waiting for a drive, as in (18–20).

18. *Non merci, j'ai déjà appelé un taxi pour me ramener* (FL1-S2).

"No thanks, I have already called a cab."

19. *Non, merci! Je vais prendre l'autobus* (FL2-S2).

"No thanks! I will take the bus."

20. No, thank you. I'm already waiting for a drive (EL1-S2).

In Situation 3, the respondents most commonly justify their refusals to the job offer by indicating that they do not want to leave the city in which they are currently. Other participants indicate that they are happy with the part-time job or that they have commitments (e.g., family, friends, etc.) that make it impossible to move, as in (21–22).

#### 21. *C'est une superbe opportunité* **mais je ne peux pas partir de Toulouse** (FL1-S3).

"It's a superb opportunity but I cannot leave Toulouse."

22. *Merci, mais je ne peux pas quitté [sic] cette ville maintenant.* **Je dois finir mes études premièrement** (FL2-S3).

"Thanks, but I can't leave this city now. I first have to finish my studies."

23. **I'm too busy with school and other things**. Thank you but I cannot accept your offer (EL1-S3).

Dissuasion is the second most common act used to decline offers. With the dissuasion act, the refuser seeks to do two things: to convince the interlocutor not to worry or to tell him/her that the refuser has a way out or other options. In some cases, both intentions are expressed in the same turn. The dissuasion act is also distributed differently in the three data sets. While this speech act is equally distributed in the L1 French (24%) and L1 English (24.5%) data sets, it shows a much lower frequency in the L2 French examples (17.7%). This result may be due to the fact that some of the L2 French learners cannot adequately articulate this intention (the dissuasion act) in the target language. With regard to realization patterns, the results show that the dissuasion act generally appears with other refusal strategies in the data as in (24–26).

24. *Non,* **c'est bon t'inquiète***, pas envie d'avoir une dette en plus* (FL1-S1).

"No, **that's fine don't worry about it**, (I) don't want to be in debt."

25.Merci pour vouloir m'aider, mais je ne peux pas accepter. *Vous travaillez fort pour votre argent et vous le méritez*. *Je vais trouver un autre moyen* (FL2-S1).

"Thanks for trying to help me, but I can't accept it. You work hard for your money and you deserve it. I will look for another way out."

26.No thank you. I appreciate your offer but I cannot take your money. **I'll figure something out** (EL1-S1).

Many differences emerge in the way the respondents of the three groups frame their dissuasions. The L1 French speakers mostly used constructions like *T'inquiètes /ne t'inquiète pas* "do not worry," *je vais m'en sortir* "I will be fine/I'll find a way out," *je vais trouver une autre solution* "I will find another solution," *je vais me débrouiller* "I will cope/I will *préfère me débrouiller toute seule , je vais me débrouiller (par moimême/autrement)*, and *je vais trouver une (autre) solution.* The L2 French learners used constructions like *c'est okay* "It's fine," *ça va*, *ce n'est pas grave*, *je vais être ok* "I will be fine," *c'est pas une bonne idée*, *Je vais voir si je peux travailler plus à mon emploi*, *Je vais trouver un autre façon d'avoir de l'argent*, *je vais faire un plan*, and *Je vais trouver un autre moyen.*

The L1 English speakers employed utterances like *that's okay*, *I'm alright*, *I'll be alright*, *I'm fine*, *I'm good*, *I'll be fine*, *I'd rather pull my own weight*, *I'll manage and get back on my feet soon*, and *I'll figure something out.* Overall, the two most frequently used speech acts by the participants of the three groups represent more than 80% of all instances of indirect refusals in the L1 French and the L2 French data sets, while they represent less than 70% of all instances of indirect refusals in the L1 English examples.

The distribution of the third and fourth most frequent speech act is also different in the three groups. As can be seen in **Table 3**, while the expression of preference is the third most common type in the L1 French corpus (8%) and the L2 French examples (7.9%), this speech act is the least employed by the L1 English speakers. The statement of preference is similar to the justification act in that it indicates

**33**

(FL1-S1).

*Offer Refusals in L2 French*

(FL2-S3)*.*

(EL1-S2)*.*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87189*

that refuser would consider another plan of action instead of accepting the offer made by the interlocutor. Differences emerge regarding realization strategies of this speech act in the three groups. In refusing a friend's offer to lend them money, L1 French speakers expressed preference using constructions like *je préfère me débrouiller toute seule* and *je préfère ne pas mélanger mes amis à ces affaires* as in (27). In refusing a stranger's offer of a ride, the L1 French respondents used constructions like *je préfère rentrer à pied* "I prefer to walk" and *je préfère marcher et utiliser les* 

27. *Non merci, c'est adorable* **mais je préfère me débrouiller seule** (FL1, S1). "No thanks, that's kind of you but I prefer to deal with the situation on my own." In the L2 French data set, there is one instance of the preference strategy in Situation 2 (refusing a ride from a stranger): the speaker explicitly prefers to wait for the bus (*Non merci,* **je préfère l'autobus** "No thanks, I prefer the bus"). The other three examples are found in the boss situation, where the L2 French learners indicate their preference to keep their current part-time job as in (28). It is noteworthy that preference in the three corpora is supported by other speech acts (direct refusals, indirect refusals, and adjuncts). The only example in L1 English is found in the stranger situation: the refuser says he/she would prefer to wait for the bus,

28. *Non, merci beaucoup!* **Mais, j'aimerais rester ici avec mon temps partiel**

"No, thanks a lot. But I would like to stay here as a part-time employee."

29. Thanks, but **I'd prefer to wait for the bus**, because I do not know you

30. *Non ne t'inquiète pas*, *je vais me débrouiller*, *je n'aime pas avoir de dettes*

"No don't worry, I will find a way out, I don't like to have having debts."

The statement of principle act and the apology act are the third preferred strategies by the L1 English participants (12.7% each), whereas the statement of principle act appears in the fourth position in the L1 French (4%) and the L2 French (5.9%) data sets. By stating a principle act, the speaker attempts to make reference to (moral) philosophy and lifestyle or habits that would hinder him/her from accepting the offer. This strategy is generally supported by other speech acts. The informants of the three groups displayed some similarities in refusing a friend's loan offer: they mostly expressed discomfort in borrowing money from friends, depending financially on others, having debts. The L1 French speakers realized the preference strategy using the construction *je n'aime pas X* "I don't like to X" *as in* (30). The L2 French speakers used the constructions *je n'aime pas X* as well*.* Other constructions found in the L2 French corpus are *je ne peux pas permis vous de faire ça* and *je ne suis pas votre responsabilité*. In Situation 2 (refusing a lift from a stranger) an L2 French learner stated that s/he cannot accept a ride from a stranger as in (31). In the L1 English corpus, statements of principles are realized using constructions like *I do not feel like getting into a car with a stranger*, *I do not take rides from strangers, I do not like to take money from people*, *I am not a fan of borrowing money*, and *I do not like to owe anyone anything, especially money*. In the L1 English data set, statements of principle could be repeated in an utterance as in (32) or accompanied by other types of speech acts as in (33).

*transports en commun* "I prefer to walk and use public transportation."

because the person offering the ride is a stranger as in (29).

*Offer Refusals in L2 French DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87189*

*Second Language Acquisition - Pedagogies, Practices and Perspectives*

**études premièrement** (FL2-S3).

your offer (EL1-S3).

in the data as in (24–26).

22. *Merci, mais je ne peux pas quitté [sic] cette ville maintenant.* **Je dois finir mes** 

23. **I'm too busy with school and other things**. Thank you but I cannot accept

Dissuasion is the second most common act used to decline offers. With the dissuasion act, the refuser seeks to do two things: to convince the interlocutor not to worry or to tell him/her that the refuser has a way out or other options. In some cases, both intentions are expressed in the same turn. The dissuasion act is also distributed differently in the three data sets. While this speech act is equally distributed in the L1 French (24%) and L1 English (24.5%) data sets, it shows a much lower frequency in the L2 French examples (17.7%). This result may be due to the fact that some of the L2 French learners cannot adequately articulate this intention (the dissuasion act) in the target language. With regard to realization patterns, the results show that the dissuasion act generally appears with other refusal strategies

24. *Non,* **c'est bon t'inquiète***, pas envie d'avoir une dette en plus* (FL1-S1).

25.Merci pour vouloir m'aider, mais je ne peux pas accepter. *Vous travaillez fort pour votre argent et vous le méritez*. *Je vais trouver un autre moyen* (FL2-S1). "Thanks for trying to help me, but I can't accept it. You work hard for your money

26.No thank you. I appreciate your offer but I cannot take your money. **I'll figure** 

Many differences emerge in the way the respondents of the three groups frame their dissuasions. The L1 French speakers mostly used constructions like *T'inquiètes /ne t'inquiète pas* "do not worry," *je vais m'en sortir* "I will be fine/I'll find a way out," *je vais trouver une autre solution* "I will find another solution," *je vais me débrouiller* "I will cope/I will *préfère me débrouiller toute seule , je vais me débrouiller (par moimême/autrement)*, and *je vais trouver une (autre) solution.* The L2 French learners used constructions like *c'est okay* "It's fine," *ça va*, *ce n'est pas grave*, *je vais être ok* "I will be fine," *c'est pas une bonne idée*, *Je vais voir si je peux travailler plus à mon emploi*, *Je vais trouver un autre façon d'avoir de l'argent*, *je vais faire un plan*, and *Je* 

The L1 English speakers employed utterances like *that's okay*, *I'm alright*, *I'll be alright*, *I'm fine*, *I'm good*, *I'll be fine*, *I'd rather pull my own weight*, *I'll manage and get back on my feet soon*, and *I'll figure something out.* Overall, the two most frequently used speech acts by the participants of the three groups represent more than 80% of all instances of indirect refusals in the L1 French and the L2 French data sets, while they represent less than 70% of all instances of indirect refusals in the L1 English examples. The distribution of the third and fourth most frequent speech act is also different in the three groups. As can be seen in **Table 3**, while the expression of preference is the third most common type in the L1 French corpus (8%) and the L2 French examples (7.9%), this speech act is the least employed by the L1 English speakers. The statement of preference is similar to the justification act in that it indicates

"No, **that's fine don't worry about it**, (I) don't want to be in debt."

and you deserve it. I will look for another way out."

**something out** (EL1-S1).

*vais trouver un autre moyen.*

"Thanks, but I can't leave this city now. I first have to finish my studies."

**32**

that refuser would consider another plan of action instead of accepting the offer made by the interlocutor. Differences emerge regarding realization strategies of this speech act in the three groups. In refusing a friend's offer to lend them money, L1 French speakers expressed preference using constructions like *je préfère me débrouiller toute seule* and *je préfère ne pas mélanger mes amis à ces affaires* as in (27). In refusing a stranger's offer of a ride, the L1 French respondents used constructions like *je préfère rentrer à pied* "I prefer to walk" and *je préfère marcher et utiliser les transports en commun* "I prefer to walk and use public transportation."

#### 27. *Non merci, c'est adorable* **mais je préfère me débrouiller seule** (FL1, S1).

"No thanks, that's kind of you but I prefer to deal with the situation on my own." In the L2 French data set, there is one instance of the preference strategy in Situation 2 (refusing a ride from a stranger): the speaker explicitly prefers to wait for the bus (*Non merci,* **je préfère l'autobus** "No thanks, I prefer the bus"). The other three examples are found in the boss situation, where the L2 French learners indicate their preference to keep their current part-time job as in (28). It is noteworthy that preference in the three corpora is supported by other speech acts (direct refusals, indirect refusals, and adjuncts). The only example in L1 English is found in the stranger situation: the refuser says he/she would prefer to wait for the bus, because the person offering the ride is a stranger as in (29).

28. *Non, merci beaucoup!* **Mais, j'aimerais rester ici avec mon temps partiel** (FL2-S3)*.*

"No, thanks a lot. But I would like to stay here as a part-time employee."

29. Thanks, but **I'd prefer to wait for the bus**, because I do not know you (EL1-S2)*.*

The statement of principle act and the apology act are the third preferred strategies by the L1 English participants (12.7% each), whereas the statement of principle act appears in the fourth position in the L1 French (4%) and the L2 French (5.9%) data sets. By stating a principle act, the speaker attempts to make reference to (moral) philosophy and lifestyle or habits that would hinder him/her from accepting the offer. This strategy is generally supported by other speech acts. The informants of the three groups displayed some similarities in refusing a friend's loan offer: they mostly expressed discomfort in borrowing money from friends, depending financially on others, having debts. The L1 French speakers realized the preference strategy using the construction *je n'aime pas X* "I don't like to X" *as in* (30). The L2 French speakers used the constructions *je n'aime pas X* as well*.* Other constructions found in the L2 French corpus are *je ne peux pas permis vous de faire ça* and *je ne suis pas votre responsabilité*. In Situation 2 (refusing a lift from a stranger) an L2 French learner stated that s/he cannot accept a ride from a stranger as in (31). In the L1 English corpus, statements of principles are realized using constructions like *I do not feel like getting into a car with a stranger*, *I do not take rides from strangers, I do not like to take money from people*, *I am not a fan of borrowing money*, and *I do not like to owe anyone anything, especially money*. In the L1 English data set, statements of principle could be repeated in an utterance as in (32) or accompanied by other types of speech acts as in (33).

30. *Non ne t'inquiète pas*, *je vais me débrouiller*, *je n'aime pas avoir de dettes* (FL1-S1).

"No don't worry, I will find a way out, I don't like to have having debts."

31. *Non merci, je préfère l'autobus.* **Je ne pense pas que je veux aller avec une personne que je ne sais [sic] pas** (FL2, S3).

"No thanks, I prefer the bus. I don't think I would want to go with somebody I don't know."


Also interesting is the use of apologies and regrets by the three groups. While these speech acts are least employed by the L1 French speakers (2.7%) and L2 French learners (1.9%), they are highly employed by the L1 English speakers (12.7%). The two apologies attested in L1 French are realized as *je m'excuse* and *veuillez m'excuser,* while one L2 French respondent expressed his apology using the form *désolé*. In the L1 English data set, apologies and regrets are realized as *sorry* and *I'm sorry.* In the three data sets, apologies and regrets are always accompanied by other speech acts as in (34–36).

34. *Ça ne m'intéresse pas,* **veuillez m'excuser***, mais je me sens très bien dans mon poste actuel* (FL1-S3)

"I am not interested, please excuse me, but I am very comfortable with my current position."

35. **Désolé***, mais j'ai déjà décidé de prend l'autobus. Merci pour l'offre* (FL2-S2)

"Sorry but I have already decided to take the bus. Thanks for the offer."

36. **Sorry**, no thanks. I'm just going to wait for the bus (EL1-S2)

A small number of other strategies were also used as indirect refusals, with very low frequency. They include acts such as delayed refusal, request, suggestion, and moralizing. The delayed refusal occurred once in the L1 French corpus as in *je vais y réfléchir* "I will think about it". The speaker does not want to commit him/herself. The requesting act was used by an L2 French learner to accompany a justification act. The refuser says that it is at the moment not possible for him/ her to accept a new job in another city because he/she is currently a student. This also explains the request for permission to stay on the part-time job as in (37). The request could also be interpreted here as a suggestion.

37. *Merci pour l'offre de temps plein, mais comme je suis encore à l'école,* **pourrais-je rester à temps partiel pour maintenant?** (FL2, S3)

"Thanks for the offer of a full-time job, but since I am still a student, could I keep my part-time position for the moment?"

The analysis also reveals that L1 English speakers suggested alternatives and produced moralizing acts in order to refuse offers. Of the four suggestions made, three appeared in the boss situation: the employee suggests working full-time position without having to move to another city as in (38) or suggests to defer the offer to another time in the future. Another indirect refusal strategy was the act of moralizing as in (39), which could be interpreted here as a form of justification or an indirect statement of principle.

**35**

*Offer Refusals in L2 French*

*4.2.3 Adjuncts to refusals*

presents the types of adjuncts4

*bonne idée*, and *Ça c'est une bonne offre.*

*knew you had my back*, and *love you.*

<sup>4</sup> The classification emerged from the speech acts found in the data.

higher number of L1 English participants in the study.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87189*

38. Is there any way to make that happen here? (EL1-S3)

39. Money can cause a wedge between friends (EL1-S1).

As already indicated in Section 3, adjuncts are different kinds of speech acts, which may come before or after direct and indirect refusals. Adjuncts are only used as external modification devices to soften or intensify refusals. **Table 4** below

of adjuncts, using three different types of speech acts (expression of gratitude/ appreciation, expression of positive opinion, and expression of willingness).5

L1 French speakers produced 52 tokens of adjuncts, using six different speech acts (expression of gratitude/appreciation, expression of positive opinion, expression of willingness, greetings, regret, and hesitation). The L2 French learners produced 42 examples of adjuncts using three different speech acts (expression of gratitude/ appreciation, expression of positive opinion, and expression of willingness). Expressions of gratitude/appreciation are the most preferred adjuncts by the respondents of the three groups, with the L1 English speakers being the most productive in using this adjunct (93.4%), followed by the L2 French learners (91.2%). The frequency of gratitude expressions in L1 English corpus is much lower (82.7%). Expressions of gratitude and appreciation are realized in the L1 French data set mostly by using the term *Merci,* which can be accompanied by adverbs such as *beaucoup/200 fois* and *quand même* or by a prepositional clause highlighting the reason for the gratitude expression (e.g., *Merci* **pour/de votre offer**). Some L1 French speakers made use of performative formulas such as J*e vous remercie d'avoir pensé à moi* and *Je vous remercie pour votre offre.* Also attested are expressions like *c'est adorable*, *c'est très amiable*, *c'est (très/super) gentil (de ta part)*, *ton attention me touche énormément*, and *ça me touche beaucoup ma poule*. Positive opinions about the offer are realized in L1 French as *c'est une belle perspective* and *c'est une super opportunité*. The L2 French learners expressed gratitude and appreciation using structures like *merci*, *merci quand même/beaucoup*, *merci (beaucoup) pour l'offre*, *merci pour vouloir m'aider*, *c'est très gentil*, *c'est vraiment gentil de vous; vous êtes très gentil(le)*, *ça c'est vraiment gentil*, *merci beaucoup de me considérer*, *merci pour l'opportunité*, *merci pour l'offre de temps plein*, *Je vous remercie pour votre proposition gentile*, *merci d'avoir penser à moi*, *Je suis très contente que vous m'offrez ce poste*, and *j'apprécie beaucoup.* Expressions of positive opinion about the offer were realized as *c'est tentant*, *c'est une* 

Expressions of gratitude in L1 English are *thanks (so much) for the offer/the opportunity*, *thank you*, *I appreciate the offer*, and *I am grateful that you think of me so highly.* The L1 English speakers used the following expressions of positive opinion about the offer*: it means a lot*, *I am glad you considered me plus appreciate my work*, *this is an amazing opportunity*, *I am humbled by your offer*, *you are the best*, *I always* 

The other adjuncts, namely, the expression of willingness and deception, have very low frequencies in the data. While "willingness' is realized twice in the L1 French (4%) and once in the L2 French (2.2%) data sets, this adjunct appears four times in the L1 English corpus (4.3%). In the French L1, willingness is realized as

<sup>5</sup> The very higher number of adjuncts to refusals, compared to the other two groups, may be due to the

 found in the three data sets. As can be seen in **Table 4**, the L1 English speakers produced the highest number

The

38. Is there any way to make that happen here? (EL1-S3)

39. Money can cause a wedge between friends (EL1-S1).

#### *4.2.3 Adjuncts to refusals*

*Second Language Acquisition - Pedagogies, Practices and Perspectives*

**personne que je ne sais [sic] pas** (FL2, S3).

don't know."

(EL1-S1).

weight (EL1-S1).

other speech acts as in (34–36).

*poste actuel* (FL1-S3)

position."

31. *Non merci, je préfère l'autobus.* **Je ne pense pas que je veux aller avec une** 

32. I do not like borrowing money from people. It is a personal standard

33. Thanks for the offer, but I do not like owing money. I'd rather pull my own

Also interesting is the use of apologies and regrets by the three groups. While these speech acts are least employed by the L1 French speakers (2.7%) and L2 French learners (1.9%), they are highly employed by the L1 English speakers (12.7%). The two apologies attested in L1 French are realized as *je m'excuse* and *veuillez m'excuser,* while one L2 French respondent expressed his apology using the form *désolé*. In the L1 English data set, apologies and regrets are realized as *sorry* and *I'm sorry.* In the three data sets, apologies and regrets are always accompanied by

34. *Ça ne m'intéresse pas,* **veuillez m'excuser***, mais je me sens très bien dans mon* 

35. **Désolé***, mais j'ai déjà décidé de prend l'autobus. Merci pour l'offre* (FL2-S2)

A small number of other strategies were also used as indirect refusals, with very low frequency. They include acts such as delayed refusal, request, suggestion, and moralizing. The delayed refusal occurred once in the L1 French corpus as in *je vais y réfléchir* "I will think about it". The speaker does not want to commit him/herself. The requesting act was used by an L2 French learner to accompany a justification act. The refuser says that it is at the moment not possible for him/ her to accept a new job in another city because he/she is currently a student. This also explains the request for permission to stay on the part-time job as in (37). The

37. *Merci pour l'offre de temps plein, mais comme je suis encore à l'école,* **pourrais-je** 

"Thanks for the offer of a full-time job, but since I am still a student, could I keep

The analysis also reveals that L1 English speakers suggested alternatives and produced moralizing acts in order to refuse offers. Of the four suggestions made, three appeared in the boss situation: the employee suggests working full-time position without having to move to another city as in (38) or suggests to defer the offer to another time in the future. Another indirect refusal strategy was the act of moralizing as in (39), which could be interpreted here as a form of justification or

"Sorry but I have already decided to take the bus. Thanks for the offer."

36. **Sorry**, no thanks. I'm just going to wait for the bus (EL1-S2)

request could also be interpreted here as a suggestion.

my part-time position for the moment?"

an indirect statement of principle.

**rester à temps partiel pour maintenant?** (FL2, S3)

"I am not interested, please excuse me, but I am very comfortable with my current

"No thanks, I prefer the bus. I don't think I would want to go with somebody I

**34**

As already indicated in Section 3, adjuncts are different kinds of speech acts, which may come before or after direct and indirect refusals. Adjuncts are only used as external modification devices to soften or intensify refusals. **Table 4** below presents the types of adjuncts4 found in the three data sets.

As can be seen in **Table 4**, the L1 English speakers produced the highest number of adjuncts, using three different types of speech acts (expression of gratitude/ appreciation, expression of positive opinion, and expression of willingness).5 The L1 French speakers produced 52 tokens of adjuncts, using six different speech acts (expression of gratitude/appreciation, expression of positive opinion, expression of willingness, greetings, regret, and hesitation). The L2 French learners produced 42 examples of adjuncts using three different speech acts (expression of gratitude/ appreciation, expression of positive opinion, and expression of willingness). Expressions of gratitude/appreciation are the most preferred adjuncts by the respondents of the three groups, with the L1 English speakers being the most productive in using this adjunct (93.4%), followed by the L2 French learners (91.2%). The frequency of gratitude expressions in L1 English corpus is much lower (82.7%).

Expressions of gratitude and appreciation are realized in the L1 French data set mostly by using the term *Merci,* which can be accompanied by adverbs such as *beaucoup/200 fois* and *quand même* or by a prepositional clause highlighting the reason for the gratitude expression (e.g., *Merci* **pour/de votre offer**). Some L1 French speakers made use of performative formulas such as J*e vous remercie d'avoir pensé à moi* and *Je vous remercie pour votre offre.* Also attested are expressions like *c'est adorable*, *c'est très amiable*, *c'est (très/super) gentil (de ta part)*, *ton attention me touche énormément*, and *ça me touche beaucoup ma poule*. Positive opinions about the offer are realized in L1 French as *c'est une belle perspective* and *c'est une super opportunité*.

The L2 French learners expressed gratitude and appreciation using structures like *merci*, *merci quand même/beaucoup*, *merci (beaucoup) pour l'offre*, *merci pour vouloir m'aider*, *c'est très gentil*, *c'est vraiment gentil de vous; vous êtes très gentil(le)*, *ça c'est vraiment gentil*, *merci beaucoup de me considérer*, *merci pour l'opportunité*, *merci pour l'offre de temps plein*, *Je vous remercie pour votre proposition gentile*, *merci d'avoir penser à moi*, *Je suis très contente que vous m'offrez ce poste*, and *j'apprécie beaucoup.* Expressions of positive opinion about the offer were realized as *c'est tentant*, *c'est une bonne idée*, and *Ça c'est une bonne offre.*

Expressions of gratitude in L1 English are *thanks (so much) for the offer/the opportunity*, *thank you*, *I appreciate the offer*, and *I am grateful that you think of me so highly.* The L1 English speakers used the following expressions of positive opinion about the offer*: it means a lot*, *I am glad you considered me plus appreciate my work*, *this is an amazing opportunity*, *I am humbled by your offer*, *you are the best*, *I always knew you had my back*, and *love you.*

The other adjuncts, namely, the expression of willingness and deception, have very low frequencies in the data. While "willingness' is realized twice in the L1 French (4%) and once in the L2 French (2.2%) data sets, this adjunct appears four times in the L1 English corpus (4.3%). In the French L1, willingness is realized as

<sup>4</sup> The classification emerged from the speech acts found in the data.

<sup>5</sup> The very higher number of adjuncts to refusals, compared to the other two groups, may be due to the higher number of L1 English participants in the study.

#### *Second Language Acquisition - Pedagogies, Practices and Perspectives*


#### **Table 4.**

*Distribution of types of adjuncts in French L1, French L2, and English L1.*

*ça aurait été avec plaisir* as in (40) and *je suis intéressé* as in (41), while it appears in L2 French as *j'aurais trop aimé* as in (42). In L1 English, willingness is expressed using *I wish I could*, *I would have*, and *I'd/would love to* as in (43). There is one token of the expression of deception in L1 French: it is realized as *c'est dommage*, and it is employed together with a gratitude expression to soften a direct refusal as in (44).

40. **Ça aurait été avec plaisir** mais je ne me sens pas encore prête à quitter ma ville (FL1-S3).

"I would have been pleased to accept but I am not yet ready to move."

41. **Je suis très intéressée** cependant je me vois obligée de décliner car pour ma vie de famille j'ai besoin de stabilité et je ne peux pas me permettre de changer la ville (FL1-S3).

"I am interested however I am compelled to decline [the offer] because I need stability for my family and I cannot afford to move."

42. **J'aurais trop aimé**, mais je ne peux pas accepter quand je suis encore à l'université. Par contre, merci encore (FL2-S3).

'I really would have loved to but I cannot accept [it] because I am still a university student. Anyways, thanks again."

43. *I would love more than anything to accept the position* b*ut I cannot* (EL1-S3).

44. Non merci, quand même **c'est dommage** (FL1-S3).

"No thanks anyways that's too bad."

The L1 French participants produced two greetings to support their refusals, namely, *bonne journée,* as in (45) and *au revoir,* as in (46). One L2 French learner used a marker of hesitation, before declining the offer of a ride by an unknown driver as in (47).

**37**

that are employed by L1 French speakers in daily interactions.

This study has a number of limitations. First, the small-scale nature of the study, based on a corpus of only 12 L2 French learners, does not yield results that could be

*Offer Refusals in L2 French*

offer refusal utterances.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87189*

The goal of the study presented in this chapter was to answer the question how a group of intermediate L2 French learners decline offers and how their choices compare to those of L1 French speakers. It was found that the L2 French learners make use of direct refusals, indirect refusals, as well as adjuncts to refusals to produce

At the level of direct refusals, the results show some similarities between the three groups. It was found that the L2 French learners mostly employ "no" and "expressions of inability" just like the L1 French speakers and the L1 English speakers. However, differences emerge regarding the linguistic realization of "inability expressions." It was found that the L2 French learners have a very limited repertoire of forms to express their inability to accept offers. They mostly use the construction *je ne peux pas* "I cannot." This result may be a case of pragmatic transfer, where the L2 French learners seem to transfer their L1 English behavior (I cannot) into L2 French. It may also be due to the fact that the L2 French learners in this study have had not yet acquired a wide range of expressions of inability to accept offers. Consequently, it would be very important to expose such a group of L2 French learners to other types of direct offer refusals. This may be done through reformulation activities in which the L2 French learners have to replace the construction *je ne peux pas* with different utterances such as those employed by L1 French speakers. At the level of indirect refusals, the L2 French learners have some common ground with the L1 French speakers and the L1 English speakers. In line with the results of previous studies, it was found that the participants of the three groups use reasons more often than any other strategy in their refusal utterances. Differences emerge, however, in the linguistic realization of this pragmatic category. In the friend situation, for instance, it was found that the L1 English speakers mostly explain their refusals by indicating their discomfort in borrowing money from their friends, using a construction like "I am not comfortable accepting money from you." The examples of the L2 French learners seem to indicate a direct transfer of the commonly used realization type in L1 English into L2 French, resulting into L2 French constructions like *je ne suis pas confortable avec ceci*, *Je ne suis pas confortable de*, etc. It appears that the L2 French learners tested are not aware of "more appropriate" constructions such as *ça me gêne, je suis gêné de,* etc*.* found in the L1 French speakers' productions. In this regard, it would be very helpful to address these difficulties in formulating such offer refusals in L2 French. Another interesting finding in our study concerns the linguistic realization of dissuasion, another type of indirect refusal. **Table 3** shows that, although this strategy is the second most commonly employed by the three groups of participants, it is less used by the L2 French learners and it is framed in L2 French using quite different realization patterns. With respect to adjuncts to refusals, similarities and differences were found regarding the preference the realization forms of speech acts such as thanks and expressions of positive opinion. While the participants of the three groups mostly prefer gratitude expressions to mitigate their offer refusals, it was also found that the L2 French learners produced constructions with some grammatical errors. These errors should be addressed when teaching them how to refuse offers appropriately. Overall, this study shows that an effective teaching and learning of refusal behavior in L2 French should take many different aspects into account: the source language of the French learners as well as the pragmatic and linguistic strategies

**5. Discussion and conclusion**

45. Merci bien, mais je prendrais un taxi, **bonne journée** (FL1-S2).

46. Non, merci. **Au revoir** (FL1-S2).

47. *Heu. Non merci!* (FL1-S2)

#### **5. Discussion and conclusion**

*Second Language Acquisition - Pedagogies, Practices and Perspectives*

*Distribution of types of adjuncts in French L1, French L2, and English L1.*

*ça aurait été avec plaisir* as in (40) and *je suis intéressé* as in (41), while it appears in L2 French as *j'aurais trop aimé* as in (42). In L1 English, willingness is expressed using *I wish I could*, *I would have*, and *I'd/would love to* as in (43). There is one token of the expression of deception in L1 French: it is realized as *c'est dommage*, and it is employed together with a gratitude expression to soften a direct refusal

**Type of adjunct to refusal French L1 French L2 English L1** Gratitude/appreciation 43 (82.7%) 41 (91.2%) 86 (93.4%) Positive opinion 3 (5.9%) 3 (6.6) 2 (2.2) Willingness 2 (3.8%) 1 (2.2%) 4 (4.4%) Greetings 2 (3.8%) 0 0 Regret 1 (1.9%) 0 0 Hesitation 1 (1.9%) 0 0 Total **52 (100%) 45 (100%) 92 (100%)**

40. **Ça aurait été avec plaisir** mais je ne me sens pas encore prête à quitter ma

41. **Je suis très intéressée** cependant je me vois obligée de décliner car pour ma vie de famille j'ai besoin de stabilité et je ne peux pas me permettre de changer

"I am interested however I am compelled to decline [the offer] because I need

'I really would have loved to but I cannot accept [it] because I am still a university

43. *I would love more than anything to accept the position* b*ut I cannot* (EL1-S3).

The L1 French participants produced two greetings to support their refusals, namely, *bonne journée,* as in (45) and *au revoir,* as in (46). One L2 French learner used a marker of hesitation, before declining the offer of a ride by an unknown

45. Merci bien, mais je prendrais un taxi, **bonne journée** (FL1-S2).

42. **J'aurais trop aimé**, mais je ne peux pas accepter quand je suis encore à

"I would have been pleased to accept but I am not yet ready to move."

stability for my family and I cannot afford to move."

l'université. Par contre, merci encore (FL2-S3).

44. Non merci, quand même **c'est dommage** (FL1-S3).

**36**

driver as in (47).

as in (44).

**Table 4.**

ville (FL1-S3).

la ville (FL1-S3).

student. Anyways, thanks again."

"No thanks anyways that's too bad."

46. Non, merci. **Au revoir** (FL1-S2).

47. *Heu. Non merci!* (FL1-S2)

The goal of the study presented in this chapter was to answer the question how a group of intermediate L2 French learners decline offers and how their choices compare to those of L1 French speakers. It was found that the L2 French learners make use of direct refusals, indirect refusals, as well as adjuncts to refusals to produce offer refusal utterances.

At the level of direct refusals, the results show some similarities between the three groups. It was found that the L2 French learners mostly employ "no" and "expressions of inability" just like the L1 French speakers and the L1 English speakers. However, differences emerge regarding the linguistic realization of "inability expressions." It was found that the L2 French learners have a very limited repertoire of forms to express their inability to accept offers. They mostly use the construction *je ne peux pas* "I cannot." This result may be a case of pragmatic transfer, where the L2 French learners seem to transfer their L1 English behavior (I cannot) into L2 French. It may also be due to the fact that the L2 French learners in this study have had not yet acquired a wide range of expressions of inability to accept offers. Consequently, it would be very important to expose such a group of L2 French learners to other types of direct offer refusals. This may be done through reformulation activities in which the L2 French learners have to replace the construction *je ne peux pas* with different utterances such as those employed by L1 French speakers.

At the level of indirect refusals, the L2 French learners have some common ground with the L1 French speakers and the L1 English speakers. In line with the results of previous studies, it was found that the participants of the three groups use reasons more often than any other strategy in their refusal utterances. Differences emerge, however, in the linguistic realization of this pragmatic category. In the friend situation, for instance, it was found that the L1 English speakers mostly explain their refusals by indicating their discomfort in borrowing money from their friends, using a construction like "I am not comfortable accepting money from you." The examples of the L2 French learners seem to indicate a direct transfer of the commonly used realization type in L1 English into L2 French, resulting into L2 French constructions like *je ne suis pas confortable avec ceci*, *Je ne suis pas confortable de*, etc. It appears that the L2 French learners tested are not aware of "more appropriate" constructions such as *ça me gêne, je suis gêné de,* etc*.* found in the L1 French speakers' productions. In this regard, it would be very helpful to address these difficulties in formulating such offer refusals in L2 French. Another interesting finding in our study concerns the linguistic realization of dissuasion, another type of indirect refusal. **Table 3** shows that, although this strategy is the second most commonly employed by the three groups of participants, it is less used by the L2 French learners and it is framed in L2 French using quite different realization patterns.

With respect to adjuncts to refusals, similarities and differences were found regarding the preference the realization forms of speech acts such as thanks and expressions of positive opinion. While the participants of the three groups mostly prefer gratitude expressions to mitigate their offer refusals, it was also found that the L2 French learners produced constructions with some grammatical errors. These errors should be addressed when teaching them how to refuse offers appropriately. Overall, this study shows that an effective teaching and learning of refusal behavior in L2 French should take many different aspects into account: the source language of the French learners as well as the pragmatic and linguistic strategies that are employed by L1 French speakers in daily interactions.

This study has a number of limitations. First, the small-scale nature of the study, based on a corpus of only 12 L2 French learners, does not yield results that could be

generalized to a larger group of L2 French learners. This means that a larger-scale investigation is required to establish the strategies L2 French learners choose and the problems they are confronted with when refusing offers in the target language. Second, the study focused on offer refusals in only three situations. It is important to include more situations highlighting various levels of social distance and power distance as well as many different types of offers in order to have a better picture of offer refusal strategies in L2 French. Third: since the study carried out here is based on written data, it would be necessary to employ other types of data (e.g., role-play data and naturally occurring conversations) in forthcoming studies in order to establish how negotiations of offer-refusal exchanges are enacted by L2 French learners. Fourth, in order to understand the motivations behind the use of certain strategies in the target languages, it would also be necessary to tap into the perceptions and cultural representations or cultural schemas (cf. [6]) underlying refusals in Anglo-Canadian contexts and the way in which they influence the production of offer refusals in L2 French.

### **Acknowledgements**

This article is part of my research project "Features of L2 Learners' pragmatic competence: refusal strategies in L2 French," funded by the Office of Research and Graduate Studies of Cape Breton University, Canada. A special thanks to all the participants in the study.

#### **Author details**

Bernard Mulo Farenkia Cape Breton University, Sydney, Nova Scotia, Canada

\*Address all correspondence to: bernard\_farenkia@cbu.ca

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**39**

d'Amsterdam; 2012

pp. 72-93

*Offer Refusals in L2 French*

1995. pp. 119-163

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Pragmatics: Requests, Complaints and Apologies. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter;

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87189*

[1] Chen X, Ye L, Yanyin Z. Refusing in Chinese. In: Kasper G, editor. Pragmatics of Chinese as a Native and Target Language. Honolulu: Second Language Teaching & Curriculum Center, University of Hawaii at Manoa; [10] Kraft B, Geluykens R. Complaining in French L1 and L2: A cross-linguistic investigation. EUROSLA Yearbook.

[11] Schaeffer CA. Complaints in L2 French: Perception and production across social contexts [thesis]. University of Iowa; 2018

[12] Mulo Farenkia B. Complimenting in French as a second language: The case of Canadian university students. US-China Foreign Language. 2012;**10**:1387-1400

[13] Warga M. Pragmatische Entwicklung in der Fremdsprache. Der Sprechakt "Aufforderung" Im Französischen. Tübingen: Narr; 2004

2007;**4**(2):221-251

Ablex Publishing; 1989

1990. pp. 55-73

Press; 2014

[14] Warga M, Schölmberger U. The acquisition of French apologetic behavior in a study abroad context. Intercultural Pragmatics.

[15] Leech G. The Pragmatics of

Politeness. New York: Oxford University

[16] Blum-Kulka S, House J, Kasper G, editors. Cross-cultural Pragmatics: Requests and Apologies. Norwood:

[17] Beebe L, Takahashi T, Uliss-Weltz R. Pragmatic transfer in ESL refusals. In: Scarcella R, Andersen E, Stephen Krashen S, editors. Developing

Communicative Competence in Second Language. New York: Newbury House;

2002;**2**:227-242

*Offer Refusals in L2 French DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87189*

#### **References**

*Second Language Acquisition - Pedagogies, Practices and Perspectives*

offer refusals in L2 French.

**Acknowledgements**

participants in the study.

**Author details**

Bernard Mulo Farenkia

Cape Breton University, Sydney, Nova Scotia, Canada

provided the original work is properly cited.

\*Address all correspondence to: bernard\_farenkia@cbu.ca

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

generalized to a larger group of L2 French learners. This means that a larger-scale investigation is required to establish the strategies L2 French learners choose and the problems they are confronted with when refusing offers in the target language. Second, the study focused on offer refusals in only three situations. It is important to include more situations highlighting various levels of social distance and power distance as well as many different types of offers in order to have a better picture of offer refusal strategies in L2 French. Third: since the study carried out here is based on written data, it would be necessary to employ other types of data (e.g., role-play data and naturally occurring conversations) in forthcoming studies in order to establish how negotiations of offer-refusal exchanges are enacted by L2 French learners. Fourth, in order to understand the motivations behind the use of certain strategies in the target languages, it would also be necessary to tap into the perceptions and cultural representations or cultural schemas (cf. [6]) underlying refusals in Anglo-Canadian contexts and the way in which they influence the production of

This article is part of my research project "Features of L2 Learners' pragmatic competence: refusal strategies in L2 French," funded by the Office of Research and Graduate Studies of Cape Breton University, Canada. A special thanks to all the

**38**

[1] Chen X, Ye L, Yanyin Z. Refusing in Chinese. In: Kasper G, editor. Pragmatics of Chinese as a Native and Target Language. Honolulu: Second Language Teaching & Curriculum Center, University of Hawaii at Manoa; 1995. pp. 119-163

[2] Trosborg A. Interlanguage Pragmatics: Requests, Complaints and Apologies. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter; 1995

[3] Félix-Brasdefer JC. Politeness in Mexico and the United States. A Contrastive Study of the Realization and Perception of Refusals. Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins; 2008

[4] Nelson GL, Carson J, Batal MA, Bakary WE. Cross-cultural pragmatics: Strategy use in Egyptian Arabic and American English refusals. Applied Linguistics. 2002;**23**:163-189

[5] Kwon J. Expressing refusals in Korean and in American English. Multilingua. 2004;**23**:339-364

[6] Shishavan BH, Sharifian F. Refusal strategies in L1 and L2: A study of Persian speaking learners of English. Multilingua. 2013;**32**:801-836

[7] Ren W. Sociopragmatic variation in mainland and Taiwan Chinese refusals. In: Beeching K, Woodfiel H, editors. Researching Sociopragmatic Variability. London: Palgrave Macmillan; 2015. pp. 72-93

[8] Mulo Farenkia B. Invitation refusals in Cameroon French and hexagonal French. Multilingua. 2015;**34/4**:577-603

[9] Bakkum T. Le refus de requêtes ou de propositions par les Français et les Néerlandais: une analyse interculturelle [Mémoire de maîtrise]. Université d'Amsterdam; 2012

[10] Kraft B, Geluykens R. Complaining in French L1 and L2: A cross-linguistic investigation. EUROSLA Yearbook. 2002;**2**:227-242

[11] Schaeffer CA. Complaints in L2 French: Perception and production across social contexts [thesis]. University of Iowa; 2018

[12] Mulo Farenkia B. Complimenting in French as a second language: The case of Canadian university students. US-China Foreign Language. 2012;**10**:1387-1400

[13] Warga M. Pragmatische Entwicklung in der Fremdsprache. Der Sprechakt "Aufforderung" Im Französischen. Tübingen: Narr; 2004

[14] Warga M, Schölmberger U. The acquisition of French apologetic behavior in a study abroad context. Intercultural Pragmatics. 2007;**4**(2):221-251

[15] Leech G. The Pragmatics of Politeness. New York: Oxford University Press; 2014

[16] Blum-Kulka S, House J, Kasper G, editors. Cross-cultural Pragmatics: Requests and Apologies. Norwood: Ablex Publishing; 1989

[17] Beebe L, Takahashi T, Uliss-Weltz R. Pragmatic transfer in ESL refusals. In: Scarcella R, Andersen E, Stephen Krashen S, editors. Developing Communicative Competence in Second Language. New York: Newbury House; 1990. pp. 55-73

**41**

**Chapter 4**

*Patrick Farren*

**Abstract**

**1. Introduction**

'Transformative Pedagogy' in

'Transformative language pedagogy' ('transformative pedagogy') emerged from three systemically linked, qualitative studies carried out by the author in collaboration with educators at the National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland, King's College London, and Boston College, MA, and neighbouring, post-primary schools. The context for the studies is language teacher education. 'Transformative pedagogy' enhances the social-psychological model of autonomous language teaching and learning by underpinning it with an intercultural and moral-philosophical foundation. It supports the target language teacher in developing a more encompassing, professional identity that incorporates practitioner-researcher and leader. Researching practice requires justifying pedagogical decisions by testing that they are evidence informed and based on moral values and opening them to external

Language Teacher Education

scrutiny. An original model for 'transformative research' is outlined.

use, socio-affective factors, 'transformative research'

**Keywords:** autonomous language teaching and learning, 'transformative pedagogy', evidence-informed, moral values, practitioner-research, beliefs and attitudes, interdependence, social-interaction, metacognition, metalanguage, target language

Traditionally, in Ireland, language teaching and learning—English, Irish, and modern foreign language teaching and learning (MFL)—have been driven mainly by external motivators, including passing summative examinations. Target language teaching and learning have been often misinterpreted as students' reciting phrases and sentences that the teacher has provided, and success as students' ability to regurgitate information in examinations. While target language awareness and cultural awareness have been key objectives of the common MFL syllabus for junior and senior cycles since 1988, in practice they have not been given the attention they warrant. Overall, the consequence has been an impoverished experience for students. With regard to teacher education, insufficient collaboration among educators has exposed student-teachers to the danger of contradictory counsels. These concerns inspired me to carry out a collaborative study with educators and student-teachers at the National University of Ireland, Galway (NUI Galway), and with post-primary school mentors and students in neighbouring schools. The study led to two further systemically linked studies at King's College London and Boston College, MA.

This chapter focuses on the theoretical framework for a 'transformative pedagogy' that emerged from the three studies and that enhances the social-psychological model of autonomous language teaching and learning. 'Transformative pedagogy' supports

#### **Chapter 4**

## 'Transformative Pedagogy' in Language Teacher Education

*Patrick Farren*

#### **Abstract**

'Transformative language pedagogy' ('transformative pedagogy') emerged from three systemically linked, qualitative studies carried out by the author in collaboration with educators at the National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland, King's College London, and Boston College, MA, and neighbouring, post-primary schools. The context for the studies is language teacher education. 'Transformative pedagogy' enhances the social-psychological model of autonomous language teaching and learning by underpinning it with an intercultural and moral-philosophical foundation. It supports the target language teacher in developing a more encompassing, professional identity that incorporates practitioner-researcher and leader. Researching practice requires justifying pedagogical decisions by testing that they are evidence informed and based on moral values and opening them to external scrutiny. An original model for 'transformative research' is outlined.

**Keywords:** autonomous language teaching and learning, 'transformative pedagogy', evidence-informed, moral values, practitioner-research, beliefs and attitudes, interdependence, social-interaction, metacognition, metalanguage, target language use, socio-affective factors, 'transformative research'

#### **1. Introduction**

Traditionally, in Ireland, language teaching and learning—English, Irish, and modern foreign language teaching and learning (MFL)—have been driven mainly by external motivators, including passing summative examinations. Target language teaching and learning have been often misinterpreted as students' reciting phrases and sentences that the teacher has provided, and success as students' ability to regurgitate information in examinations. While target language awareness and cultural awareness have been key objectives of the common MFL syllabus for junior and senior cycles since 1988, in practice they have not been given the attention they warrant. Overall, the consequence has been an impoverished experience for students. With regard to teacher education, insufficient collaboration among educators has exposed student-teachers to the danger of contradictory counsels. These concerns inspired me to carry out a collaborative study with educators and student-teachers at the National University of Ireland, Galway (NUI Galway), and with post-primary school mentors and students in neighbouring schools. The study led to two further systemically linked studies at King's College London and Boston College, MA.

This chapter focuses on the theoretical framework for a 'transformative pedagogy' that emerged from the three studies and that enhances the social-psychological model of autonomous language teaching and learning. 'Transformative pedagogy' supports

student-teachers and students in developing the capacity to accept responsibility for language teaching and learning linked to making use of the target language to express their meanings not only in the traditional and basic literacies of reading, writing, listening, and speaking but also in a range of 'new' literacies, including intercultural, critical, digital, media, and research literacies. It is underpinned by a critical and moral-philosophical foundation that supports students in developing their identity as whole persons as critical, intercultural language users with the capacity to make sense of their world informed by moral values, for example, equality and social justice.

'Transformative pedagogy' supports teachers in developing a more encompassing professional identity than specific target language teachers, as practitionerresearchers and leaders. It necessitates competency in a range of 'new' literacies and corresponding skills necessary to integrate them into practice. Bringing about transformation requires teachers to justify their pedagogical decisions and actions by testing that they are evidence informed and based on moral values and by leaving them open to external scrutiny.

I begin by clarifying the meanings of two linked concepts, pedagogy and transformation. Then, I outline factors that the literature has identified with autonomous language teaching and learning before examining key factors for 'transformative pedagogy'. I examine what the literature has to say about 'new' literacies, and teachers' professional identity linked to practitioner-researcher and language leader for whom decisions are evidence informed and based on democratic, moral values. I offer an example for a 'transformative pedagogy' in the context of teaching English language learners. Finally, I outline key stages in an original 'transformative research' model.

#### **2. Pedagogy**

Alexander [1] defines pedagogy as:

*the act of teaching together with attendant discourse of educational theories, values, evidence and justifications. It is what one needs to know, and the skills one needs to command in order to make and justify the many different kinds of decisions of which teaching is constituted.*

As in this definition, 'transformative pedagogy' concerns substance and justification. It involves 'both the teaching act and its attendant discourse of ideas, values, and principles' [1]. Teaching is understood as a morally purposeful activity that is evidence informed, and autonomy is understood as a pre-requisite for morality.

'Transformative pedagogy' is set within an interpretive perspective. This perspective believes that the world can be understood only by those who are part of the ongoing action. The argument is that because of man's 'self-awareness and powers of language' he must be seen as different from any other creature or object and that what is needed, therefore, is an anthropomorphic model of people. This approach entails taking account of uniquely human attributes, for example, the capacity to monitor our performance, articulate our performances, and plan [2]. In the interpretive paradigm, theory emerges as meanings from people in particular situations and yields insights and understandings of peoples' behaviour [3].

#### **3. Transformation**

The concept of transformation linked to improvement has been referred to in the writing of several researchers. For example, Lewin [4] has referred to a

**43**

*'Transformative Pedagogy' in Language Teacher Education*

participants to underpin the action research process.1

**4. Autonomous language teaching and learning**

Key factors examined are as follows:

• metacognition and metalanguage

**4.1 Self-awareness: ontological and epistemological beliefs**

Little [9] has argued that teachers need to become aware of 'the assumptions, values and prejudices which determine their classroom behavior.' He claims that the development of teacher autonomy is a 'prerequisite' for the development of learner autonomy' [10]. Breen and Mann [11] suggest that autonomy is 'a complex challenge' that has limits but is worth seeking as an ideal. They draw implications from this for teachers and express them in terms of key attributes for autonomous teaching:

• Self-awareness: one's beliefs and assumptions about teaching and learning; the

ability to reflect on action and relationships in the classroom;

Teachers will first need to reflect on their teaching beliefs, attitudes, and assumptions before they can expect to create appropriate conditions that are likely to motivate learners. Black and Wiliam [12] have argued that more 'open moves' in

<sup>1</sup> In the National University of Ireland, Galway, study I made use of an action research approach.

• Belief in the capacity of each person to learn.

the latter construct.

• self-awareness

• interdependence

• social interaction

• target language use

• socio-affective factors

transformative cycle that includes 'action steps' aimed at bringing about change. Habermas [5] has argued that reason, in part through discourse ethics, has the potential to transform the world into a more just society. Winter [6] has argued that the alternating of theory and practice is what brings transformation in action research, and that the researcher must articulate the theoretical justification for actions and 'to question the bases for those justifications'. McNiff [7] has argued that in action research, 'theory informs practice, practice refines theory, in a continuous transformation', and has highlighted 'the need for democracy and justice' among

greatest moral theologians of the twentieth century, has argued that right reason, 'recta ratio', supports human beings in making moral decisions. 'Transformative pedagogy' is aimed at bringing about improvement in language teaching and learn-

I referred earlier that 'transformative pedagogy' enhances autonomous language teaching and learning. It would be appropriate therefore, that I begin by examining

ing that is evidence informed, and based on democratic, moral values.

Fuchs [8], arguably one of the

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89470*

*'Transformative Pedagogy' in Language Teacher Education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89470*

transformative cycle that includes 'action steps' aimed at bringing about change. Habermas [5] has argued that reason, in part through discourse ethics, has the potential to transform the world into a more just society. Winter [6] has argued that the alternating of theory and practice is what brings transformation in action research, and that the researcher must articulate the theoretical justification for actions and 'to question the bases for those justifications'. McNiff [7] has argued that in action research, 'theory informs practice, practice refines theory, in a continuous transformation', and has highlighted 'the need for democracy and justice' among participants to underpin the action research process.1 Fuchs [8], arguably one of the greatest moral theologians of the twentieth century, has argued that right reason, 'recta ratio', supports human beings in making moral decisions. 'Transformative pedagogy' is aimed at bringing about improvement in language teaching and learning that is evidence informed, and based on democratic, moral values.

I referred earlier that 'transformative pedagogy' enhances autonomous language teaching and learning. It would be appropriate therefore, that I begin by examining the latter construct.

#### **4. Autonomous language teaching and learning**

Key factors examined are as follows:

• self-awareness

*Second Language Acquisition - Pedagogies, Practices and Perspectives*

ing them open to external scrutiny.

Alexander [1] defines pedagogy as:

*which teaching is constituted.*

**2. Pedagogy**

student-teachers and students in developing the capacity to accept responsibility for language teaching and learning linked to making use of the target language to express their meanings not only in the traditional and basic literacies of reading, writing, listening, and speaking but also in a range of 'new' literacies, including intercultural, critical, digital, media, and research literacies. It is underpinned by a critical and moral-philosophical foundation that supports students in developing their identity as whole persons as critical, intercultural language users with the capacity to make sense of their world informed by moral values, for example, equality and social justice. 'Transformative pedagogy' supports teachers in developing a more encompassing professional identity than specific target language teachers, as practitionerresearchers and leaders. It necessitates competency in a range of 'new' literacies and corresponding skills necessary to integrate them into practice. Bringing about transformation requires teachers to justify their pedagogical decisions and actions by testing that they are evidence informed and based on moral values and by leav-

I begin by clarifying the meanings of two linked concepts, pedagogy and transformation. Then, I outline factors that the literature has identified with autonomous language teaching and learning before examining key factors for 'transformative pedagogy'. I examine what the literature has to say about 'new' literacies, and teachers' professional identity linked to practitioner-researcher and language leader for whom decisions are evidence informed and based on democratic, moral values. I offer an example for a 'transformative pedagogy' in the context of teaching English language learners. Finally, I outline key stages in an original 'transformative research' model.

*the act of teaching together with attendant discourse of educational theories, values, evidence and justifications. It is what one needs to know, and the skills one needs to command in order to make and justify the many different kinds of decisions of* 

As in this definition, 'transformative pedagogy' concerns substance and justification. It involves 'both the teaching act and its attendant discourse of ideas, values, and principles' [1]. Teaching is understood as a morally purposeful activity that is evidence informed, and autonomy is understood as a pre-requisite for morality. 'Transformative pedagogy' is set within an interpretive perspective. This perspective believes that the world can be understood only by those who are part of the ongoing action. The argument is that because of man's 'self-awareness and powers of language' he must be seen as different from any other creature or object and that what is needed, therefore, is an anthropomorphic model of people. This approach entails taking account of uniquely human attributes, for example, the capacity to monitor our performance, articulate our performances, and plan [2]. In the interpretive paradigm, theory emerges as meanings from people in particular situations

and yields insights and understandings of peoples' behaviour [3].

The concept of transformation linked to improvement has been referred to in the writing of several researchers. For example, Lewin [4] has referred to a

**42**

**3. Transformation**


#### **4.1 Self-awareness: ontological and epistemological beliefs**

Little [9] has argued that teachers need to become aware of 'the assumptions, values and prejudices which determine their classroom behavior.' He claims that the development of teacher autonomy is a 'prerequisite' for the development of learner autonomy' [10]. Breen and Mann [11] suggest that autonomy is 'a complex challenge' that has limits but is worth seeking as an ideal. They draw implications from this for teachers and express them in terms of key attributes for autonomous teaching:


Teachers will first need to reflect on their teaching beliefs, attitudes, and assumptions before they can expect to create appropriate conditions that are likely to motivate learners. Black and Wiliam [12] have argued that more 'open moves' in

<sup>1</sup> In the National University of Ireland, Galway, study I made use of an action research approach.

which learners are involved in the negotiation of classroom contracts, are determined by the epistemological, psychological, and pedagogical beliefs of the teacher. Individual teachers' interpretations of the curriculum are reflected in the type of actions and interactions that take place in the classroom. A teacher's understanding about the nature of knowledge shapes the type of learning activities he offers. Key to a 'transformative pedagogy' would be teachers' beliefs and a range of other factors, including ontological, epistemological, and moral factors.

According to Taber [13], "The two aspects of 'philosophy' considered to underpin research paradigms are beliefs (or 'commitments') about the nature of the world (what kind of things exist in the world and what is their nature?), and so the nature of the phenomena studied in research; and beliefs about the nature and status of human knowledge, and so how we might come to hold knowledge."

In education, metaphysics and ontology refer to teachers' beliefs about what they understand is the 'reality' of teaching and learning. Ontological beliefs concern how teachers perceive themselves as beings in relation to others. A teacher's ontological beliefs might be, for example, respecting the dignity of the individual and personal responsibility for learning. Having clarified his beliefs, the teacher would endeavour to live these as epistemological beliefs in his teaching practice.

Epistemological beliefs are our beliefs about the nature of knowledge and knowing [14]. They are 'beliefs about the origin and acquisition of knowledge' [15]. According to Bryman and Bell [16], 'an epistemological issue concerns the question of what is (or should be) regarded as acceptable knowledge in a discipline'. Research suggests that epistemological beliefs are important as they may influence strategy use, cognitive processing, etc. A teacher's personal epistemology characterises her set of beliefs about how learners come to know and how they learn and acquire knowledge that influences her teaching. 'Transformative pedagogy' argues that in addition to ontological and epistemological beliefs, pedagogical decisions need to be evidence informed and based on democratic, moral values that enable teachers to take a stance for a more just society.

#### **4.2 Interdependence**

Boud [17] argued that the notion of interdependence was central to the development of autonomy. Today, the term, self-directed learning, is understood to involve 'collaboration and interdependence' [18]. For example, Thomson [19] and Kohonen [20] refer to self-directed learning as learning in which learners take responsibility for their learning that includes a social dimension. Little [21] offers a helpful list that dispels the myth that autonomous learning means working on one's own:


He adds that independence should be 'balanced' by 'dependence' because our human condition is one of 'interdependence' and suggests that autonomous learning needs to be supported 'with expert help' [9]. Allwright [22], too, includes the

**45**

*'Transformative Pedagogy' in Language Teacher Education*

dimension and by implication, the socio-affective domain.

achievement, independence, and freedom.

esteem, self-confidence, and self-reliance.

notion of interdependence in his definition: it is 'a constantly changing but at any time optimal state of equilibrium between maximal self-development and human interdependence'. In addition, Deci [23] dismisses the myth that 'you have to give up

'*Affect* refers to the emotion or feeling' [24]. For Trim [25], autonomous learning involves 'an adaptive ability, allowing learners to develop supportive structures within themselves'. Autonomy, therefore, 'should not be associated only with external organisational structures' but should involve the relation between the student and learning [26]. Developing one's psychological relation to learning means that the student is more likely to act out of intrinsic as opposed to extrinsic motivation. Kohonen [27] has argued that becoming 'an intercultural language user emphasises the central role of the affective development in foreign and second language education'. 'Transformative pedagogy', as we shall see, emphasises the intercultural

According to Douglas [24]: 'Understanding how human beings feel and respond and believe and value is an exceedingly important aspect of a theory of second language acquisition'. Personality factors include self-esteem, which Coppersmith [28] has defined as 'the evaluation which individuals make and customarily maintain with regard to themselves'. Maslow [29] has described two kinds of self-esteem:

1.the need for respect from others that entails recognition, acceptance, status,

In the Irish context, *Charting our Education Future. White Paper* [30] articulates education philosophy. It highlights the importance for students to develop self-

Pedagogy's purpose, according to Bruner [31], 'is to help the child understand better, more powerfully: this is fostered through discussion and collaboration'. There are two terms in the literature that I have found helpful to describe appropriate teacher-student interaction: 'pedagogical dialogue' [10] and 'dialogic teaching' [32]. For both Little and Alexander, the pedagogic process is intended to promote the capacity of students to express their meanings. According to Alexander [32], research shows that talk of a genuinely dialogic kind is indispensable to the development of thinking and understanding. This is supported by Dickson [33] who has argued that intake cannot be guaranteed without interaction and that teacher talk as

the sole source of the target language in the classroom can present a danger. In teacher education, interdependence should characterise the relationship between educators and student-teachers. Garrison and Anderson [34] have argued that 'the purpose of [a community of practice] is more than social interaction … The purpose of an educational community is invariably associated with intended cognitive outcomes.' Dialogue should support student-teachers in developing their psychological relation to the content and process of teaching, and by implication, the capacity to accept responsibility for making use of the target language in classroom interactions. In addition, in 'transformative pedagogy', as we shall see later,

2.the need for self-respect that entails competence, confidence, mastery,

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89470*

your autonomy … to be related to others'.

**4.3 Socio-affective factors**

and appreciation and

**4.4 Social interaction**

notion of interdependence in his definition: it is 'a constantly changing but at any time optimal state of equilibrium between maximal self-development and human interdependence'. In addition, Deci [23] dismisses the myth that 'you have to give up your autonomy … to be related to others'.

#### **4.3 Socio-affective factors**

*Second Language Acquisition - Pedagogies, Practices and Perspectives*

factors, including ontological, epistemological, and moral factors.

human knowledge, and so how we might come to hold knowledge."

to live these as epistemological beliefs in his teaching practice.

take a stance for a more just society.

• It is not another teaching method.

• It is not a steady state achieved by learners.

• It is not a single behaviour.

**4.2 Interdependence**

which learners are involved in the negotiation of classroom contracts, are determined by the epistemological, psychological, and pedagogical beliefs of the teacher. Individual teachers' interpretations of the curriculum are reflected in the type of actions and interactions that take place in the classroom. A teacher's understanding about the nature of knowledge shapes the type of learning activities he offers. Key to a 'transformative pedagogy' would be teachers' beliefs and a range of other

According to Taber [13], "The two aspects of 'philosophy' considered to underpin research paradigms are beliefs (or 'commitments') about the nature of the world (what kind of things exist in the world and what is their nature?), and so the nature of the phenomena studied in research; and beliefs about the nature and status of

In education, metaphysics and ontology refer to teachers' beliefs about what they understand is the 'reality' of teaching and learning. Ontological beliefs concern how teachers perceive themselves as beings in relation to others. A teacher's ontological beliefs might be, for example, respecting the dignity of the individual and personal responsibility for learning. Having clarified his beliefs, the teacher would endeavour

Epistemological beliefs are our beliefs about the nature of knowledge and knowing [14]. They are 'beliefs about the origin and acquisition of knowledge' [15]. According to Bryman and Bell [16], 'an epistemological issue concerns the question of what is (or should be) regarded as acceptable knowledge in a discipline'. Research suggests that epistemological beliefs are important as they may influence strategy use, cognitive processing, etc. A teacher's personal epistemology characterises her set of beliefs about how learners come to know and how they learn and acquire knowledge that influences her teaching. 'Transformative pedagogy' argues that in addition to ontological and epistemological beliefs, pedagogical decisions need to be evidence informed and based on democratic, moral values that enable teachers to

Boud [17] argued that the notion of interdependence was central to the development of autonomy. Today, the term, self-directed learning, is understood to involve 'collaboration and interdependence' [18]. For example, Thomson [19] and Kohonen [20] refer to self-directed learning as learning in which learners take responsibility for their learning that includes a social dimension. Little [21] offers a helpful list that dispels the myth that autonomous learning means working on one's own:

• It is not limited to self-instruction and, therefore, not learning without a teacher.

• It does not mean that the teacher abdicates his responsibility and lets the

He adds that independence should be 'balanced' by 'dependence' because our human condition is one of 'interdependence' and suggests that autonomous learning needs to be supported 'with expert help' [9]. Allwright [22], too, includes the

learners get on with their work as best they can without help.

**44**

'*Affect* refers to the emotion or feeling' [24]. For Trim [25], autonomous learning involves 'an adaptive ability, allowing learners to develop supportive structures within themselves'. Autonomy, therefore, 'should not be associated only with external organisational structures' but should involve the relation between the student and learning [26]. Developing one's psychological relation to learning means that the student is more likely to act out of intrinsic as opposed to extrinsic motivation. Kohonen [27] has argued that becoming 'an intercultural language user emphasises the central role of the affective development in foreign and second language education'. 'Transformative pedagogy', as we shall see, emphasises the intercultural dimension and by implication, the socio-affective domain.

According to Douglas [24]: 'Understanding how human beings feel and respond and believe and value is an exceedingly important aspect of a theory of second language acquisition'. Personality factors include self-esteem, which Coppersmith [28] has defined as 'the evaluation which individuals make and customarily maintain with regard to themselves'. Maslow [29] has described two kinds of self-esteem:


In the Irish context, *Charting our Education Future. White Paper* [30] articulates education philosophy. It highlights the importance for students to develop selfesteem, self-confidence, and self-reliance.

#### **4.4 Social interaction**

Pedagogy's purpose, according to Bruner [31], 'is to help the child understand better, more powerfully: this is fostered through discussion and collaboration'. There are two terms in the literature that I have found helpful to describe appropriate teacher-student interaction: 'pedagogical dialogue' [10] and 'dialogic teaching' [32]. For both Little and Alexander, the pedagogic process is intended to promote the capacity of students to express their meanings. According to Alexander [32], research shows that talk of a genuinely dialogic kind is indispensable to the development of thinking and understanding. This is supported by Dickson [33] who has argued that intake cannot be guaranteed without interaction and that teacher talk as the sole source of the target language in the classroom can present a danger.

In teacher education, interdependence should characterise the relationship between educators and student-teachers. Garrison and Anderson [34] have argued that 'the purpose of [a community of practice] is more than social interaction … The purpose of an educational community is invariably associated with intended cognitive outcomes.' Dialogue should support student-teachers in developing their psychological relation to the content and process of teaching, and by implication, the capacity to accept responsibility for making use of the target language in classroom interactions. In addition, in 'transformative pedagogy', as we shall see later,

dialogue should support student-teachers in developing their professional identity as practitioner-researchers and leaders.

#### **4.5 Target language use**

Social interaction implies language use. Target language use refers to production and reception of the target language on the part of teachers and students, that is, what they say, hear, read, write, and view. Littlewood [35] has argued that the goal of language learning is to help 'learners become independent from their teachers in their learning and use of language'. According to this argument, teaching should be geared towards students making increased use of the target language. Little [36] has argued for 'an understanding of language learner autonomy in which the development of learner autonomy and the growth of target language proficiency are not only mutually supporting but fully integrated with each other'. For this to happen, it would be essential that teachers and students make use of the target language as far as is feasible, in all aspects of teaching and learning. By implication, language teachers would need to have a high level of target language proficiency.

Hymes [37] conceptualised communicative competence as involving language use in social context, and this led the way for Canale and Swain to conceptualise competence in four stages:


Long's interaction hypothesis holds that that 'comprehensible input' (language and concepts that are mostly understandable to the learner) 'is the result of modified interaction (modifications made by the native/proficient second language speaker to create comprehensible input)' [42, 43]. Authentic language input and social interaction are, therefore, essential. Research suggests that when learners are exposed to large amounts of comprehensible input they are engaged in meaningmaking and learn to understand and retain what they hear and to use it to express their messages. Later, under 'transformative pedagogy', we shall see how intercultural competence complements communicative competence.

#### **4.6 (Meta)cognition and metalanguage**

Wenden [44] defines metacognitive knowledge as 'the stable, stateable, and sometimes fallible, knowledge learners acquire about themselves as learners and about the learning process' and as 'a rich knowledge base' that is necessary. According to Pritchard [45], it is 'the knowledge that an individual has about their own cognition, which can be used to consider and to control their cognitive processes'.

Bruner's notion of scaffolding is associated with Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development [27]. Bruner [46] has described scaffolding as a 'process of "setting

**47**

*'Transformative Pedagogy' in Language Teacher Education*

that autonomy can develop. With the ingredients of:

b.feeling competent at the activities and tasks,

c.having support of social interaction, and

their own progress, and attain goals.

autonomous learning, which are as follows:

taking, deducing, inferring, and summarising);

planning, monitoring, and evaluating learning);

**5. 'Transformative pedagogy' and 'new' literacies**

control themselves in order to improve their learning.

as practitioner-researchers and leaders with moral consciousness.

teaching and learning.

a.understanding how to go about achieving goals,

up" the situation to make the child's entry easy and successful and then gradually pulling back and handing the role to the child as he becomes skilled enough to manage it'. He has argued that when learners 'work collaboratively to solve problems they are most likely to exercise and further develop the "metalinguistic function" that Barnes [47] has argued, mediates between "school knowledge" and the "action knowledge" they bring with them to the classroom'. Barnes understands 'school knowledge' as 'the knowledge someone else presents to us' and 'action knowledge' as 'that view of the world in which our actions are based' [47]. Metalanguage enables students to make use of the target language as a thinking tool and therefore supports them in developing target language

Deci [48] has argued that striving for competence and autonomy together leads towards ongoing learning and that interpersonal contexts are important in order

d.people will be able to set their own goals, develop their own standards, monitor

Ridley [49] has defined reflection as 'cognitive processes of which the speaker/ writer is potentially aware'. Involvement by student-teachers and students in refection would support them in developing the capacity to accept responsibility for

O'Malley and Chamot [50] offer three categories of strategies that support

1.Cognitive strategies (e.g. analysing, ordering and classifying material, note-

2.Metacognitive strategies, understood as reflecting on the learning process (e.g.

3.Socio-affective strategies relate to how learners interact with one another and

In this section, I examine factors for 'transformative pedagogy' that enhance autonomous language teaching and learning. They include a range of 'new' literacies, for example, intercultural, and factors that support language teachers in developing a more encompassing identity as practitioner-researchers and leaders. According to Mustakova-Possardt [51], moral consciousness includes taking action against the oppressive elements in one's life that are illuminated by that understanding. I argue that teacher education, through the socio-cultural context of the 'practicum', course content, and 'transformative pedagogy', should aim to support student teachers in developing a more encompassing professional identity

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89470*

proficiency.

*'Transformative Pedagogy' in Language Teacher Education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89470*

*Second Language Acquisition - Pedagogies, Practices and Perspectives*

as practitioner-researchers and leaders.

**4.5 Target language use**

competence in four stages:

dialogue should support student-teachers in developing their professional identity

Social interaction implies language use. Target language use refers to production and reception of the target language on the part of teachers and students, that is, what they say, hear, read, write, and view. Littlewood [35] has argued that the goal of language learning is to help 'learners become independent from their teachers in their learning and use of language'. According to this argument, teaching should be geared towards students making increased use of the target language. Little [36] has argued for 'an understanding of language learner autonomy in which the development of learner autonomy and the growth of target language proficiency are not only mutually supporting but fully integrated with each other'. For this to happen, it would be essential that teachers and students make use of the target language as far as is feasible, in all aspects of teaching and learning. By implication, language

teachers would need to have a high level of target language proficiency.

Hymes [37] conceptualised communicative competence as involving language use in social context, and this led the way for Canale and Swain to conceptualise

1.Grammatical competence, that is, knowledge of lexical items, rules of morphology, syntax, sentence grammar, semantics, and phonology [38];

2.Socio-linguistic competence, that is, rules of language use in context;

texts that involve cohesion [39] and coherence [40];

tural competence complements communicative competence.

**4.6 (Meta)cognition and metalanguage**

3.Discourse competence, that is, organisation features of spoken and written

4. Strategic competence, that is, the learners' capacity to communicate using (a) verbal and non-verbal strategies to compensate for any breakdown in communication or memory loss and (b) to enhance communication (e.g. slow speech) [41].

Long's interaction hypothesis holds that that 'comprehensible input' (language and concepts that are mostly understandable to the learner) 'is the result of modified interaction (modifications made by the native/proficient second language speaker to create comprehensible input)' [42, 43]. Authentic language input and social interaction are, therefore, essential. Research suggests that when learners are exposed to large amounts of comprehensible input they are engaged in meaningmaking and learn to understand and retain what they hear and to use it to express their messages. Later, under 'transformative pedagogy', we shall see how intercul-

Wenden [44] defines metacognitive knowledge as 'the stable, stateable, and sometimes fallible, knowledge learners acquire about themselves as learners and about the learning process' and as 'a rich knowledge base' that is necessary. According to Pritchard [45], it is 'the knowledge that an individual has about their own cognition, which can be used to consider and to control their cognitive

Bruner's notion of scaffolding is associated with Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development [27]. Bruner [46] has described scaffolding as a 'process of "setting

**46**

processes'.

up" the situation to make the child's entry easy and successful and then gradually pulling back and handing the role to the child as he becomes skilled enough to manage it'. He has argued that when learners 'work collaboratively to solve problems they are most likely to exercise and further develop the "metalinguistic function" that Barnes [47] has argued, mediates between "school knowledge" and the "action knowledge" they bring with them to the classroom'. Barnes understands 'school knowledge' as 'the knowledge someone else presents to us' and 'action knowledge' as 'that view of the world in which our actions are based' [47]. Metalanguage enables students to make use of the target language as a thinking tool and therefore supports them in developing target language proficiency.

Deci [48] has argued that striving for competence and autonomy together leads towards ongoing learning and that interpersonal contexts are important in order that autonomy can develop. With the ingredients of:

a.understanding how to go about achieving goals,


Ridley [49] has defined reflection as 'cognitive processes of which the speaker/ writer is potentially aware'. Involvement by student-teachers and students in refection would support them in developing the capacity to accept responsibility for teaching and learning.

O'Malley and Chamot [50] offer three categories of strategies that support autonomous learning, which are as follows:


#### **5. 'Transformative pedagogy' and 'new' literacies**

In this section, I examine factors for 'transformative pedagogy' that enhance autonomous language teaching and learning. They include a range of 'new' literacies, for example, intercultural, and factors that support language teachers in developing a more encompassing identity as practitioner-researchers and leaders. According to Mustakova-Possardt [51], moral consciousness includes taking action against the oppressive elements in one's life that are illuminated by that understanding. I argue that teacher education, through the socio-cultural context of the 'practicum', course content, and 'transformative pedagogy', should aim to support student teachers in developing a more encompassing professional identity as practitioner-researchers and leaders with moral consciousness.

Autonomy is understood as a pre-requisite for morality. 'Transformative pedagogy' builds on autonomous teaching by having it evidence informed and underpinned by moral values. In addition, it builds on autonomous language learning. For, not only does it support students in making use of the traditional and basic literacies of reading, writing, listening, and speaking to express their meanings but also it supports them in developing as critical, intercultural target language users whose interactions are based on moral values.

Next, I examine what the literature has to say about 'new' literacies. Then, I discuss factors that support teachers in developing a more encompassing professional identity than specific language teacher. After that, I offer an example for a 'transformative pedagogy' in the context of addressing English language learners' needs.

#### **5.1 'New' literacies**

Literacy development has traditionally focused on the skills of reading, writing, listening, and speaking. These are fundamental skills in language learning, and indeed in all learning. Modern definitions of literacy, however, include additional skills, including intercultural, digital, and media literacies.

There are two major frameworks for learning, teaching, and assessing foreign language skills: the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment (CEFR) [52], and the US defined scales of proficiency, that is, American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL) Proficiency Guidelines/Interagency Language Roundtable (ILR) Skill Development Descriptions [53]. Both these European and US frameworks form the basis of major assessing and certification systems. ACTFL has developed five goal areas in language learning: (a) Communication, (b) Cultures, (c) Connections, (d) Comparisons, and (e) Communities. These areas connect the development of the basic linguistic skills with socio-cultural contexts, (meta)cognitive processes, and content that lead to learning activities that fulfil the following six elements of literacy offered by the National Council for Teaching English in the USA [54]:

1.Manage, analyse, and synthesise multiple streams of information.


The goal of language education in the modern era is 'to develop a linguistic repertory, in which all linguistic abilities have a place' [52]. In a plurilingualism approach,

*…a person's experience of language in its cultural contexts expands from the language of the home to that of society at large and then to the language of other peoples, he/she does not keep these languages and cultures in strictly separated mental compartments, but rather builds up a communicative competence to which all knowledge and experience of language contributes and in which languages interrelate and interact. [52]*

**49**

engager).

*'Transformative Pedagogy' in Language Teacher Education*

**5.2 Intercultural literacy and socio-cultural context**

ness, and to learn more about democratic, moral values.

tudes. Knowledge is organised into two categories:

According to UNESCO [57],

This suggests that language and literacy skills and strategies learnt in one language and area of the curriculum can be transferred to other languages and areas

Here, I clarify meanings of key concepts about culture, cultural identity, cultural diversity, interculturalism, and competence and make connections between these in

Geertz, cited in Boylan [55], has argued that culture is not a set of material manifestations (behaviour, literature, etc.) but rather the mindset shared within some community that produces these manifestations and weaves them into a recognisable whole. UNESCO [56, 57] offers examples of these manifestations: 'that set of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional features of a society or social group, encompassing all the ways of being in that society; at a minimum, including art and literature, lifestyles, ways of living together, value systems, traditions, and beliefs'. Mindset comes about as a result of interacting in one's community, for example,

family, home language, and cultural community and one's other communities, including ethnic, religious, and professional communities. Cultural identity is the will we exert to resolve the 'contradiction and ambiguities' [58] that 'the inter-related sets of beliefs and values people have acquired through interacting with various communities…inevitably contain.' [55]. It should not be seen as static but as a dynamic way of being in the world that involves being open to other cultures and cultural identities. According to Hall, a particular mindset or cultural identity comes about as a result of 'where and how one positions oneself in some ever-expanding relational network' [59]. This suggests that students would first need to develop an understanding about how knowledge is constructed in their native, socio-cultural context. Understanding this narrative would support them in developing an openness to how meanings are constructed in other socio-cultural contexts, and in respecting the 'other'. On the other hand, it suggests that in addition to the traditional literacies, 'new' literacies should form part of any mandatory, integration programmes for new immigrants in order that they develop the capacity to communicate in the official language(s), to integrate, to develop appropriate socio-cultural knowledge and intercultural aware-

Intercultural describes what happens when members of different cultural groups interact with one another, in person or through mediated forms. Competence refers to having knowledge, ability, or skill, to permit appropriate behaviour in context.

*Competence includes cognitive (knowledge), functional (application of knowledge), personal (behaviour) and ethical (principles guiding behaviour) components, thus the capacity to know must be matched to the capacity to speak and act appropriately in context; ethics and consideration of human rights influence both speech and actions'.*

Byram [60] offers a framework for intercultural competence that 'transformative pedagogy' draws on. The framework consists of knowledge, skills, and atti-

2.knowledge of self and of critical cultural awareness, which involves an ability to evaluate practices and products of one's own and others' cultures (savoirs'

1.knowledge of others and of social processes of social group (savoirs)

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89470*

of the curriculum.

the Irish context.

*Second Language Acquisition - Pedagogies, Practices and Perspectives*

skills, including intercultural, digital, and media literacies.

whose interactions are based on moral values.

needs.

**5.1 'New' literacies**

Autonomy is understood as a pre-requisite for morality. 'Transformative pedagogy' builds on autonomous teaching by having it evidence informed and underpinned by moral values. In addition, it builds on autonomous language learning. For, not only does it support students in making use of the traditional and basic literacies of reading, writing, listening, and speaking to express their meanings but also it supports them in developing as critical, intercultural target language users

Next, I examine what the literature has to say about 'new' literacies. Then, I discuss factors that support teachers in developing a more encompassing professional identity than specific language teacher. After that, I offer an example for a 'transformative pedagogy' in the context of addressing English language learners'

Literacy development has traditionally focused on the skills of reading, writing, listening, and speaking. These are fundamental skills in language learning, and indeed in all learning. Modern definitions of literacy, however, include additional

There are two major frameworks for learning, teaching, and assessing foreign language skills: the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment (CEFR) [52], and the US defined scales of proficiency, that is, American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL) Proficiency Guidelines/Interagency Language Roundtable (ILR) Skill Development Descriptions [53]. Both these European and US frameworks form the basis of major assessing and certification systems. ACTFL has developed five goal areas in language learning: (a) Communication, (b) Cultures, (c) Connections, (d) Comparisons, and (e) Communities. These areas connect the development of the basic linguistic skills with socio-cultural contexts, (meta)cognitive processes, and content that lead to learning activities that fulfil the following six elements of literacy offered by the National Council for Teaching English in the USA [54]:

1.Manage, analyse, and synthesise multiple streams of information.

4.Develop proficiency and fluency with the tools of technology.

5.Create, critique, analyse, and evaluate multimedia texts.

3.Build intentional cross-cultural connections and relationships with others.

6.Attend to the ethical responsibilities required by complex environments.

*…a person's experience of language in its cultural contexts expands from the language of the home to that of society at large and then to the language of other peoples, he/she does not keep these languages and cultures in strictly separated mental compartments, but rather builds up a communicative competence to which all knowledge and experience of language contributes and in which languages* 

The goal of language education in the modern era is 'to develop a linguistic repertory, in which all linguistic abilities have a place' [52]. In a plurilingualism approach,

2.Design and share information for global communities.

**48**

*interrelate and interact. [52]*

This suggests that language and literacy skills and strategies learnt in one language and area of the curriculum can be transferred to other languages and areas of the curriculum.

#### **5.2 Intercultural literacy and socio-cultural context**

Here, I clarify meanings of key concepts about culture, cultural identity, cultural diversity, interculturalism, and competence and make connections between these in the Irish context.

Geertz, cited in Boylan [55], has argued that culture is not a set of material manifestations (behaviour, literature, etc.) but rather the mindset shared within some community that produces these manifestations and weaves them into a recognisable whole. UNESCO [56, 57] offers examples of these manifestations: 'that set of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional features of a society or social group, encompassing all the ways of being in that society; at a minimum, including art and literature, lifestyles, ways of living together, value systems, traditions, and beliefs'.

Mindset comes about as a result of interacting in one's community, for example, family, home language, and cultural community and one's other communities, including ethnic, religious, and professional communities. Cultural identity is the will we exert to resolve the 'contradiction and ambiguities' [58] that 'the inter-related sets of beliefs and values people have acquired through interacting with various communities…inevitably contain.' [55]. It should not be seen as static but as a dynamic way of being in the world that involves being open to other cultures and cultural identities. According to Hall, a particular mindset or cultural identity comes about as a result of 'where and how one positions oneself in some ever-expanding relational network' [59]. This suggests that students would first need to develop an understanding about how knowledge is constructed in their native, socio-cultural context. Understanding this narrative would support them in developing an openness to how meanings are constructed in other socio-cultural contexts, and in respecting the 'other'. On the other hand, it suggests that in addition to the traditional literacies, 'new' literacies should form part of any mandatory, integration programmes for new immigrants in order that they develop the capacity to communicate in the official language(s), to integrate, to develop appropriate socio-cultural knowledge and intercultural awareness, and to learn more about democratic, moral values.

Intercultural describes what happens when members of different cultural groups interact with one another, in person or through mediated forms. Competence refers to having knowledge, ability, or skill, to permit appropriate behaviour in context. According to UNESCO [57],

*Competence includes cognitive (knowledge), functional (application of knowledge), personal (behaviour) and ethical (principles guiding behaviour) components, thus the capacity to know must be matched to the capacity to speak and act appropriately in context; ethics and consideration of human rights influence both speech and actions'.*

Byram [60] offers a framework for intercultural competence that 'transformative pedagogy' draws on. The framework consists of knowledge, skills, and attitudes. Knowledge is organised into two categories:


Skills are organised into two categories:

1.Skills to interpret and related (savoir comprendre)

2.Skills to discover and/or to interact (savoir apprendre/faire).

Intercultural attitudes are defined as relativizing self (one's values, beliefs, and behaviours within a larger perspective) and valuing others' values, beliefs, and behaviours ('savoir être').

These categories are helpful in clarifying the meanings of communicative competence and intercultural competence, and in highlighting the close relationship that exists between them. In 'transformative pedagogy', the teacher creates conditions that integrate these competences as appropriate.

According to Byram et al. [60],

*developing the intercultural dimension in language teaching involves recognizing that the aims are: to give learners intercultural competence as well as linguistic competence; to prepare them for interaction with people of other cultures; to enable them to understand and accept people from other cultures as individuals with other distinctive perspectives, values and behaviours; and to help them to see that such interaction is an enriching experience. Thus, the 'intercultural dimension' in language teaching supports learners in avoiding stereotyping. Communication includes nonverbal behaviour, 'everything from use of sounds (paralanguage), movements (kinesics), space (proxemics), and time (chronemics), to many aspects of material culture (food, clothing, objects, visual design, architecture) and can be understood as the active aspect of culture.*

Kaikkonen [61] has argued that the 'most important goal … is to help learners grow out of the shell of their mother tongue and their own culture'. Intercultural learning supports learners in achieving this goal because it 'focuses on the language user's personal and social identities and abilities. It emphasises the student's orientation to discourse as a language user relating meaningfully to other persons in different contexts'. Boylan [55] argues that the most effective way to create conditions that support cultural diversity is not to teach learners a list of typical features for any particular foreign countries, but rather to expose them to the experience of language and culture. This suggests that students should have ample opportunities to communicate with members of the target community, for example, in the context of school exchanges and online. Importantly, it suggests also that there is a need to encourage students in school to interact with persons who happen to come from different ethno-linguistic backgrounds as this supports intercultural learning. Intercultural dialogue reflects mutual respect, respect implies negotiating meanings, and negotiating meanings supports intercultural understanding, and by implication, target language learning. Equality and respect are examples of moral values on which 'transformative pedagogy' is based.

Language learning should be integrated with intercultural learning because,

*Language teaching with an intercultural dimension continues to help learners acquire linguistic competence…But it also develops intercultural competence, i.e. their ability to ensure a shared understanding by people of different social identities. [57]*

'Intercultural competences complement human rights as a catalyst for promoting a culture of peaceful and harmonious coexistence' [57]. This is because,

**51**

2018).

*'Transformative Pedagogy' in Language Teacher Education*

*Cultural diversity permits, and intercultural competences require, understanding one's own culture but also recognizing that each culture provides only one option among many possibilities. Cultural diversity requires, and intercultural competences permit, the ability to convey information to others about one's own culture through communication with them, as well as to interpret information about the* 

In the Irish context, The Education Act [62] states that students should experience an education that 'respects the diversity of values, beliefs, languages, and traditions', The Equal Status Act [63], and Equality Act [64] promote equality of opportunity and prohibit discrimination. The Intercultural Education Strategy

1.Enable the adoption of a whole institution approach to create an intercultural

2.Build the capacity of education providers to develop an intercultural learning

3.Support students to become proficient in the language of instruction.

Sociocultural knowledge and intercultural awareness form an integral part of the new junior cycle MFL Specification (2017) [66] in Ireland. The European Language Portfolio [67] is referenced to the CEFR [52] and therefore offers an appropriate way to plan for and assess target language competence and intercultural competence. In addition, it supports formative assessment. In the NUI Galway study, I examined the impact of a version of the ELP, validated by CoE on teaching

Like De Jong and Harper [68], I believe that knowledge and awareness of linguistic and cultural diversity should be made 'explicit goals' in teacher education programmes. I agree with Villegas and Lucas [69], who in presenting a conception of linguistically responsive teachers, highlight 'socio-cultural consciousness, affirming views of diversity, commitment, and skills for promoting change in schools; understanding of how learners construct knowledge; skills for learning about their learners; and the ability to use appropriate instructional approaches for diverse learners'. Dragićević Šešić & Dragojević [70] have suggested that intercultural literacy is an essential tool for modern life, parallel to the development of information literacy, or media literacy. Next, I examine key aspects of critical literacy and

identify any significant links between it and media and digital literacies.

Critical literacy means having the capacity to interpret texts, for example, in literature and the media, in a way that uncovers social constructs, such as power and injustice in human relationships. It assists persons in understanding and in adopting a moral stance to these concepts by questioning the attitudes, values, and beliefs embedded in written texts, visual applications, and spoken words. It is concerned with 'decoding the ideological dimensions of texts, institutions, social practices, and cultural forms… in order to reveal their selective interests' [71]. According to Anderson and Irvine [72], critical literacy is 'learning to read and write as part of

<sup>2</sup> For a full account, see my book, 'Transforming Language Teaching and Learning' (Pub. Peter Lang,

**5.3 Critical literacy, media and digital literacies**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89470*

*other and his or her culture. [57]*

learning environment.

environment.

and learning.2

2010–2015 [65] highlights key goals for interculturalism:

*Second Language Acquisition - Pedagogies, Practices and Perspectives*

1.Skills to interpret and related (savoir comprendre)

conditions that integrate these competences as appropriate.

2.Skills to discover and/or to interact (savoir apprendre/faire).

Intercultural attitudes are defined as relativizing self (one's values, beliefs, and behaviours within a larger perspective) and valuing others' values, beliefs, and

These categories are helpful in clarifying the meanings of communicative competence and intercultural competence, and in highlighting the close relationship that exists between them. In 'transformative pedagogy', the teacher creates

*developing the intercultural dimension in language teaching involves recognizing that the aims are: to give learners intercultural competence as well as linguistic competence; to prepare them for interaction with people of other cultures; to enable them to understand and accept people from other cultures as individuals with other distinctive perspectives, values and behaviours; and to help them to see that such interaction is an enriching experience. Thus, the 'intercultural dimension' in language teaching supports learners in avoiding stereotyping. Communication includes nonverbal behaviour, 'everything from use of sounds (paralanguage), movements (kinesics), space (proxemics), and time (chronemics), to many aspects of material culture (food, clothing, objects, visual design, architecture) and can be understood* 

Kaikkonen [61] has argued that the 'most important goal … is to help learners grow out of the shell of their mother tongue and their own culture'. Intercultural learning supports learners in achieving this goal because it 'focuses on the language user's personal and social identities and abilities. It emphasises the student's orientation to discourse as a language user relating meaningfully to other persons in different contexts'. Boylan [55] argues that the most effective way to create conditions that support cultural diversity is not to teach learners a list of typical features for any particular foreign countries, but rather to expose them to the experience of language and culture. This suggests that students should have ample opportunities to communicate with members of the target community, for example, in the context of school exchanges and online. Importantly, it suggests also that there is a need to encourage students in school to interact with persons who happen to come from different ethno-linguistic backgrounds as this supports intercultural learning. Intercultural dialogue reflects mutual respect, respect implies negotiating meanings, and negotiating meanings supports intercultural understanding, and by implication, target language learning. Equality and respect are examples of moral

Language learning should be integrated with intercultural learning because,

'Intercultural competences complement human rights as a catalyst for promot-

ing a culture of peaceful and harmonious coexistence' [57]. This is because,

*Language teaching with an intercultural dimension continues to help learners acquire linguistic competence…But it also develops intercultural competence, i.e. their ability to ensure a shared understanding by people of different social* 

Skills are organised into two categories:

behaviours ('savoir être').

According to Byram et al. [60],

*as the active aspect of culture.*

values on which 'transformative pedagogy' is based.

**50**

*identities. [57]*

*Cultural diversity permits, and intercultural competences require, understanding one's own culture but also recognizing that each culture provides only one option among many possibilities. Cultural diversity requires, and intercultural competences permit, the ability to convey information to others about one's own culture through communication with them, as well as to interpret information about the other and his or her culture. [57]*

In the Irish context, The Education Act [62] states that students should experience an education that 'respects the diversity of values, beliefs, languages, and traditions', The Equal Status Act [63], and Equality Act [64] promote equality of opportunity and prohibit discrimination. The Intercultural Education Strategy 2010–2015 [65] highlights key goals for interculturalism:


Sociocultural knowledge and intercultural awareness form an integral part of the new junior cycle MFL Specification (2017) [66] in Ireland. The European Language Portfolio [67] is referenced to the CEFR [52] and therefore offers an appropriate way to plan for and assess target language competence and intercultural competence. In addition, it supports formative assessment. In the NUI Galway study, I examined the impact of a version of the ELP, validated by CoE on teaching and learning.2

Like De Jong and Harper [68], I believe that knowledge and awareness of linguistic and cultural diversity should be made 'explicit goals' in teacher education programmes. I agree with Villegas and Lucas [69], who in presenting a conception of linguistically responsive teachers, highlight 'socio-cultural consciousness, affirming views of diversity, commitment, and skills for promoting change in schools; understanding of how learners construct knowledge; skills for learning about their learners; and the ability to use appropriate instructional approaches for diverse learners'. Dragićević Šešić & Dragojević [70] have suggested that intercultural literacy is an essential tool for modern life, parallel to the development of information literacy, or media literacy. Next, I examine key aspects of critical literacy and identify any significant links between it and media and digital literacies.

#### **5.3 Critical literacy, media and digital literacies**

Critical literacy means having the capacity to interpret texts, for example, in literature and the media, in a way that uncovers social constructs, such as power and injustice in human relationships. It assists persons in understanding and in adopting a moral stance to these concepts by questioning the attitudes, values, and beliefs embedded in written texts, visual applications, and spoken words. It is concerned with 'decoding the ideological dimensions of texts, institutions, social practices, and cultural forms… in order to reveal their selective interests' [71]. According to Anderson and Irvine [72], critical literacy is 'learning to read and write as part of

<sup>2</sup> For a full account, see my book, 'Transforming Language Teaching and Learning' (Pub. Peter Lang, 2018).

the process of becoming conscious of one's experience as historically constructed within specific power relations.'

The development of critical literacy skills involves the ability to understand, contextualise, analyse, and evaluate not only what one reads in a text but also what one reads in the world. 'Transformative pedagogy' supports teachers and students in making critical decisions that are evidence informed and based on moral values about how to transform the 'status quo'. Teachers are faced with questions about who constructs knowledge? What counts as knowledge? What is the context? On what basis did I come to make my decision? What is my responsibility? Human beings are understood as interdependent, moral beings with an 'innate' human right for dignity and respect.

Media literacy refers to different forms of media culture, ICT, and new media. For example:

*Media representations allow viewers to see the world in some particular ways and not others. Audiences also compare media with their own experiences and make judgements about how realistic they are. Media representations can be seen as real in some ways but not in others: viewers may understand that what they are seeing is only imaginary and yet they still know it can explain reality. [73]*

Media literacy skills not only involve critical thinking but also skills in how to handle and communicate messages.

Regarding digital literacy, The American Library Association's digital-literacy force defines digital literacy as 'the ability to use information and communication technologies to find, evaluate, create, and communicate information, requiring both cognitive and technical skills' [74].

Critical, media, and digital literacies enable teachers and students to understand, contextualise, and evaluate information, and to create content and communicate information using a range of digital media platforms in a variety of appropriate contexts. In the Irish context, media literacy forms part of a short course in the new junior cycle programme. It would be expected that as students develop media and digital literacies, they would learn to integrate them into their language learning. In 'transformative pedagogy', moral values are understood as key in evaluating materials and relationships.

Next, I discuss factors that support teachers in developing their professional identity as practitioner-researchers and leaders. These factors include socio-cultural knowledge, social interaction/collaboration, and reason and moral values.

#### **6. 'Transformative pedagogy' and language teacher professional identity**

#### **6.1 Teacher education**

Singh and Richards [75] question the efficacy of language teacher education that has much to say about developing 'critical reflective practitioners' [76], and that is often designed in ways that are assumed will 'transform' student-teachers into what courses envisage. They claim that these assume that student-teachers are 'autonomous agents, able to take a reflexive stance towards their teaching, to look at their own practice critically', and they argue that from a socio-cultural and critical perspective, change in teacher identity is socially constructed. They call for more research to be carried out into 'the lived experiences of teachers' [75] in language teacher education. The three studies I carried out, examine 'the lived experiences'

**53**

*'Transformative Pedagogy' in Language Teacher Education*

them in developing their professional identity.

**6.2 Social interaction/collaboration**

**6.3 Reason and moral values**

of teachers and the impact of their interactions with educators in their particular socio-cultural contexts. Findings suggest that context, critical reflection, and interaction with educators and students, mediated student-teachers' socio-cultural beliefs and understandings about language teaching and learning, and supported

Earlier, I examined social interaction as a factor in autonomous language teaching and learning. Discourses of professional identity draw upon social interaction at school where identity is negotiated and constructed and where 'learning [and by implication, teaching] is always in the process of becoming: a time of formation and transformation' [77]. Vygotsky [78] considers the social environment to be critical for learning. 'Transformative pedagogy' involves critical dialogue/collaboration between educators and student-teachers aimed at supporting them in developing the capacity to accept responsibility for their teaching linked to target language use and in making evidence-informed decisions based on moral values. According to Singh and Richards [75], language teacher education should be 'developmental oriented' and collaborative. Kogler [79] has argued that only 'radically dialogic processes' have the potential to free the interpreter from their 'own pre-determined, pre-understanding through an understanding of the other disclosed in the dialogic way… we learn to see ourselves with the eyes of the concrete other'. Identity construction highlights the dynamic and social nature of learning to teach, allowing teacher educators to focus student teachers' attention on how their practicum experiences inform their understandings of teaching [80]. Wenger [81] discusses identity construction as 'an experience' in terms of three modes of belonging: engagement, imagination and alignment. Engagement allows teachers to develop a 'lived sense of who they are' as they invest in their work and in their relations with others; imagination refers to how they see the world and their place in the world beyond their particular experience. Alignment allows them to connect with broader structures and allows the identity of

a larger group to become part of the identity of the individual participants.

'Transformative pedagogy' supports teachers in developing their identity linked to bringing about transformation that is evidence informed and based on moral values. A pre-requisite for transformation is teachers' self-awareness that enables them to self-direct. We referred earlier that morality depends on autonomy. Habermas [5] has argued that reason, in part through discourse ethics, has the potential to transform the world into a more just society. Fuchs [82] too has argued that reason supports human beings in making moral decisions. For Fuchs, the moral law is understood as an agency for authentic freedom that protects and supports freedom and 'human flourishing'. He has argued that human beings are capable of 'recta ratio' (right reason), and that there exists a natural law, understood as an absolute law that underpins human nature, in that it is discernible by everyone through use of reason. In other words, there are certain moral truths that apply to all people. For Buzzelli and Johnston [83], 'morality constitutes that set of a person's beliefs and understanding which are evaluative in nature: that is, which distinguish, whether consciously or unconsciously, between what is right or wrong, good and bad'. Freire defines praxis as 'reflection and action directed at the structures to be transformed' [84]. He believed that praxis enabled oppressed people to acquire a critical awareness of their condition and struggle to bring about freedom. 'Transformative pedagogy' involves praxis that involves practitioner-researchers

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89470*

of teachers and the impact of their interactions with educators in their particular socio-cultural contexts. Findings suggest that context, critical reflection, and interaction with educators and students, mediated student-teachers' socio-cultural beliefs and understandings about language teaching and learning, and supported them in developing their professional identity.

#### **6.2 Social interaction/collaboration**

*Second Language Acquisition - Pedagogies, Practices and Perspectives*

within specific power relations.'

for dignity and respect.

handle and communicate messages.

both cognitive and technical skills' [74].

in evaluating materials and relationships.

For example:

the process of becoming conscious of one's experience as historically constructed

The development of critical literacy skills involves the ability to understand, contextualise, analyse, and evaluate not only what one reads in a text but also what one reads in the world. 'Transformative pedagogy' supports teachers and students in making critical decisions that are evidence informed and based on moral values about how to transform the 'status quo'. Teachers are faced with questions about who constructs knowledge? What counts as knowledge? What is the context? On what basis did I come to make my decision? What is my responsibility? Human beings are understood as interdependent, moral beings with an 'innate' human right

Media literacy refers to different forms of media culture, ICT, and new media.

*Media representations allow viewers to see the world in some particular ways and not others. Audiences also compare media with their own experiences and make judgements about how realistic they are. Media representations can be seen as real in some ways but not in others: viewers may understand that what they are seeing is* 

Media literacy skills not only involve critical thinking but also skills in how to

Regarding digital literacy, The American Library Association's digital-literacy force defines digital literacy as 'the ability to use information and communication technologies to find, evaluate, create, and communicate information, requiring

Critical, media, and digital literacies enable teachers and students to understand, contextualise, and evaluate information, and to create content and communicate information using a range of digital media platforms in a variety of appropriate contexts. In the Irish context, media literacy forms part of a short course in the new junior cycle programme. It would be expected that as students develop media and digital literacies, they would learn to integrate them into their language learning. In 'transformative pedagogy', moral values are understood as key

Next, I discuss factors that support teachers in developing their professional identity as practitioner-researchers and leaders. These factors include socio-cultural

Singh and Richards [75] question the efficacy of language teacher education that has much to say about developing 'critical reflective practitioners' [76], and that is often designed in ways that are assumed will 'transform' student-teachers into what courses envisage. They claim that these assume that student-teachers are 'autonomous agents, able to take a reflexive stance towards their teaching, to look at their own practice critically', and they argue that from a socio-cultural and critical perspective, change in teacher identity is socially constructed. They call for more research to be carried out into 'the lived experiences of teachers' [75] in language teacher education. The three studies I carried out, examine 'the lived experiences'

knowledge, social interaction/collaboration, and reason and moral values.

**6. 'Transformative pedagogy' and language teacher professional** 

*only imaginary and yet they still know it can explain reality. [73]*

**52**

**identity**

**6.1 Teacher education**

Earlier, I examined social interaction as a factor in autonomous language teaching and learning. Discourses of professional identity draw upon social interaction at school where identity is negotiated and constructed and where 'learning [and by implication, teaching] is always in the process of becoming: a time of formation and transformation' [77]. Vygotsky [78] considers the social environment to be critical for learning. 'Transformative pedagogy' involves critical dialogue/collaboration between educators and student-teachers aimed at supporting them in developing the capacity to accept responsibility for their teaching linked to target language use and in making evidence-informed decisions based on moral values. According to Singh and Richards [75], language teacher education should be 'developmental oriented' and collaborative. Kogler [79] has argued that only 'radically dialogic processes' have the potential to free the interpreter from their 'own pre-determined, pre-understanding through an understanding of the other disclosed in the dialogic way… we learn to see ourselves with the eyes of the concrete other'. Identity construction highlights the dynamic and social nature of learning to teach, allowing teacher educators to focus student teachers' attention on how their practicum experiences inform their understandings of teaching [80]. Wenger [81] discusses identity construction as 'an experience' in terms of three modes of belonging: engagement, imagination and alignment. Engagement allows teachers to develop a 'lived sense of who they are' as they invest in their work and in their relations with others; imagination refers to how they see the world and their place in the world beyond their particular experience. Alignment allows them to connect with broader structures and allows the identity of a larger group to become part of the identity of the individual participants.

#### **6.3 Reason and moral values**

'Transformative pedagogy' supports teachers in developing their identity linked to bringing about transformation that is evidence informed and based on moral values. A pre-requisite for transformation is teachers' self-awareness that enables them to self-direct. We referred earlier that morality depends on autonomy. Habermas [5] has argued that reason, in part through discourse ethics, has the potential to transform the world into a more just society. Fuchs [82] too has argued that reason supports human beings in making moral decisions. For Fuchs, the moral law is understood as an agency for authentic freedom that protects and supports freedom and 'human flourishing'. He has argued that human beings are capable of 'recta ratio' (right reason), and that there exists a natural law, understood as an absolute law that underpins human nature, in that it is discernible by everyone through use of reason. In other words, there are certain moral truths that apply to all people. For Buzzelli and Johnston [83], 'morality constitutes that set of a person's beliefs and understanding which are evaluative in nature: that is, which distinguish, whether consciously or unconsciously, between what is right or wrong, good and bad'.

Freire defines praxis as 'reflection and action directed at the structures to be transformed' [84]. He believed that praxis enabled oppressed people to acquire a critical awareness of their condition and struggle to bring about freedom. 'Transformative pedagogy' involves praxis that involves practitioner-researchers and leaders in their particular socio-cultural context, working to develop self- and socio-cultural awareness, and collaborating to transform any teaching and learning inequalities, any social inequalities, and/or any organisation or system inequalities they identify, in ways that are evidence informed and based on moral values.

#### **6.4 Professional identity: language practitioner-researcher, and language leader**

There are several terms in the literature used to describe the identity of language teacher, for example, critical practitioner, critical inquirer, and practitionerresearcher. According to these, the teacher's voice speaks from practice about practice, and builds knowledge of practice from the bottom up. Cochran-Smith and Lytle [85] have argued that practitioner-researchers 'work in inquiry communities to examine their assumptions, develop local knowledge, by posing questions and gathering data and work for social justice by using inquiry to ensure educational opportunity, access, and equity for all learners'. For them, inquiry as stance has four central dimensions:


They argue that generating knowledge is a 'pedagogic act that is constructed in the context of use, intimately connected to the knower, and, although relevant to immediate situations, inevitably a process of theorising' [85].

Below, I briefly discuss what the literature has to say in the context of transformative language leader that are relevant to 'transformative pedagogy' and 'transformative research'.

#### **6.5 Transformative language leader**

The literature suggests that there is a relationship between moral values and leadership. For example, with regard to social justice, it identifies three complementary aspects: distributive, participative [85, 86], and relational [87]. The distributive aspect concerns equity in the distribution and accessing of education regarding its benefits and outcomes. The participative aspect concerns the capacity and opportunity to participate in making decisions, both at macro and micro levels. The relational aspect refers to recognition of and respect for social and cultural difference. Leadership, by implication, would involve taking cognizance of these interlinked aspects in the context of taking decisions.

Below, I outline a few examples for what leadership based on social justice can look like. Attention must be given not only to the social and organisational, but also to the personal, as social justice issues are enacted in 'embodied relationships' [88]. By implication, school leadership would involve creating conditions that support staff members as well as students in developing an attitude of openness towards one another, and a respect for one another's languages and cultures. According to Raffo

**55**

has argued that:

*'Transformative Pedagogy' in Language Teacher Education*

• building school vision and establishing goals;

• creating a productive school culture;

• providing intellectual stimulation;

• offering individualised support;

et al. [89], the strength of the 'embodied relationships' argument becomes clear when we consider that 'the relationship between poverty and education is unlikely to be disturbed unless fundamental issues of power and interest, advantage and disadvantage, are addressed'. Maguire [90] has argued that a way for schools to address poverty in the context of the school community is for them to take steps to ensure that children who suffer poverty are not disadvantaged by in-school practices and policies. McGregor Burns [91] defined a transformational leader as one who 'looks for potential motives in followers, seeks to satisfy higher needs and engages the full person of the follower'. According to Bass [92], transformational leaders are judged by their impact on followers in the areas of trust, admiration and respect.

Leithwood [93] developed seven dimensions to transformational leaders:

• modelling best practices and important organisational values;

• developing structures to foster participation in school decisions.

ability to use appropriate instructional approaches for diverse learners'.

issue. Below, I examine a 'transformative pedagogy' in the context of ELL.

It is important that all teachers accept responsibility for addressing special educational needs, including those of English language learners (ELLs). It is a moral

**7. 'Transformative pedagogy' and teaching English language learners**

*The Eurydice Report* [96] identified three issues that need addressing in European teacher education: the critical importance of teaching the language of instruction, recognition of mother tongues of learners from diverse language backgrounds as a potential resource, and the promotion of interculturalism. Moore

*We understand and experience our world through the symbols of language and so our understandings of that world and, perhaps, our sense of possibilities within it,* 

*are permanently and unavoidably filtered through those discourses. [97]*

These dimensions align to the *Advanced Standards for Quality* [94] in the UK: and are regarded as research and practitioner-based quality practices essential to achieving improved student performance and organisational effectiveness.

There are several implications that emerge from the above. Leaders need to have critical and moral consciousness with the capacity and courage to critique existing social, political, and power relations that influence school life. Villegas and Lucas [95] present a conception of linguistically responsive teachers that is relevant to language leaders. Qualities include 'socio-cultural consciousness, affirming views of diversity, commitment and skills for promoting change in schools, understanding of how learners construct knowledge, skills for learning about their learners and the

• demonstrating high-performance expectations; and

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89470*

#### *'Transformative Pedagogy' in Language Teacher Education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89470*

*Second Language Acquisition - Pedagogies, Practices and Perspectives*

and leaders in their particular socio-cultural context, working to develop self- and socio-cultural awareness, and collaborating to transform any teaching and learning inequalities, any social inequalities, and/or any organisation or system inequalities they identify, in ways that are evidence informed and based on moral values.

**6.4 Professional identity: language practitioner-researcher, and language leader**

There are several terms in the literature used to describe the identity of language

researcher. According to these, the teacher's voice speaks from practice about practice, and builds knowledge of practice from the bottom up. Cochran-Smith and Lytle [85] have argued that practitioner-researchers 'work in inquiry communities to examine their assumptions, develop local knowledge, by posing questions and gathering data and work for social justice by using inquiry to ensure educational opportunity, access, and equity for all learners'. For them, inquiry as stance has four central dimensions:

1. a perspective on knowledge that rejects the formal knowledge-practical

2. an expanded view of practice as the interplay of teaching, learning, and leading, as well as an expanded view of who counts as a practitioner;

3. an understanding of practitioner communities as the primary medium or

4.the position that the overarching purpose of practitioner inquiry is to provide

They argue that generating knowledge is a 'pedagogic act that is constructed in the context of use, intimately connected to the knower, and, although relevant to

Below, I briefly discuss what the literature has to say in the context of transformative language leader that are relevant to 'transformative pedagogy' and 'transfor-

The literature suggests that there is a relationship between moral values and leadership. For example, with regard to social justice, it identifies three complementary aspects: distributive, participative [85, 86], and relational [87]. The distributive aspect concerns equity in the distribution and accessing of education regarding its benefits and outcomes. The participative aspect concerns the capacity and opportunity to participate in making decisions, both at macro and micro levels. The relational aspect refers to recognition of and respect for social and cultural difference. Leadership, by implication, would involve taking cognizance of these interlinked

Below, I outline a few examples for what leadership based on social justice can look like. Attention must be given not only to the social and organisational, but also to the personal, as social justice issues are enacted in 'embodied relationships' [88]. By implication, school leadership would involve creating conditions that support staff members as well as students in developing an attitude of openness towards one another, and a respect for one another's languages and cultures. According to Raffo

mechanism for enacting inquiry as stance as a theory of action;

education for a more just and democratic society' [85].

immediate situations, inevitably a process of theorising' [85].

knowledge dualism and puts forward a conception of local knowledge in global

teacher, for example, critical practitioner, critical inquirer, and practitioner-

**54**

contexts;

mative research'.

**6.5 Transformative language leader**

aspects in the context of taking decisions.

et al. [89], the strength of the 'embodied relationships' argument becomes clear when we consider that 'the relationship between poverty and education is unlikely to be disturbed unless fundamental issues of power and interest, advantage and disadvantage, are addressed'. Maguire [90] has argued that a way for schools to address poverty in the context of the school community is for them to take steps to ensure that children who suffer poverty are not disadvantaged by in-school practices and policies.

McGregor Burns [91] defined a transformational leader as one who 'looks for potential motives in followers, seeks to satisfy higher needs and engages the full person of the follower'. According to Bass [92], transformational leaders are judged by their impact on followers in the areas of trust, admiration and respect. Leithwood [93] developed seven dimensions to transformational leaders:


These dimensions align to the *Advanced Standards for Quality* [94] in the UK: and are regarded as research and practitioner-based quality practices essential to achieving improved student performance and organisational effectiveness.

There are several implications that emerge from the above. Leaders need to have critical and moral consciousness with the capacity and courage to critique existing social, political, and power relations that influence school life. Villegas and Lucas [95] present a conception of linguistically responsive teachers that is relevant to language leaders. Qualities include 'socio-cultural consciousness, affirming views of diversity, commitment and skills for promoting change in schools, understanding of how learners construct knowledge, skills for learning about their learners and the ability to use appropriate instructional approaches for diverse learners'.

It is important that all teachers accept responsibility for addressing special educational needs, including those of English language learners (ELLs). It is a moral issue. Below, I examine a 'transformative pedagogy' in the context of ELL.

#### **7. 'Transformative pedagogy' and teaching English language learners**

*The Eurydice Report* [96] identified three issues that need addressing in European teacher education: the critical importance of teaching the language of instruction, recognition of mother tongues of learners from diverse language backgrounds as a potential resource, and the promotion of interculturalism. Moore has argued that:

*We understand and experience our world through the symbols of language and so our understandings of that world and, perhaps, our sense of possibilities within it, are permanently and unavoidably filtered through those discourses. [97]*

There are three types of literacy: functional, cultural, and critical. Villegas and Lucas [95] have argued that teacher education needs to create conditions that support the development of socio-cultural consciousness, and critical literacy informed by moral consciousness. It is important that in addition, functional and cultural literacies are understood and integrated into mainstream teaching and learning. McLaren [71] defines functional literacy as decoding and encoding skills, and cultural literacy as being about 'educating [teacher] and learners to be …the bearers of certain meanings, values, and views' (e.g. writing a response to a question set by a history teacher). Lucas and Grinberg [98] have argued that 'The connection between language and schooling has special significance for English language learners (ELLs) who are often marginalised and underestimated'. 'Transformative pedagogy' has a key part in supporting teachers and students in developing as critical, intercultural citizens with the capacity to interact and express their meanings in English and by implication, to gain appropriate employment, and to contribute to the common good based on democratic, moral values.

Teachers need to value all students, linguistic diversity, and social justice in school and wider society [99], develop an awareness of the connection between language, culture, and identity, and of the socio-political dimension of language use and language education [100]. In addition, teachers need to be aware of their language use [101, 102]. In order that teachers can offer support students, particularly ELLs, they will need to have sufficient knowledge of the structure of English and of what is involved in second language learning, and to understand differences between conversational and academic English language use, for, as Cummins [103] tells us, ELLs take several years longer to develop academic English than conversational English.

One of the three studies, referred to in the Introduction, was one I carried out at the Lynch School of Education, Boston, MA. In that context, I widened my research beyond MFL to include Secondary English teaching methodology, and the Teaching English Language Learners (TELL) programme. While carrying out the study I learnt that a ban had been placed on bilingual education in Massachusetts as a result of a referendum held there in 2002. To support ELLs, Professor Maria Brisk made an evidence-informed decision based on the moral value of social justice, to establish the Teaching English Language Learners (TELL) certificate programme. The programme has now become a mandatory qualification for teacher recognition across Massachusetts.

#### **7.1 'Transformative pedagogy' and 'transformative research'**

From the studies I carried out, I suggest the following original, 'transformative research' model for use by practitioner-researchers, including those in mainstream subject areas. Key stages are as follows:


**57**

*'Transformative Pedagogy' in Language Teacher Education*

• Interpret data and critically evaluate the impact of pedagogical and/other educational decisions and actions in a collaborative way, using (a) critical reasoning, (b) evidence informed, and (c) moral values, as key criteria.

• Demonstrate how the study has contributed in a positive way to transforming pedagogy/other educational process(es) in the classroom and/or school communities, and/or contributed to developing students' capacity to understand

• Verify claims to any new knowledge by opening the study to external scrutiny.

'Transformative pedagogy' supports target language teachers in developing a more encompassing professional identity as practitioner-researchers and leaders in the school and wider community. It enhances the social-psychological model of autonomous language teaching and learning by underpinning it with a critical, intercultural and moral-philosophical basis. I examined factors for autonomous language teaching and learning and those for a 'transformative pedagogy' that involve a range of 'new' literacies in addition to reading, writing, listening, speak-

'Transformative pedagogy' gears teaching towards learners and learning. Learners are understood as whole persons with an identity as critical and intercultural target language users for whom interactions are informed by moral values. An original model for 'transformative research' is shown and is aimed at supporting practitioner-researchers and leaders in general and not only language teachers in becoming more self-aware, critical, collaborative, and morally conscious educators. Doing this implies having the capacity and courage to take a moral stance for all students, not least those who are marginalised, and helping them to improve their life chances and their understandings about what being in the world means.

School of Education, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

\*Address all correspondence to: patrick.farren@nuigalway.ie

provided the original work is properly cited.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89470*

what being in the world means.

ing, and oral-aural communication.

• Collect data as appropriate.

• Analyse data.

**8. Conclusion**

**Author details**

Patrick Farren

*'Transformative Pedagogy' in Language Teacher Education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89470*


*Second Language Acquisition - Pedagogies, Practices and Perspectives*

There are three types of literacy: functional, cultural, and critical. Villegas and Lucas [95] have argued that teacher education needs to create conditions that support the development of socio-cultural consciousness, and critical literacy informed by moral consciousness. It is important that in addition, functional and cultural literacies are understood and integrated into mainstream teaching and learning. McLaren [71] defines functional literacy as decoding and encoding skills, and cultural literacy as being about 'educating [teacher] and learners to be …the bearers of certain meanings, values, and views' (e.g. writing a response to a question set by a history teacher). Lucas and Grinberg [98] have argued that 'The connection between language and schooling has special significance for English language learners (ELLs) who are often marginalised and underestimated'. 'Transformative pedagogy' has a key part in supporting teachers and students in developing as critical, intercultural citizens with the capacity to interact and express their meanings in English and by implication, to gain appropriate employment, and to contribute to the common good based on democratic, moral values. Teachers need to value all students, linguistic diversity, and social justice in school and wider society [99], develop an awareness of the connection between language, culture, and identity, and of the socio-political dimension of language use and language education [100]. In addition, teachers need to be aware of their language use [101, 102]. In order that teachers can offer support students, particularly ELLs, they will need to have sufficient knowledge of the structure of English and of what is involved in second language learning, and to understand differences between conversational and academic English language use, for, as Cummins [103] tells us, ELLs take

several years longer to develop academic English than conversational English.

mandatory qualification for teacher recognition across Massachusetts.

**7.1 'Transformative pedagogy' and 'transformative research'**

make any necessary adjustments to your stated beliefs.

and learning, addressing needs of ELLs, supporting equity.

subject areas. Key stages are as follows:

mological beliefs to one another.

colleagues.

One of the three studies, referred to in the Introduction, was one I carried out at the Lynch School of Education, Boston, MA. In that context, I widened my research beyond MFL to include Secondary English teaching methodology, and the Teaching English Language Learners (TELL) programme. While carrying out the study I learnt that a ban had been placed on bilingual education in Massachusetts as a result of a referendum held there in 2002. To support ELLs, Professor Maria Brisk made an evidence-informed decision based on the moral value of social justice, to establish the Teaching English Language Learners (TELL) certificate programme. The programme has now become a

From the studies I carried out, I suggest the following original, 'transformative research' model for use by practitioner-researchers, including those in mainstream

• Identify a focus for study based on an issue, preferably in collaboration with

• Reflect individually, and then, in turn, articulate your ontological and episte-

• Test one another's beliefs against universal, democratic, and moral values and

• Draw out implications of this 'testing' discussion for future decisions.

• Make collaborative decisions and implement an action plan aimed at transforming the situation, for example, integrating 'new' literacies into teaching

**56**


#### **8. Conclusion**

'Transformative pedagogy' supports target language teachers in developing a more encompassing professional identity as practitioner-researchers and leaders in the school and wider community. It enhances the social-psychological model of autonomous language teaching and learning by underpinning it with a critical, intercultural and moral-philosophical basis. I examined factors for autonomous language teaching and learning and those for a 'transformative pedagogy' that involve a range of 'new' literacies in addition to reading, writing, listening, speaking, and oral-aural communication.

'Transformative pedagogy' gears teaching towards learners and learning. Learners are understood as whole persons with an identity as critical and intercultural target language users for whom interactions are informed by moral values.

An original model for 'transformative research' is shown and is aimed at supporting practitioner-researchers and leaders in general and not only language teachers in becoming more self-aware, critical, collaborative, and morally conscious educators. Doing this implies having the capacity and courage to take a moral stance for all students, not least those who are marginalised, and helping them to improve their life chances and their understandings about what being in the world means.

#### **Author details**

Patrick Farren School of Education, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland

\*Address all correspondence to: patrick.farren@nuigalway.ie

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

### **References**

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[2] Harre R, Secord P, Johnstone S. The Explanation of Social Behaviour. Oxford: Basil Blackwell; 1972

[3] Cohen A. Strategies in Learning and Using a Second Language. London: Longman; 1998

[4] Lewin K. In: Lewin GW, editor. Resolving Social Conflicts; Selected Papers on Group Dynamics. New York: Harper & Row; 1948

[5] Habermas J. Knowledge and Human Interests (Trans. J. Sapiro). London: Heinemann; 1972

[6] Winter R. Learning from Experience. London: Falmer Press; 1989

[7] McNiff J. Action Research. Routledge-Falmer: Principles and Practice; 1988

[8] Graham M. Josef Fuchs on Natural Law. US: Georgetown University Press; 2002

[9] Little D. Learner Autonomy 1: Definition, Issues and Problems. Dublin: Authentik; 1991

[10] Little D. We're all in it together: Exploring the interdependence of learner and teacher autonomy. In: CLCS Occasional Paper. Centre for Language and Communication Studies. Dublin: Trinity College; 2001

[11] Breen MP, Mann S. Does the teacher have a role in autonomous learning? In: Benson P, Voller P, editors. Autonomy and Independence in Language Learning. London: Longman; 1997

[12] Black P, Wiliam D. Assessment and classroom learning. Assessment in Education. 1998;**5**(1):7-74

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**1. Introduction**

**Chapter 5**

**Abstract**

Multidimensional Networks for

Functional Diversity in Higher

Education: The Case of Second

This chapter provides a theoretical approach to the multidimensional relationship

of the student with functional diversity with his/her own educational and sociocultural context. Inclusion is a key issue in a foreign language classroom where the ability to communicate is of paramount importance. Students with different special needs are bound to find challenges in those language skills that pose problems related to their functional diversity. In order to address these challenges, higher education institutions need to organize multidimensional networks that pay attention to the different stages, events, and situations of the educational process. Furthermore, the ability to communicate that students with functional diversity develop in the foreign language classroom may become an instrumental competence that will become useful for other subjects as well as to respond to daily life challenges. The theoretical model proposed here acknowledges that there are two paradigms that coalesce into a defined educational model. On the one hand, the syntagmatic paradigm ensures that subjects offered in the educational programs are designed bearing in mind the needs of students with functional diversity and are flexible enough to accommodate those needs. On the other hand, the organizational paradigm relates the needs of the

students and their teachers to institutional services and protocols.

**Keywords:** functional diversity (FD), higher education (HE), English language teaching (ELT), foreign language learning (FLL), knowledge, skills and abilities

using and advocating for the term "functional diversity" (FD) in their study:

*It is known that words or terms are associated with ideas and concepts and that these connotations are not something random, but represent culturally accepted values of the object or organism named. These values are conveyed over time using words as a vehicle. In time, if we wish to change ideas or values, we will have no alternative other than changing the words that support and give life to them.*

In their seminal paper, Romañach and Lobato [1] clearly state the reasons behind

(KSAs), curriculum adaptations, technology-enabled assessment (TEA)

Language Education

*Mari Carmen Campoy-Cubillo*

#### **Chapter 5**

## Multidimensional Networks for Functional Diversity in Higher Education: The Case of Second Language Education

*Mari Carmen Campoy-Cubillo*

### **Abstract**

This chapter provides a theoretical approach to the multidimensional relationship of the student with functional diversity with his/her own educational and sociocultural context. Inclusion is a key issue in a foreign language classroom where the ability to communicate is of paramount importance. Students with different special needs are bound to find challenges in those language skills that pose problems related to their functional diversity. In order to address these challenges, higher education institutions need to organize multidimensional networks that pay attention to the different stages, events, and situations of the educational process. Furthermore, the ability to communicate that students with functional diversity develop in the foreign language classroom may become an instrumental competence that will become useful for other subjects as well as to respond to daily life challenges. The theoretical model proposed here acknowledges that there are two paradigms that coalesce into a defined educational model. On the one hand, the syntagmatic paradigm ensures that subjects offered in the educational programs are designed bearing in mind the needs of students with functional diversity and are flexible enough to accommodate those needs. On the other hand, the organizational paradigm relates the needs of the students and their teachers to institutional services and protocols.

**Keywords:** functional diversity (FD), higher education (HE), English language teaching (ELT), foreign language learning (FLL), knowledge, skills and abilities (KSAs), curriculum adaptations, technology-enabled assessment (TEA)

#### **1. Introduction**

In their seminal paper, Romañach and Lobato [1] clearly state the reasons behind using and advocating for the term "functional diversity" (FD) in their study:

*It is known that words or terms are associated with ideas and concepts and that these connotations are not something random, but represent culturally accepted values of the object or organism named. These values are conveyed over time using words as a vehicle. In time, if we wish to change ideas or values, we will have no alternative other than changing the words that support and give life to them.*

These authors thus defend the use of the term "functional diversity" instead of pejorative terms such as "disability" or "handicap." In the educational arena, we should be especially sensitive not only with the way we employ terms but also with how our idea of what they represent is implemented in the educational environment. Terms like "disability," meaning "less able," point to the lack of ability of a person and the lack of ability of a student in our class. "Functional diversity," on the other hand, indicates "diverse ways of doing things."

Throughout this chapter, I understand diversity and its implementation in education as the fact of acknowledging and including many possible ways of being and doing things. This understanding includes both people and institutions. In higher education (HE), there are two basic levels of implementation: one is between the students and their teachers and the different institutional units that influence the quality of his/her education (such as diversity support units), and the other is within the closest circle of friends/classmates and teachers with whom the student relates during a course of study and along the years in a higher education institution on a daily basis. I call the first level the organizational paradigm and the second level the syntagmatic paradigm. The main aim of this chapter is to analyze how the relationship between both paradigms is necessary to develop a functional diversity model that is able to recognize that students with diversity also have different needs depending on the courses and degrees they take.

Teachers involved in teaching students with functional diversity often feel alone in the process; sometimes one of the paradigms works, while the other does not provide sufficient support. This is the reason why multidimensional networks for functional diversity have to be organized in a way that both paradigms are integrated into one another and respond to each other.

#### **1.1 Multidimensional networks in second language education**

In the field of foreign language teaching, working with functional diversity tends to be more complicated than it is in other fields because we deal with all the aspects of communication by simply dealing, for instance, with the four main language skills (reading, writing, listening, speaking), and this is done in a language different to the mother tongue. Language teaching implies awareness of different communicative contexts, the appropriateness of a message in such contexts, and evaluating (nonverbal and verbal) reactions, to name some examples of issues considered in a communicative approach to language learning. Moreover, the language class is no longer a one-way class but rather a participative event where communication among participants is essential.

How does this affect students with functional diversity? Let us consider a few examples. Students with sensory FD (auditory, visual) will need adaptations in those parts of language learning related to listening (clarity, volume, etc.) and seeing (reading, situation awareness, etc.). Students with physical FD affecting speech production will need adaptations in the speaking components of the language class, while FD affecting, for instance, the loss or limitation of movement in hands/arms may affect writing. Students with FD affecting social interaction (such as Asperger syndrome) will need adaptations for group work, among others.

Given the peculiarities and complexities of the language teaching context, it is easy to realize that students with functional diversity of any type will always need some adaptation in the foreign and second language learning class. For the foreign language teacher in higher education institutions, trying to implement adaptations is a very demanding mission. A lot of support is needed to develop effective proposals that can be transferred to similar language teaching situations. For this reason, if we want to make the educational system work regarding functional diversity

**67**

much to say, and how to say it.

*Multidimensional Networks for Functional Diversity in Higher Education: The Case of Second…*

for language learning and teaching, we need to oil the wheels of a dynamic model, and we should have a clear picture of what has been done and what remains to be done if the system is to operate effectively. The theoretical approach presented here contributes to the development of an organized multidimensional framework that may aid teachers to identify how to tackle FD issues in the classroom and outside the classroom. This framework should be part of the teacher training curriculum, and in fact teachers of English as a foreign language already identified the lack of this type of training as a gap in their continuing professional development [2, 3].

The TALE project in their needs analysis report ([2], p. 38), informs readers that assessing learners with special needs is reported as the area where teachers feel less confident among all the reported areas where teachers indicate their confidence regarding assessment and is later identified ([2], p. 39) as the area where training needs are higher. In [3], pp. 12–13, a similar statement is made regarding training in dyslexia for teachers. Most teachers (94.4%) felt they needed more information on the language teaching methods and inclusive practices that may be effective for dyslexic learners, thus evidencing an important demand for professional develop-

The theoretical proposal developed in this chapter is thus meant to make a contribution in the organization of second language teacher education and how it should be planned and systematized in educational institutions, specifically at a

In this chapter, I will focus on the needs of students who enroll for degrees in foreign languages. The chapter includes an interview to a teacher of English with visual diversity. The interest of this interview is twofold: this is a teacher who is at the same time also a student since she is preparing for her competitive national exam to become a state employee. Thus, her dual perspective will give us insights in

This chapter combines a theoretical proposal with an interview to a person with visual diversity. The theoretical proposal deals with the organization of educational agents to provide students with functional diversity with adequate and accessible educational models and tools. The interview is used to exemplify a case of a student with functional diversity in a foreign language context and at the same time serve as a way to ascertain how each stage in the theoretical proposal is related to the real situation of our interview subject. Our subject is a female teacher with visual diversity who is also a student for the competitive exams to become a state teacher. The subject was contacted and in an informal meeting was asked to participate in an interview to talk about her experience as a person with visual diversity in the field of foreign language teaching. In the meeting it was suggested that her view in both sides of the learning/teaching spectrum was of special interest for the interview, but no further information was given regarding the content of her answers. A semi-structured interview (see Appendix) was carried out through WhatsApp, in which the interviewer set up a general structure of the main questions to be asked and the areas covered in the questions. A WhatsApp format was deemed as adequate since it would allow the interviewee to take her time for the answer and respond the questions in a safe, non-threatening atmosphere. The participant was at home, and the interviewer was not physically present so the anxiety that may be present in a face-to-face interview was eliminated. She could freely decide on what to talk about in each question, how

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88073*

ment opportunities in dyslexia.

both directions, teaching and learning.

university level.

**2. Methodology**

#### *Multidimensional Networks for Functional Diversity in Higher Education: The Case of Second… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88073*

for language learning and teaching, we need to oil the wheels of a dynamic model, and we should have a clear picture of what has been done and what remains to be done if the system is to operate effectively. The theoretical approach presented here contributes to the development of an organized multidimensional framework that may aid teachers to identify how to tackle FD issues in the classroom and outside the classroom. This framework should be part of the teacher training curriculum, and in fact teachers of English as a foreign language already identified the lack of this type of training as a gap in their continuing professional development [2, 3].

The TALE project in their needs analysis report ([2], p. 38), informs readers that assessing learners with special needs is reported as the area where teachers feel less confident among all the reported areas where teachers indicate their confidence regarding assessment and is later identified ([2], p. 39) as the area where training needs are higher. In [3], pp. 12–13, a similar statement is made regarding training in dyslexia for teachers. Most teachers (94.4%) felt they needed more information on the language teaching methods and inclusive practices that may be effective for dyslexic learners, thus evidencing an important demand for professional development opportunities in dyslexia.

The theoretical proposal developed in this chapter is thus meant to make a contribution in the organization of second language teacher education and how it should be planned and systematized in educational institutions, specifically at a university level.

In this chapter, I will focus on the needs of students who enroll for degrees in foreign languages. The chapter includes an interview to a teacher of English with visual diversity. The interest of this interview is twofold: this is a teacher who is at the same time also a student since she is preparing for her competitive national exam to become a state employee. Thus, her dual perspective will give us insights in both directions, teaching and learning.

#### **2. Methodology**

*Second Language Acquisition - Pedagogies, Practices and Perspectives*

other hand, indicates "diverse ways of doing things."

depending on the courses and degrees they take.

grated into one another and respond to each other.

tion among participants is essential.

**1.1 Multidimensional networks in second language education**

syndrome) will need adaptations for group work, among others.

These authors thus defend the use of the term "functional diversity" instead of pejorative terms such as "disability" or "handicap." In the educational arena, we should be especially sensitive not only with the way we employ terms but also with how our idea of what they represent is implemented in the educational environment. Terms like "disability," meaning "less able," point to the lack of ability of a person and the lack of ability of a student in our class. "Functional diversity," on the

Throughout this chapter, I understand diversity and its implementation in education as the fact of acknowledging and including many possible ways of being and doing things. This understanding includes both people and institutions. In higher education (HE), there are two basic levels of implementation: one is between the students and their teachers and the different institutional units that influence the quality of his/her education (such as diversity support units), and the other is within the closest circle of friends/classmates and teachers with whom the student relates during a course of study and along the years in a higher education institution on a daily basis. I call the first level the organizational paradigm and the second level the syntagmatic paradigm. The main aim of this chapter is to analyze how the relationship between both paradigms is necessary to develop a functional diversity model that is able to recognize that students with diversity also have different needs

Teachers involved in teaching students with functional diversity often feel alone in the process; sometimes one of the paradigms works, while the other does not provide sufficient support. This is the reason why multidimensional networks for functional diversity have to be organized in a way that both paradigms are inte-

In the field of foreign language teaching, working with functional diversity tends to be more complicated than it is in other fields because we deal with all the aspects of communication by simply dealing, for instance, with the four main language skills (reading, writing, listening, speaking), and this is done in a language different to the mother tongue. Language teaching implies awareness of different communicative contexts, the appropriateness of a message in such contexts, and evaluating (nonverbal and verbal) reactions, to name some examples of issues considered in a communicative approach to language learning. Moreover, the language class is no longer a one-way class but rather a participative event where communica-

How does this affect students with functional diversity? Let us consider a few examples. Students with sensory FD (auditory, visual) will need adaptations in those parts of language learning related to listening (clarity, volume, etc.) and seeing (reading, situation awareness, etc.). Students with physical FD affecting speech production will need adaptations in the speaking components of the language class, while FD affecting, for instance, the loss or limitation of movement in hands/arms may affect writing. Students with FD affecting social interaction (such as Asperger

Given the peculiarities and complexities of the language teaching context, it is easy to realize that students with functional diversity of any type will always need some adaptation in the foreign and second language learning class. For the foreign language teacher in higher education institutions, trying to implement adaptations is a very demanding mission. A lot of support is needed to develop effective proposals that can be transferred to similar language teaching situations. For this reason, if we want to make the educational system work regarding functional diversity

**66**

This chapter combines a theoretical proposal with an interview to a person with visual diversity. The theoretical proposal deals with the organization of educational agents to provide students with functional diversity with adequate and accessible educational models and tools. The interview is used to exemplify a case of a student with functional diversity in a foreign language context and at the same time serve as a way to ascertain how each stage in the theoretical proposal is related to the real situation of our interview subject. Our subject is a female teacher with visual diversity who is also a student for the competitive exams to become a state teacher.

The subject was contacted and in an informal meeting was asked to participate in an interview to talk about her experience as a person with visual diversity in the field of foreign language teaching. In the meeting it was suggested that her view in both sides of the learning/teaching spectrum was of special interest for the interview, but no further information was given regarding the content of her answers. A semi-structured interview (see Appendix) was carried out through WhatsApp, in which the interviewer set up a general structure of the main questions to be asked and the areas covered in the questions. A WhatsApp format was deemed as adequate since it would allow the interviewee to take her time for the answer and respond the questions in a safe, non-threatening atmosphere. The participant was at home, and the interviewer was not physically present so the anxiety that may be present in a face-to-face interview was eliminated. She could freely decide on what to talk about in each question, how much to say, and how to say it.

Throughout the interview, the interviewer elicited information in the form of open questions in a conversational tone and ensured flexibility in the way the subject addressed the different questions. Both questions and answers were submitted using the audio option in WhatsApp messages. The interview was then transcribed and analyzed to determine how the answers related to the theoretical proposal.

#### **3. The organizational paradigm of functional diversity in higher education**

The organizational paradigm analyzes the institutional services and protocols developed in higher education institutions. In order to be effective, such services and protocols need to be interconnected and should reach the students and their teachers. There are three dimensions in the organizational paradigm: *discursive*, *performative*, and *material*. The discursive dimension designs and pays attention to the way in which language is used throughout the institution to foster respect toward all types of diversity. This discursive dimension should be reflected in policies [4], statutory documents, institutional forms and documents, internal and external communication strategies, exam calls, grant calls, and online/classroom material. The performative dimension is concerned with the actions that institutions take to react to situations, events, or contingencies related with functional diversity. The material dimension includes staff, financial support for architectural and space adaptations, and financial support for accessible and adapted materials that are used to ensure quality education for all.

I will exemplify the discursive dimension with a real situation. Two of my best qualified students did not know anything about their rights as students with functional diversity because they did not associate themselves with the term "disabled" which is used by the university. Both students have different rare illnesses and have never identified themselves as "disabled" because, they told me, "there is nothing wrong with us, we are smart, we just have this illness and we sometimes miss a class or an exam." Again, term connotations are important, and the students missed grant opportunities because of this. They were not even aware of the fact that they could ask for adaptations. The other problem in this case is that if the student does not find out about university policies or the institution is not able to inform in a way that reaches all individuals, the services are lost for some students. For this reason, the discursive dimension is important and needs constant revising.

Questions 1 and 4 in the interview (see Appendix for full answers to the questions) are good examples for the performative (and discursive) dimension. The interviewee reflects on work environment situations she went through:

*Q1. (…) I had a good curriculum and was not questioned about my visual diversity, but there were many untold prejudices, unfinished sentences…like "if something happened to you…"*

*Q4. (…) when I talked to the head of the school and administration departments, and they really did not understand my situation very well, did not have much information about how to proceed.*

*(…) I was sent to a school with no lift and many stairs. But the headmaster made me go up the stairs, he gave me no other choice (…) I was new there, and I did not want to make any trouble…even if I could have placed a denounce I did not. And in those times, I could have been placing a denounce on a daily basis. (…) this person, he even* 

**69**

information.

*Multidimensional Networks for Functional Diversity in Higher Education: The Case of Second…*

*recommended that I checked that the school I would chose in the future was ready for me. He told me: "You need to understand we are not used to people like you."*

As we can see in the response to the questions, the full picture of functional diversity has not yet been elucidated. Administration and other teaching staff know what functional diversity is but do not always know how to react to situations that call for action. This is because, in this case, the job interviewers and staff have not been trained to understand and deal with the needs of people with visual diversity. In the first place, phrases like "if something happened to you…" or "people like you" show that there is a lack of information regarding the rights of people with functional diversity. They also denote lack of tact and prejudices; it is assumed that people with functional diversity will cause problems. Secondly, in the case of the second school, a natural solution would have been to find a classroom or space in the ground floor that was more accessible or at least discuss the options with the

The material dimension belongs both to the organizational and the syntagmatic paradigm. At an organizational level, it implies financing an organization of support units, new technology units, and their staff, which we discuss in the paragraphs below. It also means financing architectural adaptations when new spaces are created. And finally, it entails to monitor the design of accessible information and provide the tools and training necessary to create and update accessible

Universities may have different services and departments that orchestrate the needs and demands of students with functional diversity. The organizational paradigm will analyze the institutional resources and support systems. At a macrostructural level, higher education institutions will have to consider specific types of diversity and their implications in the educational system. This entails establishing

Functional diversity awareness relates to the idea that both the institution needs

to be aware of the needs of students with functional diversity and the students need to be informed and aware of institutional services and their implications. For both sides, this implies knowing which are the degrees' basic requirements, teaching methods, and expected outcomes and whether these are accessible or not for a particular group of students. This is important because many times students miss opportunities due to lack of information when informative channels are not working or not considering their needs. A student with dyslexia, for instance, may find it hard to read a grant call if the text is written in a color combination or letter font

Diversity support units are an essential point of convergence in dealing with functional diversity in higher education. These units are the starting point for students, who need to access the unit and be interviewed so that they are informed

teacher. Inaction is not a good performative behavior example.

policies and guidelines, among which we may have:

• University guidelines for functional diversity

• Accessibility guidelines and technological support

• Functional diversity awareness

• General curricular adaptations

• Diversity support units

that is illegible for them.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88073*

*Multidimensional Networks for Functional Diversity in Higher Education: The Case of Second… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88073*

*recommended that I checked that the school I would chose in the future was ready for me. He told me: "You need to understand we are not used to people like you."*

As we can see in the response to the questions, the full picture of functional diversity has not yet been elucidated. Administration and other teaching staff know what functional diversity is but do not always know how to react to situations that call for action. This is because, in this case, the job interviewers and staff have not been trained to understand and deal with the needs of people with visual diversity. In the first place, phrases like "if something happened to you…" or "people like you" show that there is a lack of information regarding the rights of people with functional diversity. They also denote lack of tact and prejudices; it is assumed that people with functional diversity will cause problems. Secondly, in the case of the second school, a natural solution would have been to find a classroom or space in the ground floor that was more accessible or at least discuss the options with the teacher. Inaction is not a good performative behavior example.

The material dimension belongs both to the organizational and the syntagmatic paradigm. At an organizational level, it implies financing an organization of support units, new technology units, and their staff, which we discuss in the paragraphs below. It also means financing architectural adaptations when new spaces are created. And finally, it entails to monitor the design of accessible information and provide the tools and training necessary to create and update accessible information.

Universities may have different services and departments that orchestrate the needs and demands of students with functional diversity. The organizational paradigm will analyze the institutional resources and support systems. At a macrostructural level, higher education institutions will have to consider specific types of diversity and their implications in the educational system. This entails establishing policies and guidelines, among which we may have:


Functional diversity awareness relates to the idea that both the institution needs to be aware of the needs of students with functional diversity and the students need to be informed and aware of institutional services and their implications. For both sides, this implies knowing which are the degrees' basic requirements, teaching methods, and expected outcomes and whether these are accessible or not for a particular group of students. This is important because many times students miss opportunities due to lack of information when informative channels are not working or not considering their needs. A student with dyslexia, for instance, may find it hard to read a grant call if the text is written in a color combination or letter font that is illegible for them.

Diversity support units are an essential point of convergence in dealing with functional diversity in higher education. These units are the starting point for students, who need to access the unit and be interviewed so that they are informed

*Second Language Acquisition - Pedagogies, Practices and Perspectives*

**education**

used to ensure quality education for all.

*something happened to you…"*

*information about how to proceed.*

Throughout the interview, the interviewer elicited information in the form of open questions in a conversational tone and ensured flexibility in the way the subject addressed the different questions. Both questions and answers were submitted using the audio option in WhatsApp messages. The interview was then transcribed and analyzed to determine how the answers related to the theoretical proposal.

The organizational paradigm analyzes the institutional services and protocols developed in higher education institutions. In order to be effective, such services and protocols need to be interconnected and should reach the students and their teachers. There are three dimensions in the organizational paradigm: *discursive*, *performative*, and *material*. The discursive dimension designs and pays attention to the way in which language is used throughout the institution to foster respect toward all types of diversity. This discursive dimension should be reflected in policies [4], statutory documents, institutional forms and documents, internal and external communication strategies, exam calls, grant calls, and online/classroom material. The performative dimension is concerned with the actions that institutions take to react to situations, events, or contingencies related with functional diversity. The material dimension includes staff, financial support for architectural and space adaptations, and financial support for accessible and adapted materials that are

I will exemplify the discursive dimension with a real situation. Two of my best qualified students did not know anything about their rights as students with functional diversity because they did not associate themselves with the term "disabled" which is used by the university. Both students have different rare illnesses and have never identified themselves as "disabled" because, they told me, "there is nothing wrong with us, we are smart, we just have this illness and we sometimes miss a class or an exam." Again, term connotations are important, and the students missed grant opportunities because of this. They were not even aware of the fact that they could ask for adaptations. The other problem in this case is that if the student does not find out about university policies or the institution is not able to inform in a way that reaches all individuals, the services are lost for some students. For this reason,

Questions 1 and 4 in the interview (see Appendix for full answers to the questions) are good examples for the performative (and discursive) dimension. The

*Q4. (…) when I talked to the head of the school and administration departments, and they really did not understand my situation very well, did not have much* 

*(…) I was sent to a school with no lift and many stairs. But the headmaster made me go up the stairs, he gave me no other choice (…) I was new there, and I did not want to make any trouble…even if I could have placed a denounce I did not. And in those times, I could have been placing a denounce on a daily basis. (…) this person, he even* 

the discursive dimension is important and needs constant revising.

interviewee reflects on work environment situations she went through:

*Q1. (…) I had a good curriculum and was not questioned about my visual diversity, but there were many untold prejudices, unfinished sentences…like "if* 

**3. The organizational paradigm of functional diversity in higher** 

**68**

about university support options and so that an overall strategy in their educational development may be outlined. Diversity support units can have diversity advisors. These advisors act as links between the student and other university departments, funding application services, or housing services. They will support the students when asking for adjustments in learning, tutorials, exams, and other assessment methods. These advisors may help teachers by providing further information on possible adjustments in their subjects. For example, the foreign language teacher may be advised to provide the student with dyslexia with class notes that use an adequate letter font (such as Arial, Verdana or Dyslexie) or may recommend the teacher to give permission to record lectures in order to make it easier for the students to take their notes.

Another common feature that most higher education institutions have is the provision of university/institutional (online) guidelines [5, 6] for functional diversity. Support units and sometimes other university teams of experts are in charge of creating and distributing these guides to the community. In this sense, the organizational paradigm should generate specific guidelines for the most frequent functional diversity types or each type of functional diversity that are addressed to all academic agencies in the institution. These guidelines can also be field-specific and be addressed, for example, to work placements or science labs (see, for instance, [7, 8]). In the case of institutional guidelines, we are still at the organizational level where information is provided regarding a group of individuals with a specific functional diversity which may be related to a particular university practice. The guidelines are the first level of information and may contain recommendations for general curricular adaptations.

Curricular adaptations are the different types of modifications and accommodations which allow students equal opportunity to obtain access to education, results, benefits, and different levels of achievement based on diversity requirements. At an institutional level, there needs to be general adaptation criteria that all departments can agree on and follow. General adaptations that are provided by most institutions regardless of the degree are, for example, extensions of time, letter size adaptations, or (class)rooms with special characteristics.

Among curricular adaptations, exam adaptations (or adaptations of any assessment method) are a main concern among students with functional diversity because this is the phase in which they are evaluated and may demonstrate achievement. It is also a time of concern because it is in exam situations where anxiety may result in lower achievement or where inadequate adaptations may lead to unfair assessment. García-Pastor and Miller [9] show the experiences of learners who stutter (LWS) in their process of learning a foreign language. Their study reveals that these learners scored significantly higher in foreign language anxiety than the control group and that the contrast was even higher in speaking situations. Thus, speaking anxiety needs to be considered for this particular group of students, even more so in evaluative situations ([9], p. 174). Evaluative situations are those where students need to show what they know in front of their peers and/or teacher. An oral foreign language exam would thus be a situation that may require adaptations for LWS.

Diversity support units are those units or departments that provide academic support to members of the academic community with special educational needs. In order to be assisted by these units, usually students need to register in a program. This will entitle him/her to have individual meetings with the support unit where his/her needs are listened to and analyzed in order to design a specific plan of action. For example, a student with dyslexia (a condition that makes it difficult to read and spell) attends the support unit interviews, and a plan of action is taken.

**71**

in the organizational paradigm.

directions on diversity.

*Multidimensional Networks for Functional Diversity in Higher Education: The Case of Second…*

Students' teachers are contacted and informed about the students' needs, and they will be given general recommendations. In the case of dyslexia, it can be something like: "Work Guidelines: Expansion of exam response time. We recommend to focus the correction of the tests on the response content, since there may be misspellings." This is a general recommendation for any student with dyslexia in any degree of study. It should be born in mind that each case of student with diversity is unique; even in cases with the same condition, students may be influenced by other envi-

Diversity units evaluate each individual case before giving their recommendations. The recommendation would reach the teacher, and it is the teacher's responsibility to take the recommendation into consideration. The support unit will assist both the learner and the teacher with any requests they may have. The above recommendation regarding dyslexia can be enough for students taking, for instance, an engineering degree. But it can be very limited for foreign language subjects. The students with dyslexia have to deal not only with reading and writing problems in their own language but also when they need to read and write in the foreign language, thus causing more added difficulties. Those teachers who have spelling as an

Another relevant institutional asset is to have an effective technological support unit. This unit may be decisive to help with assistive technology in order to make not only institutional but also learning and teaching materials accessible. Assistive technology officers may guide students with diversity when they have specific technological requirements or could provide technological resources and tools that are helpful for them. They may help students activate the voice-over option in documents, for instance. Technological support officers will also assist teachers in their creation of accessible materials. A key term in this area is technology-enabled assessment (TEA) or the use of technology to design assessment conditions and

As can be inferred from the above discussion, the organizational paradigm of functional diversity in HE has a complex articulation. It is for this reason that evaluating and assessing this paradigm should be common practice to ensure that the paradigm is effective and that new requirements will be met in the future. The model followed by [11] illustrates the use of a template for assessing diversity practices in HE where each practice and its aims are evaluated considering the target group, stakeholders involved, and the organizational process of each practice. They also value the accessibility of information regarding this practice, the timeframe during which it develops, whether it is possible to transfer this practice, and its potential to be applied and transferred to other target groups and institutions. An organizational paradigm of functional diversity in HE needs to be assessed, but it also needs to reach the syntagmatic paradigm, and it needs to feed from syntagmatic feedback. Not only that, it would be advisable that HE gets some feedback regarding the performance of students with diversity in the previous educational level (secondary school and others), and also to find a way to support these students in their transition to university (see the TIDE Project as an example for this transition monitoring: https://project-tide.eu/). **Figure 1** below summarizes the key ideas

The organizational paradigm shows the hierarchical relationship between different institutional levels. It has two main foci of sustenance: functional diversity support and technological support. From the institutional policies to the specific recommendations, adaptations, and technology-enabled accessibility, there must be a constant awareness of the principles behind the HE institution

ronmental factors that may influence their learning rhythms and paths.

assessment criterion will have to consider specific adaptations.

tools that are adequate and accessible for all students [10].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88073*

#### *Multidimensional Networks for Functional Diversity in Higher Education: The Case of Second… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88073*

Students' teachers are contacted and informed about the students' needs, and they will be given general recommendations. In the case of dyslexia, it can be something like: "Work Guidelines: Expansion of exam response time. We recommend to focus the correction of the tests on the response content, since there may be misspellings." This is a general recommendation for any student with dyslexia in any degree of study. It should be born in mind that each case of student with diversity is unique; even in cases with the same condition, students may be influenced by other environmental factors that may influence their learning rhythms and paths.

Diversity units evaluate each individual case before giving their recommendations. The recommendation would reach the teacher, and it is the teacher's responsibility to take the recommendation into consideration. The support unit will assist both the learner and the teacher with any requests they may have. The above recommendation regarding dyslexia can be enough for students taking, for instance, an engineering degree. But it can be very limited for foreign language subjects. The students with dyslexia have to deal not only with reading and writing problems in their own language but also when they need to read and write in the foreign language, thus causing more added difficulties. Those teachers who have spelling as an assessment criterion will have to consider specific adaptations.

Another relevant institutional asset is to have an effective technological support unit. This unit may be decisive to help with assistive technology in order to make not only institutional but also learning and teaching materials accessible. Assistive technology officers may guide students with diversity when they have specific technological requirements or could provide technological resources and tools that are helpful for them. They may help students activate the voice-over option in documents, for instance. Technological support officers will also assist teachers in their creation of accessible materials. A key term in this area is technology-enabled assessment (TEA) or the use of technology to design assessment conditions and tools that are adequate and accessible for all students [10].

As can be inferred from the above discussion, the organizational paradigm of functional diversity in HE has a complex articulation. It is for this reason that evaluating and assessing this paradigm should be common practice to ensure that the paradigm is effective and that new requirements will be met in the future. The model followed by [11] illustrates the use of a template for assessing diversity practices in HE where each practice and its aims are evaluated considering the target group, stakeholders involved, and the organizational process of each practice. They also value the accessibility of information regarding this practice, the timeframe during which it develops, whether it is possible to transfer this practice, and its potential to be applied and transferred to other target groups and institutions. An organizational paradigm of functional diversity in HE needs to be assessed, but it also needs to reach the syntagmatic paradigm, and it needs to feed from syntagmatic feedback. Not only that, it would be advisable that HE gets some feedback regarding the performance of students with diversity in the previous educational level (secondary school and others), and also to find a way to support these students in their transition to university (see the TIDE Project as an example for this transition monitoring: https://project-tide.eu/). **Figure 1** below summarizes the key ideas in the organizational paradigm.

The organizational paradigm shows the hierarchical relationship between different institutional levels. It has two main foci of sustenance: functional diversity support and technological support. From the institutional policies to the specific recommendations, adaptations, and technology-enabled accessibility, there must be a constant awareness of the principles behind the HE institution directions on diversity.

*Second Language Acquisition - Pedagogies, Practices and Perspectives*

students to take their notes.

general curricular adaptations.

require adaptations for LWS.

or (class)rooms with special characteristics.

about university support options and so that an overall strategy in their educational development may be outlined. Diversity support units can have diversity advisors. These advisors act as links between the student and other university departments, funding application services, or housing services. They will support the students when asking for adjustments in learning, tutorials, exams, and other assessment methods. These advisors may help teachers by providing further information on possible adjustments in their subjects. For example, the foreign language teacher may be advised to provide the student with dyslexia with class notes that use an adequate letter font (such as Arial, Verdana or Dyslexie) or may recommend the teacher to give permission to record lectures in order to make it easier for the

Another common feature that most higher education institutions have is the provision of university/institutional (online) guidelines [5, 6] for functional diversity. Support units and sometimes other university teams of experts are in charge of creating and distributing these guides to the community. In this sense, the organizational paradigm should generate specific guidelines for the most frequent functional diversity types or each type of functional diversity that are addressed to all academic agencies in the institution. These guidelines can also be field-specific and be addressed, for example, to work placements or science labs (see, for instance, [7, 8]). In the case of institutional guidelines, we are still at the organizational level where information is provided regarding a group of individuals with a specific functional diversity which may be related to a particular university practice. The guidelines are the first level of information and may contain recommendations for

Curricular adaptations are the different types of modifications and accommodations which allow students equal opportunity to obtain access to education, results, benefits, and different levels of achievement based on diversity requirements. At an institutional level, there needs to be general adaptation criteria that all departments can agree on and follow. General adaptations that are provided by most institutions regardless of the degree are, for example, extensions of time, letter size adaptations,

Among curricular adaptations, exam adaptations (or adaptations of any assessment method) are a main concern among students with functional diversity because this is the phase in which they are evaluated and may demonstrate achievement. It is also a time of concern because it is in exam situations where anxiety may result in lower achievement or where inadequate adaptations may lead to unfair assessment. García-Pastor and Miller [9] show the experiences of learners who stutter (LWS) in their process of learning a foreign language. Their study reveals that these learners scored significantly higher in foreign language anxiety than the control group and that the contrast was even higher in speaking situations. Thus, speaking anxiety needs to be considered for this particular group of students, even more so in evaluative situations ([9], p. 174). Evaluative situations are those where students need to show what they know in front of their peers and/or teacher. An oral foreign language exam would thus be a situation that may

Diversity support units are those units or departments that provide academic support to members of the academic community with special educational needs. In order to be assisted by these units, usually students need to register in a program. This will entitle him/her to have individual meetings with the support unit where his/her needs are listened to and analyzed in order to design a specific plan of action. For example, a student with dyslexia (a condition that makes it difficult to read and spell) attends the support unit interviews, and a plan of action is taken.

**70**

**Figure 1.**

*The organizational paradigm of functional diversity.*

### **4. The syntagmatic paradigm of functional diversity in higher education**

The syntagmatic paradigm pays attention to the relationship between students with functional diversity, their peers, and their teachers. It also pays attention to research and research-derived tools that analyze how to deal with specific diversity types in a particular field of study or in certain subjects that require in-depth analysis for the provision of effective education regarding functional diversity types. For the syntagmatic paradigm, I will focus solely on issues related to foreign language learning. Within the syntagmatic paradigm, I will distinguish two main areas of work:


The first area is necessary to understand how a student with functional diversity will develop his or her knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) in the language learning classroom. This understanding is of paramount importance for teachers to be able to choose a particular teaching method and to be able to adapt their subject and materials when necessary. The research and resources we will include in this section regarding KSAs are particularly relevant in relation to continuing professional development of the language teacher working with FD. An example of the first area (A) is Kormos [12], who studies the second language learning processes of students with specific learning difficulties (SpLDs). The book investigates relevant aspects within SLA including the effect of affective factors on learners' KSAs and how to identify SpLDs in another language. Teachers who are unaware of how SpLDs are reflected in the students' KSAs will undoubtedly benefit from reading this book, since unawareness on SpLDs may easily lead to misunderstandings and unfair assessment on the part of the teacher. Two full chapters are devoted to the teaching and assessment of second language skills for students with specific learning difficulties.

The work of Nijakowska [13] clearly belongs to this category and focuses on one type of functional diversity. Hers is a book devoted to the study of dyslexia and language teaching. Specifically, Chapters 3 and 5 deal with dyslexia and foreign

**73**

*Multidimensional Networks for Functional Diversity in Higher Education: The Case of Second…*

language learning and teaching, while Chapter 6 provides samples of activities to

DysTEFL, DysTEFL2 (http://dystefl2.uni.lodz.pl/), TIDE (https://project-tide. eu/), and Dyslang (https://www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/about/projects/dyslang), are educational initiatives that yield practical proposals for the classroom based on years of team research and practice. These projects and related research also provide

The second area focuses on one particular language skill and how this skill is understood and practiced by one functional diversity type. Analyzing the needs of SWFD in relation to language skills is useful to envisage in which skill the students with functional diversity (SWFD) will function in a different way. Broadly speaking, foreign language courses usually include practice in the four main language skills: reading, speaking, writing, and listening. In this sense, Kormos [12] also falls into the second area, since it focuses on reading skills. Kosak-Babuder et al. [15] also deal with reading skills and dyslexia. They base their study on the assumption that one of the special arrangements in testing contexts is to allow dyslexic students to listen to the text while they read, a hypothesis that the results of their study supports. These authors examined the effect of read-aloud and its impact on comprehension on the part of students with dyslexia and compared results with a control group with no reported dyslexia. They contrasted the results for different modes of test administration for reading comprehension tasks (read only, readaloud, listen only). Administration modes did not seem to influence students with no reported dyslexia, while the results for students with dyslexia were significantly better when following the read-aloud protocol. The study hence demonstrates that this adaptation should be recommended for type of task and students with func-

Mortimore and Crozier [16] report that note-taking skills are more demanding for students with dyslexia than the skill of reading, since these skills imply both listening and writing. The higher the educational level, the more demanding these skills are, since the input becomes more complex. As explained in Nijakowska [14], note-taking skills also require a lot of concentration on the part of the student for a long period of time and demand being able to remember details. Other SWFD find listening and related skills particularly challenging. Such is the case of the student in our appendix. Listening skills for a student with visual diversity have a great level of difficulty. As the student in our interview points out (question 8), it is impossible

*Q8. (…) About the listening part of the exam. You know that when you complete a listening test, you have to answer a number of questions that you can read while you listen. I cannot do that, I have to either listen or get the voice over read for me, but not both things at a time. Therefore, I cannot visualize the questions in the* 

Ideally, students may read the listening questions while listening and decide to take notes for one question or another at the same time. However, a student who is blind requires the computer to read the questions for her/him and will not be able to use this strategy. Not being able to read while listening will also demand a higher level of concentration to remember the questions while the audio is played, since they will not have the opportunity to listen to the questions again until the audio

As suggested elsewhere [17, 18], listening test administration procedures may determine the adequacy of a listening practice, and this is even more important for

teacher guidance and sometimes training programs for teachers [14].

European projects on dyslexia, like CalDys2 (http://www.caldys2.eu/node/104),

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88073*

exemplify theory in action.

tional diversity (SWFD).

for them to read and write at the same time:

*listening as other people do (…)*

text for the listening is over.

#### *Multidimensional Networks for Functional Diversity in Higher Education: The Case of Second… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88073*

language learning and teaching, while Chapter 6 provides samples of activities to exemplify theory in action.

European projects on dyslexia, like CalDys2 (http://www.caldys2.eu/node/104), DysTEFL, DysTEFL2 (http://dystefl2.uni.lodz.pl/), TIDE (https://project-tide. eu/), and Dyslang (https://www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/about/projects/dyslang), are educational initiatives that yield practical proposals for the classroom based on years of team research and practice. These projects and related research also provide teacher guidance and sometimes training programs for teachers [14].

The second area focuses on one particular language skill and how this skill is understood and practiced by one functional diversity type. Analyzing the needs of SWFD in relation to language skills is useful to envisage in which skill the students with functional diversity (SWFD) will function in a different way. Broadly speaking, foreign language courses usually include practice in the four main language skills: reading, speaking, writing, and listening. In this sense, Kormos [12] also falls into the second area, since it focuses on reading skills. Kosak-Babuder et al. [15] also deal with reading skills and dyslexia. They base their study on the assumption that one of the special arrangements in testing contexts is to allow dyslexic students to listen to the text while they read, a hypothesis that the results of their study supports. These authors examined the effect of read-aloud and its impact on comprehension on the part of students with dyslexia and compared results with a control group with no reported dyslexia. They contrasted the results for different modes of test administration for reading comprehension tasks (read only, readaloud, listen only). Administration modes did not seem to influence students with no reported dyslexia, while the results for students with dyslexia were significantly better when following the read-aloud protocol. The study hence demonstrates that this adaptation should be recommended for type of task and students with functional diversity (SWFD).

Mortimore and Crozier [16] report that note-taking skills are more demanding for students with dyslexia than the skill of reading, since these skills imply both listening and writing. The higher the educational level, the more demanding these skills are, since the input becomes more complex. As explained in Nijakowska [14], note-taking skills also require a lot of concentration on the part of the student for a long period of time and demand being able to remember details. Other SWFD find listening and related skills particularly challenging. Such is the case of the student in our appendix. Listening skills for a student with visual diversity have a great level of difficulty. As the student in our interview points out (question 8), it is impossible for them to read and write at the same time:

*Q8. (…) About the listening part of the exam. You know that when you complete a listening test, you have to answer a number of questions that you can read while you listen. I cannot do that, I have to either listen or get the voice over read for me, but not both things at a time. Therefore, I cannot visualize the questions in the listening as other people do (…)*

Ideally, students may read the listening questions while listening and decide to take notes for one question or another at the same time. However, a student who is blind requires the computer to read the questions for her/him and will not be able to use this strategy. Not being able to read while listening will also demand a higher level of concentration to remember the questions while the audio is played, since they will not have the opportunity to listen to the questions again until the audio text for the listening is over.

As suggested elsewhere [17, 18], listening test administration procedures may determine the adequacy of a listening practice, and this is even more important for

*Second Language Acquisition - Pedagogies, Practices and Perspectives*

**4. The syntagmatic paradigm of functional diversity in higher education**

The syntagmatic paradigm pays attention to the relationship between students with functional diversity, their peers, and their teachers. It also pays attention to research and research-derived tools that analyze how to deal with specific diversity types in a particular field of study or in certain subjects that require in-depth analysis for the provision of effective education regarding functional diversity types. For the syntagmatic paradigm, I will focus solely on issues related to foreign language learning. Within the syntagmatic paradigm, I will distinguish two main

a. The study of one or several types of functional diversity in relation to language

b. The other is the study of *one foreign language learning skill* and how to adapt that skill to the different possible functional diversity types or to an individual FD.

The first area is necessary to understand how a student with functional diversity will develop his or her knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) in the language learning classroom. This understanding is of paramount importance for teachers to be able to choose a particular teaching method and to be able to adapt their subject and materials when necessary. The research and resources we will include in this section regarding KSAs are particularly relevant in relation to continuing professional development of the language teacher working with FD. An example of the first area (A) is Kormos [12], who studies the second language learning processes of students with specific learning difficulties (SpLDs). The book investigates relevant aspects within SLA including the effect of affective factors on learners' KSAs and how to identify SpLDs in another language. Teachers who are unaware of how SpLDs are reflected in the students' KSAs will undoubtedly benefit from reading this book, since unawareness on SpLDs may easily lead to misunderstandings and unfair assessment on the part of the teacher. Two full chapters are devoted to the teaching and assessment of second language skills for students with specific

The work of Nijakowska [13] clearly belongs to this category and focuses on one type of functional diversity. Hers is a book devoted to the study of dyslexia and language teaching. Specifically, Chapters 3 and 5 deal with dyslexia and foreign

**72**

learning difficulties.

areas of work:

**Figure 1.**

*The organizational paradigm of functional diversity.*

learning.

SWFD. Foreign language test administration procedures as well as task administration procedures need to include SWFD in their design phase. In practicing listening, administration includes not only checking that the audio has a good quality and adequate speed as well as clear diction but also designing the way in which students have to answer the listening task, that is, question type and sequencing and pauses and amounts of audio text to be listened before answering each or all the questions. It also includes the number of times that an audio will be listened in order to perform the task.

Thus, in a listening task the sequencing and timing of questions need to be aligned with a specific type of FD. One possible course of action is to fragment the listening task into a number of recognizable sequences (episodes distinguished in the listening event as a whole). Instead of listening to the full text and then answer the questions, the SWFD may listen to each sequence and answer the questions for that sequence. This would also apply for the test question mentioned in the interview where the student is asked to summarize the whole listening. The audio text may be divided into smaller units to facilitate note-taking for the SWFD. In this regard, a relevant issue in foreign language test or task administration is the means of administration: paper or digital formats. Generally speaking, digital testing or TEA offers possible task and test administration procedures that may include adaptations for different SWFD by providing different access means. One of the advantages of digital educational contexts is that they facilitate multimodal environments in which different communicative modes—visual, audio, written, video, etc.—may be used as the means of access in a given task, and tasks can be accommodated to specific needs [19–21].

So far, we have seen FD examples related to the skills of writing, reading, and listening. For other SWFD, social skills, which are more directly related to speaking skills, may pose certain problems. This is the case of students with Asperger [22] because they have problems with social interactions. Situations where students face stress or anxiety, such as cases of dysarthria [23], stuttering [9], or students with depression, are instances where the practice of oral skills need to be revised. In some cases, like dysarthria or stuttering, analyzing the specific condition of the student may lead to contemplate different options of task or test administration, design specific tutorial sessions, or use digital environments to facilitate the practice of spoken skills. In the case of students with Asperger, teachers will have to bear in mind how these students interact. For example, they usually start interaction in ways that are awkward for other students and in a not very effective way [24, 25], and they also want others to follow their rules and share their preferences, interests, or achievements. This knowledge should be used by the teachers, and it will help them with classroom management and the way tasks are organized so that students with Asperger may participate in classroom activities as any other student in the group.

Other considerations for students with Asperger are that these students should not be grouped with peers that may cause them distress, fear, agitation, or anxiety. As an example, a recommendation [22] is that they should not be paired with those classmates that are usually perceived as the leaders or those that are strongly interested in sports due to a lack of similar interests.

A different case is that of SWFD for whom the foreign language is a third language and for whom the visual input and written input may be more relevant than audio-based information. Such is the case of students deaf and hard-of-hearing persons [26, 27]. Innovative research in this field is, for example, the work of Ewa Domagala-Zysk and her development of surdoglottodidactics—a science of teaching and learning a foreign language by DHH (deaf and hard-of-hearing persons) individuals—which has shaped the nature of learning and teaching strategies

**75**

*Multidimensional Networks for Functional Diversity in Higher Education: The Case of Second…*

implemented in English as foreign language classes for deaf and hard-of-hearing students in Poland. Other researchers [27] pay attention to the deaf professional and develop teaching proposals for students with auditive FD that are an aid to integrate them in their future professional activities. This proposal works with English for special purpose students who are deaf and develops materials in the area of film production with the idea of preparing them to communicate with foreign peers in their future work environments and to promote their future professional

Working with students with FD in the language classroom fosters the development of instrumental competences [28]. These are the competences that have an instrumental or enabling function, that is, they make something possible by developing the cognitive, methodological, technological, and linguistic skills to do it. While linguistic skills are instrumental by definition, in the case of functional diversity, they have a second instrumental level that has an inclusive value. The foreign language class is a scenario where students with FD can develop important instrumental skills that they can apply in other situations outside the classroom. This is why the combination of language learning and FD is so important. In addition, the importance given to instrumental competences by employers has a direct

For example, for students with Asperger, work in group in the foreign language classroom may include guidelines on how to behave in a particular situation. This will develop the student's social skills and give them tools and strategies to manage specific situations in the real world. Another example can be the use of new technologies by students with visual diversity in the language classroom. Since they will need to make use of adequate technological tools and skills to respond to classroom tasks, the instrumental technological competence will be developed. In addition, the teachers and institutions need to consider which are the essential technological tools students with visual diversity may need and how these tools may assist them in their future working environment. An institution may have specific budget to cater for technological tools aimed at students with FD, while an academic department may decide to foster the use of specific technology that may be useful to the student with visual diversity, for instance, in the foreign language class. The department may evaluate and consider how the technological competences developed in the use of a specific tool may be useful to the class as a whole and/or to the student

We have seen how different approaches to teaching FL to SWFD in the syntagmatic paradigm include paying attention to FD types, to how SWFD function in the process of learning specific skills, and on how these considerations may help teachers design more effective teaching and testing strategies for their students. In the syntagmatic paradigm, the role of other agents in implementing adaptations is important. One is the figure of area/department coordinator for FD, who will need to design specific plans of action for teaching SWFD that all the members of the department should agree to follow. SWFD may also be assigned FD tutors who may assist them in the whole educational process in the HE institution. A teacher coordinator for each course should also supervise that methods used by teachers in the same course follow similar or the same principles so that no contradictory ideas will cause any problem. Finally, the role of student peers as task facilitators may prove to be an essential aid in the integration of SWFD. These students may act as tutors, or they may help, for instance, as scribes in helping notetaking processes or in cases where having another student write for you is easier for the SWFD (e.g., cases of students with physical functional diversity who cannot easily write). They may also act as readers to facilitate a specific reading purpose. In

**Figure 2** below, I summarize the key issues in the syntagmatic paradigm.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88073*

impact on the labor insertion of people with FD.

advancement.

with FD in particular.

#### *Multidimensional Networks for Functional Diversity in Higher Education: The Case of Second… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88073*

implemented in English as foreign language classes for deaf and hard-of-hearing students in Poland. Other researchers [27] pay attention to the deaf professional and develop teaching proposals for students with auditive FD that are an aid to integrate them in their future professional activities. This proposal works with English for special purpose students who are deaf and develops materials in the area of film production with the idea of preparing them to communicate with foreign peers in their future work environments and to promote their future professional advancement.

Working with students with FD in the language classroom fosters the development of instrumental competences [28]. These are the competences that have an instrumental or enabling function, that is, they make something possible by developing the cognitive, methodological, technological, and linguistic skills to do it. While linguistic skills are instrumental by definition, in the case of functional diversity, they have a second instrumental level that has an inclusive value. The foreign language class is a scenario where students with FD can develop important instrumental skills that they can apply in other situations outside the classroom. This is why the combination of language learning and FD is so important. In addition, the importance given to instrumental competences by employers has a direct impact on the labor insertion of people with FD.

For example, for students with Asperger, work in group in the foreign language classroom may include guidelines on how to behave in a particular situation. This will develop the student's social skills and give them tools and strategies to manage specific situations in the real world. Another example can be the use of new technologies by students with visual diversity in the language classroom. Since they will need to make use of adequate technological tools and skills to respond to classroom tasks, the instrumental technological competence will be developed. In addition, the teachers and institutions need to consider which are the essential technological tools students with visual diversity may need and how these tools may assist them in their future working environment. An institution may have specific budget to cater for technological tools aimed at students with FD, while an academic department may decide to foster the use of specific technology that may be useful to the student with visual diversity, for instance, in the foreign language class. The department may evaluate and consider how the technological competences developed in the use of a specific tool may be useful to the class as a whole and/or to the student with FD in particular.

We have seen how different approaches to teaching FL to SWFD in the syntagmatic paradigm include paying attention to FD types, to how SWFD function in the process of learning specific skills, and on how these considerations may help teachers design more effective teaching and testing strategies for their students.

In the syntagmatic paradigm, the role of other agents in implementing adaptations is important. One is the figure of area/department coordinator for FD, who will need to design specific plans of action for teaching SWFD that all the members of the department should agree to follow. SWFD may also be assigned FD tutors who may assist them in the whole educational process in the HE institution. A teacher coordinator for each course should also supervise that methods used by teachers in the same course follow similar or the same principles so that no contradictory ideas will cause any problem. Finally, the role of student peers as task facilitators may prove to be an essential aid in the integration of SWFD. These students may act as tutors, or they may help, for instance, as scribes in helping notetaking processes or in cases where having another student write for you is easier for the SWFD (e.g., cases of students with physical functional diversity who cannot easily write). They may also act as readers to facilitate a specific reading purpose. In **Figure 2** below, I summarize the key issues in the syntagmatic paradigm.

*Second Language Acquisition - Pedagogies, Practices and Perspectives*

perform the task.

specific needs [19–21].

student in the group.

interested in sports due to a lack of similar interests.

SWFD. Foreign language test administration procedures as well as task administration procedures need to include SWFD in their design phase. In practicing listening, administration includes not only checking that the audio has a good quality and adequate speed as well as clear diction but also designing the way in which students have to answer the listening task, that is, question type and sequencing and pauses and amounts of audio text to be listened before answering each or all the questions. It also includes the number of times that an audio will be listened in order to

Thus, in a listening task the sequencing and timing of questions need to be aligned with a specific type of FD. One possible course of action is to fragment the listening task into a number of recognizable sequences (episodes distinguished in the listening event as a whole). Instead of listening to the full text and then answer the questions, the SWFD may listen to each sequence and answer the questions for that sequence. This would also apply for the test question mentioned in the interview where the student is asked to summarize the whole listening. The audio text may be divided into smaller units to facilitate note-taking for the SWFD. In this regard, a relevant issue in foreign language test or task administration is the means of administration: paper or digital formats. Generally speaking, digital testing or TEA offers possible task and test administration procedures that may include adaptations for different SWFD by providing different access means. One of the advantages of digital educational contexts is that they facilitate multimodal environments in which different communicative modes—visual, audio, written, video, etc.—may be used as the means of access in a given task, and tasks can be accommodated to

So far, we have seen FD examples related to the skills of writing, reading, and listening. For other SWFD, social skills, which are more directly related to speaking skills, may pose certain problems. This is the case of students with Asperger [22] because they have problems with social interactions. Situations where students face stress or anxiety, such as cases of dysarthria [23], stuttering [9], or students with depression, are instances where the practice of oral skills need to be revised. In some cases, like dysarthria or stuttering, analyzing the specific condition of the student may lead to contemplate different options of task or test administration, design specific tutorial sessions, or use digital environments to facilitate the practice of spoken skills. In the case of students with Asperger, teachers will have to bear in mind how these students interact. For example, they usually start interaction in ways that are awkward for other students and in a not very effective way [24, 25], and they also want others to follow their rules and share their preferences, interests, or achievements. This knowledge should be used by the teachers, and it will help them with classroom management and the way tasks are organized so that students with Asperger may participate in classroom activities as any other

Other considerations for students with Asperger are that these students should not be grouped with peers that may cause them distress, fear, agitation, or anxiety. As an example, a recommendation [22] is that they should not be paired with those classmates that are usually perceived as the leaders or those that are strongly

A different case is that of SWFD for whom the foreign language is a third language and for whom the visual input and written input may be more relevant than audio-based information. Such is the case of students deaf and hard-of-hearing persons [26, 27]. Innovative research in this field is, for example, the work of Ewa Domagala-Zysk and her development of surdoglottodidactics—a science of teaching and learning a foreign language by DHH (deaf and hard-of-hearing persons) individuals—which has shaped the nature of learning and teaching strategies

**74**

**Figure 2.** *The syntagmatic paradigm of functional diversity.*

As illustrated in the figure, in the syntagmatic paradigm for a SWFD to develop his/her foreign language skills, peers, tutors, teachers, and coordinators need to interact and share their practices. Lack of coordination would entail problems and misunderstandings in the SWFD daily experience. Lack of teacher training in FD is perhaps the most urgent need in HE. Even though many professionals may be interested in FD and devote time to read informed materials, there is a general lack of coordination in a departmental organization and procedures toward integration of SWFD, and the teacher is usually left to make their own decisions in their classrooms.

#### **5. Multidimensional networks for functional diversity in higher education**

While the organizational and the syntagmatic paradigms are sometimes self-sufficient, a connection between both paradigms in what I will call multidimensional networks for functional diversity should be a requisite in FD. The different agents involved in the process should communicate and evaluate each other's progress and proposals. In the previous section, I mentioned how the teacher may be left to take their own decisions as to how they manage SWFD or which adaptations they finally implement in their subjects. Communication procedures at a multidimensional level would mean that the institution should foster those actions oriented toward teacher training not only on a general level (which is important) but also on a specific field of study level where adaptations can be more detailed and can be specified more clearly in relation to specific subjects. In order to do so, it is essential to support research in FD and HE. It is also necessary to facilitate research results and to promote the transferability of good practices. Tutors and teachers should also be informed about the institutional policies on FD so they can provide their students with the information they need in a timely manner. When institutional proposals are not working or are seen as not useful, it is those tutors and teachers who should report specific problems to higher institutional levels for revision.

The problems that SWFD may face in a HE context may be very similar to those found later on in their working practice. Some questions in the interview shown in the appendix reflect miscommunication problems between the syntagmatic and organizational paradigms. I will now comment on the interview questions.

Question 2 relates to how the majority of teachers both in private and public institutions are not prepared to consider the needs of SWFD. In preparing for her competitive exam, the student in the interview could not find any preparation school or academy able to provide her, for example, with technology-enabled materials and training that could have facilitated and improved her preparation for the

**77**

the student.

raises

*Multidimensional Networks for Functional Diversity in Higher Education: The Case of Second…*

exam. The student also reports that she is unaware of any state exam preparation resources. These resources, whenever they exist, must be publicized, and SWFD

Question 3 poses an interesting challenge: the student is eager to learn and get a good training and registers for courses, but then what is supposed to be an innovative, ITC-based instruction ends up being a problem for her due to the lack of adaptation of the most frequently used tools used in FL environments, such as Moodle. Again, it seems to be the case that adaptations are only considered in exam situations, and even in those situations, they tend to be general. The challenge that is now starting to be taken on by some researchers is to study FD and analyze

Question 4 has been commented on in the body of this chapter. It shows examples of professional experiences that a teacher with FD may have to overcome. As explained before, there is a lack of staff training for adapting professional environ-

Question 5 points in the direction of a lack of knowledge on research related to test adaptations. This is particularly significative on the part of the student. She is asking for general adaptations, but she is also trying to explain her needs, her specific needs. One important aspect of adaptations is to inform the student with time enough before the test. A SWFD cannot be left to imagine how the test will be. They should be informed about test format and about the accepted adaptations well ahead of the exam time. This is particularly important because when one prepares for a test, one prepares for a specific format and means of administration. Not having this information in advance may lead to a less effective student performance. In question 6, the student indicates that she had an interview with the examiners a few days before, but this is clearly a very short span of time to manage the information they may give her in preparation for the exam. It is obviously also a short time for the examiners to decide on how to design specific adaptations based on the report of

Question 7 addresses the issue of social integration. The student expresses her concern with the examiners' full appreciation of her abilities and fears that a marginalized vision of her FD may affect the evaluation of her performance in the oral part of the exam. This is an issue that is affecting the student's preparation for the exam, though assessment criteria are probably neutral enough to impede personal evaluation from permeating into the final grade. Perhaps publication of detailed assessment criteria would avoid this situation. At present, the mark percentage for

Questions 7 and 8 talk about the listening part of the exam the interviewee is about to take and the worries the student has regarding its administration. The official call for the examination explains that the listening is based on a C2 level

a.Response to general and/or detailed questions that the selection committee

b.Summary of the information contained in the audio (approximately 200

The call states that the audio document will be between 5 and 6 min long and will be played twice. The duration of this part will have a maximum time of 50 min.

The length of the audio (5–6 min) seems to be too long for a student with visual diversity, and the student will not know whether the audio will be stopped in the

audio document and states that the following tasks will be carried out:

words), as determined by the selection committee

The value of this part of the exam is 40% of the total percentage.

ments that are friendlier and more aware of the needs of people with FD.

should be informed of their existence on registering for the exam.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88073*

specific needs to adapt ITC tools.

each part of the exam is publicized.

#### *Multidimensional Networks for Functional Diversity in Higher Education: The Case of Second… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88073*

exam. The student also reports that she is unaware of any state exam preparation resources. These resources, whenever they exist, must be publicized, and SWFD should be informed of their existence on registering for the exam.

Question 3 poses an interesting challenge: the student is eager to learn and get a good training and registers for courses, but then what is supposed to be an innovative, ITC-based instruction ends up being a problem for her due to the lack of adaptation of the most frequently used tools used in FL environments, such as Moodle. Again, it seems to be the case that adaptations are only considered in exam situations, and even in those situations, they tend to be general. The challenge that is now starting to be taken on by some researchers is to study FD and analyze specific needs to adapt ITC tools.

Question 4 has been commented on in the body of this chapter. It shows examples of professional experiences that a teacher with FD may have to overcome. As explained before, there is a lack of staff training for adapting professional environments that are friendlier and more aware of the needs of people with FD.

Question 5 points in the direction of a lack of knowledge on research related to test adaptations. This is particularly significative on the part of the student. She is asking for general adaptations, but she is also trying to explain her needs, her specific needs. One important aspect of adaptations is to inform the student with time enough before the test. A SWFD cannot be left to imagine how the test will be. They should be informed about test format and about the accepted adaptations well ahead of the exam time. This is particularly important because when one prepares for a test, one prepares for a specific format and means of administration. Not having this information in advance may lead to a less effective student performance. In question 6, the student indicates that she had an interview with the examiners a few days before, but this is clearly a very short span of time to manage the information they may give her in preparation for the exam. It is obviously also a short time for the examiners to decide on how to design specific adaptations based on the report of the student.

Question 7 addresses the issue of social integration. The student expresses her concern with the examiners' full appreciation of her abilities and fears that a marginalized vision of her FD may affect the evaluation of her performance in the oral part of the exam. This is an issue that is affecting the student's preparation for the exam, though assessment criteria are probably neutral enough to impede personal evaluation from permeating into the final grade. Perhaps publication of detailed assessment criteria would avoid this situation. At present, the mark percentage for each part of the exam is publicized.

Questions 7 and 8 talk about the listening part of the exam the interviewee is about to take and the worries the student has regarding its administration. The official call for the examination explains that the listening is based on a C2 level audio document and states that the following tasks will be carried out:


The call states that the audio document will be between 5 and 6 min long and will be played twice. The duration of this part will have a maximum time of 50 min. The value of this part of the exam is 40% of the total percentage.

The length of the audio (5–6 min) seems to be too long for a student with visual diversity, and the student will not know whether the audio will be stopped in the

*Second Language Acquisition - Pedagogies, Practices and Perspectives*

As illustrated in the figure, in the syntagmatic paradigm for a SWFD to develop his/her foreign language skills, peers, tutors, teachers, and coordinators need to interact and share their practices. Lack of coordination would entail problems and misunderstandings in the SWFD daily experience. Lack of teacher training in FD is perhaps the most urgent need in HE. Even though many professionals may be interested in FD and devote time to read informed materials, there is a general lack of coordination in a departmental organization and procedures toward integration of SWFD, and the teacher is usually left to make their own decisions in their classrooms.

**5. Multidimensional networks for functional diversity in higher** 

report specific problems to higher institutional levels for revision.

While the organizational and the syntagmatic paradigms are sometimes self-sufficient, a connection between both paradigms in what I will call multidimensional networks for functional diversity should be a requisite in FD. The different agents involved in the process should communicate and evaluate each other's progress and proposals. In the previous section, I mentioned how the teacher may be left to take their own decisions as to how they manage SWFD or which adaptations they finally implement in their subjects. Communication procedures at a multidimensional level would mean that the institution should foster those actions oriented toward teacher training not only on a general level (which is important) but also on a specific field of study level where adaptations can be more detailed and can be specified more clearly in relation to specific subjects. In order to do so, it is essential to support research in FD and HE. It is also necessary to facilitate research results and to promote the transferability of good practices. Tutors and teachers should also be informed about the institutional policies on FD so they can provide their students with the information they need in a timely manner. When institutional proposals are not working or are seen as not useful, it is those tutors and teachers who should

The problems that SWFD may face in a HE context may be very similar to those found later on in their working practice. Some questions in the interview shown in the appendix reflect miscommunication problems between the syntagmatic and organizational paradigms. I will now comment on the interview questions.

Question 2 relates to how the majority of teachers both in private and public institutions are not prepared to consider the needs of SWFD. In preparing for her competitive exam, the student in the interview could not find any preparation school or academy able to provide her, for example, with technology-enabled materials and training that could have facilitated and improved her preparation for the

**76**

**education**

**Figure 2.**

*The syntagmatic paradigm of functional diversity.*

middle to allow her to take notes as needed, or whether it will be simply played more times as she requests.

*Q8. About the listening part of the exam. You know that when you complete a listening test, you have to answer a number of questions that you can read while you listen. I cannot do that, I have to either listen or get the voice over read for me, but not both things at a time. Therefore, I cannot visualize the questions in the listening as other people do, so I have asked to have the audio played more times to compensate for this…I hope to meet the board of examiners before the day of the exam so that I can explain myself better or answer their questions regarding this matter.*

It seems to me that these decisions should not be left so much to what the student imagines that could be made, though her opinion is of course very important. What matters, though, is that examiners and the administration should already possess enough information on FD to provide the student with adequate options, instead of leaving that burden on the student alone. The issue of pausing or not for the summary of the audio information is also a problematic question for the student, who cannot prepare for a specific option in advance.

Finally, question 9 is a good reflection on how the focus on the abilities of SWFD and professionals with FD may contribute to the development of good practices based on their experience:

*Q9. I tell them that if I make a mistake while I write, they can tell me. We learn from mistakes. So, I take advantage of this to teach them that if one makes a mistake, you just rectify and that's it, there is nothing wrong about that.*

In the case of this teacher, she takes advantage of her FD to teach students about attitudes in relation to making mistakes and about behaving properly and acting in an ethical way.

#### **6. Concluding remarks**

A multidimensional network for functional diversity in HE is based on the principle of cooperation and evaluation among the different agents of the process, both at the organizational and the syntagmatic paradigm levels. In this sense, we should remember that important actions and beliefs for implementing good practices in FD include:


**79**

**administration?**

*Multidimensional Networks for Functional Diversity in Higher Education: The Case of Second…*

Research calls for action [2, 3] in the training of language teachers for FD teaching and assessment. Considering the difficulties discussed throughout this chapter regarding good FD practices, designing multidimensional networks is vital. The benefits are twofold in working with students with FD in the language class. While developing a first level of instrumentality in linguistic competences, students are also dealing with a second level of instrumentality whenever the foreign language class gives them clues, tools, and strategies that deal with other instrumental

As stated in the introduction, the language learning context is an ideal arena where FD may find its own expression; it is a place for innovation where we can develop new ideas on how to communicate and how to foster new ways of under-

The research conducted in this chapter is part of the Universitat Jaume I

**Appendix: interview to a teacher/student of English with visual** 

**Question 1: Why did you decide to take the national competitive exam to** 

languages, I made the decision to get a job as a teacher, and here I am.

**Question 2: What kind of institutional help did you get from the state** 

body goes to prepare for the exam, and I got prepared there. Same as now.

Well, I have not received any help to prepare for my exam. When I took the first exam chance, I was still able to see using Telelupa (a kind of TV that augments images in a screen, even if the reading is slower, and the wider letters you use, the narrower field of text vision you have…so you take a long time to answer). And I had to manage myself, I got no other help. I went to the private school were every-

To be honest, if there is any help from the administration to get oneself prepared

I come from a family of teachers, and that was something I always felt curious about. First, I started looking for other types of job as a translator. I started job interviews around the country, and I had a good curriculum and was not questioned about my visual diversity, but there were many untold prejudices, unfinished sentences…like "if something happened to you…." But since I always liked teaching

Before that, even before the first job interviews, I considered working for the Spanish Association for Blind People (ONCE) selling coupons, which would give me a job quite easily, and that would allow me to be independent. However, at that moment, from a psychological point of view, I wanted to do something else in my life, invest time in the things that I like, and I decided to take the hard path, get trained as a teacher, study more, even though I knew it would take me many more years to get a good job. But I did not want to have an easy money kind of job, I wanted to feel proud of what I did, do something that I like better, even if it meant

Education and Innovation Research Projects 3254/16 and 3620/18.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88073*

general competences, which are highly valued by employers.

standing communication from a FD perspective.

**Acknowledgements**

**become a language teacher?**

working harder and longer to get that job.

for the exam, I do not know about it.

**diversity**

• Focusing on language skills and their constructs is a good organizational principle for FL teaching in a diversity context.

*Multidimensional Networks for Functional Diversity in Higher Education: The Case of Second… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88073*

Research calls for action [2, 3] in the training of language teachers for FD teaching and assessment. Considering the difficulties discussed throughout this chapter regarding good FD practices, designing multidimensional networks is vital. The benefits are twofold in working with students with FD in the language class. While developing a first level of instrumentality in linguistic competences, students are also dealing with a second level of instrumentality whenever the foreign language class gives them clues, tools, and strategies that deal with other instrumental general competences, which are highly valued by employers.

As stated in the introduction, the language learning context is an ideal arena where FD may find its own expression; it is a place for innovation where we can develop new ideas on how to communicate and how to foster new ways of understanding communication from a FD perspective.

#### **Acknowledgements**

*Second Language Acquisition - Pedagogies, Practices and Perspectives*

cannot prepare for a specific option in advance.

more times as she requests.

based on their experience:

**6. Concluding remarks**

tors on a general level.

good practices in their field of study.

constant feedback for good practices.

be supported and fostered by the institution.

principle for FL teaching in a diversity context.

an ethical way.

middle to allow her to take notes as needed, or whether it will be simply played

*Q8. About the listening part of the exam. You know that when you complete a listening test, you have to answer a number of questions that you can read while you listen. I cannot do that, I have to either listen or get the voice over read for me, but not both things at a time. Therefore, I cannot visualize the questions in the listening as other people do, so I have asked to have the audio played more times to compensate for this…I hope to meet the board of examiners before the day of the exam so that I can explain myself better or answer their questions regarding this matter.*

It seems to me that these decisions should not be left so much to what the student imagines that could be made, though her opinion is of course very important. What matters, though, is that examiners and the administration should already possess enough information on FD to provide the student with adequate options, instead of leaving that burden on the student alone. The issue of pausing or not for the summary of the audio information is also a problematic question for the student, who

Finally, question 9 is a good reflection on how the focus on the abilities of SWFD

and professionals with FD may contribute to the development of good practices

*Q9. I tell them that if I make a mistake while I write, they can tell me. We learn from mistakes. So, I take advantage of this to teach them that if one makes a mistake, you just rectify and that's it, there is nothing wrong about that.*

In the case of this teacher, she takes advantage of her FD to teach students about attitudes in relation to making mistakes and about behaving properly and acting in

A multidimensional network for functional diversity in HE is based on the principle of cooperation and evaluation among the different agents of the process, both at the organizational and the syntagmatic paradigm levels. In this sense, we should remember that important actions and beliefs for implementing good practices in FD include:

• Support units have a role in organizing and informing FD tutors and coordina-

• Departments and academic coordinators need to design protocols to support

• Syntagmatic support from peers and teachers, where teacher training needs to

• Teacher training needs to be based on theoretical research, classroom research, and classroom management experiences. The three of them are a cycle of

• Focusing on language skills and their constructs is a good organizational

**78**

The research conducted in this chapter is part of the Universitat Jaume I Education and Innovation Research Projects 3254/16 and 3620/18.

#### **Appendix: interview to a teacher/student of English with visual diversity**

#### **Question 1: Why did you decide to take the national competitive exam to become a language teacher?**

I come from a family of teachers, and that was something I always felt curious about. First, I started looking for other types of job as a translator. I started job interviews around the country, and I had a good curriculum and was not questioned about my visual diversity, but there were many untold prejudices, unfinished sentences…like "if something happened to you…." But since I always liked teaching languages, I made the decision to get a job as a teacher, and here I am.

Before that, even before the first job interviews, I considered working for the Spanish Association for Blind People (ONCE) selling coupons, which would give me a job quite easily, and that would allow me to be independent. However, at that moment, from a psychological point of view, I wanted to do something else in my life, invest time in the things that I like, and I decided to take the hard path, get trained as a teacher, study more, even though I knew it would take me many more years to get a good job. But I did not want to have an easy money kind of job, I wanted to feel proud of what I did, do something that I like better, even if it meant working harder and longer to get that job.

#### **Question 2: What kind of institutional help did you get from the state administration?**

Well, I have not received any help to prepare for my exam. When I took the first exam chance, I was still able to see using Telelupa (a kind of TV that augments images in a screen, even if the reading is slower, and the wider letters you use, the narrower field of text vision you have…so you take a long time to answer). And I had to manage myself, I got no other help. I went to the private school were everybody goes to prepare for the exam, and I got prepared there. Same as now.

To be honest, if there is any help from the administration to get oneself prepared for the exam, I do not know about it.

#### **Question 3: What kind of help do you get at work to prepare for the exam or for any training courses?**

During the years I have been studying on my own and I have been training myself. The problem is that nearly no learning platform is accessible, so I am very limited when I have to follow the different new platforms, and the screen reader is just not enough. I went to a Moodle course recently, but I had to give up because it was impossible for me to follow it. And I love technology, I always have. If that was made accessible…wow…that would be just great! It would open so many doors for me, but right now I cannot update my training since all courses follow the newest ICT platforms, and they are simply not accessible.

#### **Question 4: Does your school help you to develop your job as a teacher of English?**

During my training period as a language teacher, I have found schools that were not accessible and which had no lifts from one floor to another. And the school itself was not accessible, it was not easy to reach the school.

I did not use a wheelchair when I started to work. At that time, I still used crutches. One year, I had this situation, let me see if I can manage to explain it. You know on Fridays we have to go to the school headquarters, and for that I had to take a train since the headquarters were 50 km away from the school where I worked. I could not drive and it was also really difficult for me to get a train. And when I talked to the head of the school and the administration departments, and they did not really understand my situation very well, did not have much information about how to proceed. But after a lot of talking, they finally decided that I would do a different complementary task at home and would be supervised, and that really made things a lot easier.

Then, I think it was the following year, I was sent to a school with no lift and many stairs. But the headmaster made me go up the stairs, he gave me no other choice. But I was starting, I was new there, and I did not want to make any trouble… even if I could have placed a denounce I did not. And in those times, I could have been placing a denounce on a daily basis. I got a lot of help from my colleagues. But this person, he even recommended that I checked that the school I would chose in the future was ready for me. He told me: "You need to understand we are not used to people like you."

A few years ago, I was sent to a school outside my hometown. Since I do not drive, I need to rent a flat when I get sent to a place just 20 min away from home. I went working, and on the first day I found there was an access ramp, but that does not mean it is easy to go up the ramp, they may be too vertical and thus hard to go up the ramp. But then the rest of the building was not accessible, and, for instance, in order to reach my classroom, I had to cross a patio, there were many huge glass panels along a corridor…but I cannot see, so I would not know where those were. Finally, I got a solution from the administration and got sent to a different school. But in that moment, I did not even contemplate legal complaint. I think I simply do not have the energy to be complaining and fighting all the time.

This year, there was an administration mistake, and even if I got many points and had the right to choose a better place, in the list for the place allocation, I was assigned a village 1 h away from home. So, my colleagues helped me a lot with the situation, and I had to go to the administration again to complain and get a solution, I would have needed a personal assistant if I had to go to that place, so in the end it was a relief. But again, it took me a lot of time and effort to get it solved.

**81**

*Multidimensional Networks for Functional Diversity in Higher Education: The Case of Second…*

**Question 5: In the competitive exam, do you know which types of adaptations will you get before entering for the exam? Who informs you about the type of** 

When I have to take an exam, I have to say it to Social Welfare because they are the ones that have to process the adaptations that I need for the exam. For that, I make a list with the needs that I have, the adaptations that I need. Actually, it is not about what adaptations I will be granted but about what I really need. They process it and sign it. There are of course a number of laws for adaptations that correspond according to the file number we have, and Social Welfare follow these laws to grant

**Question 6: When you register for the competitive exam, do you have any interview with the test givers? Or is there any questionnaire or something similar** 

When I register for the official competitive exam, you know, this is the third time, well,…I remember I had a meeting like a couple of days before the exam with the test givers. I met them personally, and I could give them all the information I

Which part of the test is the one that worries me the most? I worry about all the parts! Look, on the one hand, I'm very insecure about myself. And on the other hand, I hope that the examiners do not have prejudices with my disability, whether we like it or not, that happens sometimes. Then of course, I'm trying not to…that my intervention in the competitive exam diverts the attention of the examiners to what I am doing and not to how I am…and that brings me to my head, gives me a lot of anxiety.…and I am really overwhelmed with that, I feel so anxious about it.

And then there is the listening…the famous listening. One of my biggest problems is that I have very little concentration, and it is not that I do not understand it,

**Question 8: You said that you may ask for adaptations. For the competitive exam** 

I have asked to have a computer so that I can write my exam and also to prepare and defend the curriculum and didactic unit. Perhaps they could read the framework descriptors for me, this is another part of the exam, or they could digitalize that part of the exam for me so that I can read it. Apart from that I have asked to take my headphones with me because the voice-over would be quite annoying for the rest of the people in the room, so this way I can listen quietly

Then also, there should be no images, tables, or graphics in the exam texts

Now, regarding the timing, they have a look at your file and decide on the time

Regarding the computer they told me I cannot use my own since I could cheat, I mean, copy things, form the documents in my computer. So, they have given me a computer to practice with and take to the exam. It should be as similar as possible as the one I use. But the one they have provided is an older computer, and I will

but that I have a hard time concentrating. So, this task is difficult for me.

**that you are soon taking, which adaptations did you ask for?**

adaptation. I have an extra hour extension for each exam hour.

or not to grant, but with that I have not had any problem at all.

**where you can state your needs and worries?**

**Question 7: What part of the exam worries you most?**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88073*

**adaptations for your exam?**

wanted to provide.

and not interfere.

because I cannot do anything with them.

*Multidimensional Networks for Functional Diversity in Higher Education: The Case of Second… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88073*

#### **Question 5: In the competitive exam, do you know which types of adaptations will you get before entering for the exam? Who informs you about the type of adaptations for your exam?**

When I have to take an exam, I have to say it to Social Welfare because they are the ones that have to process the adaptations that I need for the exam. For that, I make a list with the needs that I have, the adaptations that I need. Actually, it is not about what adaptations I will be granted but about what I really need. They process it and sign it. There are of course a number of laws for adaptations that correspond according to the file number we have, and Social Welfare follow these laws to grant or not to grant, but with that I have not had any problem at all.

#### **Question 6: When you register for the competitive exam, do you have any interview with the test givers? Or is there any questionnaire or something similar where you can state your needs and worries?**

When I register for the official competitive exam, you know, this is the third time, well,…I remember I had a meeting like a couple of days before the exam with the test givers. I met them personally, and I could give them all the information I wanted to provide.

#### **Question 7: What part of the exam worries you most?**

Which part of the test is the one that worries me the most? I worry about all the parts! Look, on the one hand, I'm very insecure about myself. And on the other hand, I hope that the examiners do not have prejudices with my disability, whether we like it or not, that happens sometimes. Then of course, I'm trying not to…that my intervention in the competitive exam diverts the attention of the examiners to what I am doing and not to how I am…and that brings me to my head, gives me a lot of anxiety.…and I am really overwhelmed with that, I feel so anxious about it.

And then there is the listening…the famous listening. One of my biggest problems is that I have very little concentration, and it is not that I do not understand it, but that I have a hard time concentrating. So, this task is difficult for me.

#### **Question 8: You said that you may ask for adaptations. For the competitive exam that you are soon taking, which adaptations did you ask for?**

I have asked to have a computer so that I can write my exam and also to prepare and defend the curriculum and didactic unit. Perhaps they could read the framework descriptors for me, this is another part of the exam, or they could digitalize that part of the exam for me so that I can read it. Apart from that I have asked to take my headphones with me because the voice-over would be quite annoying for the rest of the people in the room, so this way I can listen quietly and not interfere.

Then also, there should be no images, tables, or graphics in the exam texts because I cannot do anything with them.

Now, regarding the timing, they have a look at your file and decide on the time adaptation. I have an extra hour extension for each exam hour.

Regarding the computer they told me I cannot use my own since I could cheat, I mean, copy things, form the documents in my computer. So, they have given me a computer to practice with and take to the exam. It should be as similar as possible as the one I use. But the one they have provided is an older computer, and I will

*Second Language Acquisition - Pedagogies, Practices and Perspectives*

ICT platforms, and they are simply not accessible.

was not accessible, it was not easy to reach the school.

**any training courses?**

**English?**

things a lot easier.

people like you."

**Question 3: What kind of help do you get at work to prepare for the exam or for** 

During the years I have been studying on my own and I have been training myself. The problem is that nearly no learning platform is accessible, so I am very limited when I have to follow the different new platforms, and the screen reader is just not enough. I went to a Moodle course recently, but I had to give up because it was impossible for me to follow it. And I love technology, I always have. If that was made accessible…wow…that would be just great! It would open so many doors for me, but right now I cannot update my training since all courses follow the newest

**Question 4: Does your school help you to develop your job as a teacher of** 

During my training period as a language teacher, I have found schools that were not accessible and which had no lifts from one floor to another. And the school itself

I did not use a wheelchair when I started to work. At that time, I still used crutches. One year, I had this situation, let me see if I can manage to explain it. You know on Fridays we have to go to the school headquarters, and for that I had to take a train since the headquarters were 50 km away from the school where I worked. I could not drive and it was also really difficult for me to get a train. And when I talked to the head of the school and the administration departments, and they did not really understand my situation very well, did not have much information about how to proceed. But after a lot of talking, they finally decided that I would do a different complementary task at home and would be supervised, and that really made

Then, I think it was the following year, I was sent to a school with no lift and many stairs. But the headmaster made me go up the stairs, he gave me no other choice. But I was starting, I was new there, and I did not want to make any trouble… even if I could have placed a denounce I did not. And in those times, I could have been placing a denounce on a daily basis. I got a lot of help from my colleagues. But this person, he even recommended that I checked that the school I would chose in the future was ready for me. He told me: "You need to understand we are not used to

A few years ago, I was sent to a school outside my hometown. Since I do not drive, I need to rent a flat when I get sent to a place just 20 min away from home. I went working, and on the first day I found there was an access ramp, but that does not mean it is easy to go up the ramp, they may be too vertical and thus hard to go up the ramp. But then the rest of the building was not accessible, and, for instance, in order to reach my classroom, I had to cross a patio, there were many huge glass panels along a corridor…but I cannot see, so I would not know where those were. Finally, I got a solution from the administration and got sent to a different school. But in that moment, I did not even contemplate legal complaint. I think I simply do

This year, there was an administration mistake, and even if I got many points and had the right to choose a better place, in the list for the place allocation, I was assigned a village 1 h away from home. So, my colleagues helped me a lot with the situation, and I had to go to the administration again to complain and get a solution, I would have needed a personal assistant if I had to go to that place, so in the end it

not have the energy to be complaining and fighting all the time.

was a relief. But again, it took me a lot of time and effort to get it solved.

**80**

have to use an obsolete system unable to update the tools I use and adapt myself to a less efficient computer and tools than the ones I usually work with. But well, I will adapt anyway.

About the listening part of the exam. You know that when you complete a listening test, you have to answer a number of questions that you can read while you listen. I cannot do that, I have to either listen or get the voice-over read for me, but not both things at a time. Therefore, I cannot visualize the questions in the listening as other people do, so I have asked to have the audio played more times to compensate for this…I hope to meet the board of examiners before the day of the exam so that I can explain myself better or answer their questions regarding this matter.

#### **Question 9: What is different about learning and teaching a language after losing your sight? Which abilities have you developed?**

All my process since I started studying till now as a teacher, there have been many changes. First, I could see well, then less, then I did not see enough to read and write and did all simply what I could. I was then 19, sometimes they recorded books for me, sometimes my parents read for me things like the history of the world. That was secondary school. Then when I decided to study a degree, I was then about 30, and I used lenses, I had to magnify the screen. In the computer I had to enlarge the screen so the reading process was really slow. Two years later when I decided to take the competitive exams, it was not a good experience because the reading speed was not enough, and it was not coherent due to the reading method. When I started teaching, I still used magnifying lenses for the screen.

Now when I am in class, I simply explain the students how things work for me, and there has never been a problem. It is very clear for me that for learning or teaching a language, we do not need sight. I am aware that my students do see and they do not have to do things without seeing, because they do see. Well, I try to adapt to that situation of difference. On the other hand, that makes me feel safe because the fact of telling them this is what happens to me, I need this or that from you…well I take advantage of that on the pedagogical side. For instance, in the first day of class, I tell them that since I have to get to know them and recognize them by their voice, if they do not participate in class, they get no points, so they do participate a lot, which is really good. And in 3 or 4 days, I already know them all.

The truth is I am very happy about this reality, we get to have a close relationship, they are a bit more than students, we share many things and have a good time in class. So, I tell them to help me identify a page in a book. And I tell them that if I make a mistake while I write, they can tell me. We learn from mistakes. So, I take advantage of this to teach them that if one makes a mistake, you just rectify and that' s it; there is nothing wrong about that. I transcribe nearly everything with the computer, and it gets projected on the whiteboard, and they can read and take notes, and I tell them that if I make a mistake, I do not feel embarrassed, I rectify and I tell them that they can let me know if there is any spelling mistake. I think that plays in my favor.

There is also the issue of cheating in exams, I think some of my students do cheat, they use their mobiles and copy things. But I do my job and they have to do theirs. But since I know them a lot and make them write a lot, I know who has the level and who does not. It is a matter of ethics and they have to learn that too.

**83**

**Author details**

Mari Carmen Campoy-Cubillo

\*Address all correspondence to: campoy@uji.es

provided the original work is properly cited.

Department of English Studies, Universitat Jaume I, Castellón, Spain

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

*Multidimensional Networks for Functional Diversity in Higher Education: The Case of Second…*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88073*

*Multidimensional Networks for Functional Diversity in Higher Education: The Case of Second… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88073*

#### **Author details**

*Second Language Acquisition - Pedagogies, Practices and Perspectives*

**ing your sight? Which abilities have you developed?**

adapt anyway.

have to use an obsolete system unable to update the tools I use and adapt myself to a less efficient computer and tools than the ones I usually work with. But well, I will

About the listening part of the exam. You know that when you complete a listening test, you have to answer a number of questions that you can read while you listen. I cannot do that, I have to either listen or get the voice-over read for me, but not both things at a time. Therefore, I cannot visualize the questions in the listening as other people do, so I have asked to have the audio played more times to compensate for this…I hope to meet the board of examiners before the day of the exam so that I can explain myself better or answer their questions regarding this matter.

**Question 9: What is different about learning and teaching a language after los-**

All my process since I started studying till now as a teacher, there have been many changes. First, I could see well, then less, then I did not see enough to read and write and did all simply what I could. I was then 19, sometimes they recorded books for me, sometimes my parents read for me things like the history of the world. That was secondary school. Then when I decided to study a degree, I was then about 30, and I used lenses, I had to magnify the screen. In the computer I had to enlarge the screen so the reading process was really slow. Two years later when I decided to take the competitive exams, it was not a good experience because the reading speed was not enough, and it was not coherent due to the reading method. When I started teaching, I still used magnifying lenses for the screen. Now when I am in class, I simply explain the students how things work for me, and there has never been a problem. It is very clear for me that for learning or teaching a language, we do not need sight. I am aware that my students do see and they do not have to do things without seeing, because they do see. Well, I try to adapt to that situation of difference. On the other hand, that makes me feel safe because the fact of telling them this is what happens to me, I need this or that from you…well I take advantage of that on the pedagogical side. For instance, in the first day of class, I tell them that since I have to get to know them and recognize them by their voice, if they do not participate in class, they get no points, so they do partici-

pate a lot, which is really good. And in 3 or 4 days, I already know them all.

The truth is I am very happy about this reality, we get to have a close relationship, they are a bit more than students, we share many things and have a good time in class. So, I tell them to help me identify a page in a book. And I tell them that if I make a mistake while I write, they can tell me. We learn from mistakes. So, I take advantage of this to teach them that if one makes a mistake, you just rectify and that' s it; there is nothing wrong about that. I transcribe nearly everything with the computer, and it gets projected on the whiteboard, and they can read and take notes, and I tell them that if I make a mistake, I do not feel embarrassed, I rectify and I tell them that they can let me know if there is any spelling mistake. I think

There is also the issue of cheating in exams, I think some of my students do cheat, they use their mobiles and copy things. But I do my job and they have to do theirs. But since I know them a lot and make them write a lot, I know who has the level and who does not. It is a matter of ethics and they have to learn that too.

**82**

that plays in my favor.

Mari Carmen Campoy-Cubillo Department of English Studies, Universitat Jaume I, Castellón, Spain

\*Address all correspondence to: campoy@uji.es

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

### **References**

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[2] Vogt K, Sperling I, Brüstle M. TALE Teachers' Assessment Literacy Enhancement Needs analysis report. Erasmus + European Union. 2018. Project No. 2015-1CY01-KA201-011863 (project No. 2015-1-CY01-KA201-011863). Available from: http://taleproject.eu/ mod/page/view.php?id=1198

[3] Nijakowska J, Tsagari D, Spanoudis G. English as a foreign language teacher training needs and perceived preparedness to include dyslexic learners: The case of Greece, Cyprus, and Poland. Dyslexia. 2018;**24**(4):357-379

[4] Ballesteros Pena A, Calero Martínez J, Fontcuberta Estrada X, García Martínez A, De Wispelaere J. Guía para la evaluación de programas y políticas públicas de discapacidad. CERMI. Madrid: Grupo Editorial Cinca; 2013

[5] Recomendaciones discapacidad. Guía de orientación. Gran Canaria: Universidad de Gran Canaria. Vicerrectorado de estudiantes y extensión universitaria; 2011

[6] Disability Advisory Service. Disability Support Advice. Oxford: Oxford University; Available from: https://www1.admin.ox.ac.uk/aad/ swss/disability/aboutdisability/ disabilitysupportadvice/

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[8] Burgstahler, S. Making Science Labs Accessible to Students with Disabilities. DO-IT, University of Washington; 2008. Available from: https://www. washington.edu/doit/sites/default/ files/atoms/files/Making-Science-Labs-Accessible-Students-Disabilities.pdf

[9] García-Pastor MD, Miller R. Unveiling the needs of students who stutter in the language skills-a study on anxiety and stuttering in EFL learning. European Journal of Special Needs Education. 2019;**34**(2):1-17. DOI: 10.1080/08856257.2019.1581400

[10] Almond P, Winter P, Cameto R, Russell M, Sato E, Clarke-Midura J, et al. Technology-enabled and universally designed assessment: Considering access in measuring the achievement of students with disabilities—A foundation for research. The Journal of Technology, Learning and Assessment. 2010;**10**(5): 4-51. Available from: http://www.jtla.org

[11] Mäkelä T, Puupponen H. Good practices for ensuring access and equity in higher education. In: Dovigo F, Casanova L, editors. Good Practices for Equity and Inclusion in Higher Education, Collana Educazione Inclusiva-Inclusive Education Series. Vol. 2017, 6. Bergamo: University of Bergamo; 2017. pp. 41-55

[12] Kormos J. The Second Language Learning Processes of Students with Specific Learning Difficulties (Second Language Acquisition Research Series). New York: Routledge; 2017

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*Multidimensional Networks for Functional Diversity in Higher Education: The Case of Second…*

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[21] Ting KY. Multimodal resources to facilitate language learning for students with special needs. International Education Studies. 2014;**7**(8):85-93.

[22] Wire V. Autistic spectrum disorders and learning foreign languages. Support for Learning. 2005;**20**(3):123-128. DOI: 10.1111/j.0268-2141.2005.00375.x

[23] Campoy-Cubillo MC. Dysarthria and teaching speaking skills in English as a foreign language: A case study. Miscelánea: A Journal of English and American Studies. 2016;**53**:17-45

[24] Padrón P. Asperger en el Aula: Historia de Javier. Barcelona: Ediciones

[25] Madriaga M, Goodley D, Hodge N, Martin N. Enabling transition into higher education for students with Asperger syndrome. Project Report. Higher Education Academy. 2008. Sheffield Hallam University Research Archive (SHURA). Available from: http://shura.shu.ac.uk/1004/

[26] Domagała-Zyśk E, Kontra EH, editors. English as a Foreign Language for Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Persons. Challenges and Strategies. Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing; 2016

[27] Ochse E. English for specific purposes and the deaf professional:

Domagała-Zyśk E, Kontra EH, editors. English as a Foreign Language for Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Persons in Europe. Lublin: Wydawnictwo KUL; pp. 77-91

[28] Tuning Project. 2000. Available from: http://www.unideusto.org/

the signmedia Project. In:

tuning/

Díaz de Santos; 2006

DOI: 10.5539/ies.v7n8p85

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88073*

[14] Nijakowska J, Judith Kormos J, Hanusova S, Jaroszewicz B, Kálmos B, Sarkadi AI, et al. DysTEFL-Dyslexia for Teachers of English as a Foreign Language. Self-Study Course. 2013. Available from: http://course.

[15] Kosak-Babuder M, Kormos J, Ratajczak M, Pizorn K. The effect of read-aloud assistance on the text comprehension of dyslexic and nondyslexic English language learners. Language Testing. 2019;**36**(1):51-75. DOI: 10.1177/0265532218756946

[16] Mortimore T, Crozier WR. Dyslexia and difficulties with study skills in higher education. Studies in Higher Education. 2006;**31**(2):235-251. DOI:

10.1080/03075070600572173

[17] Campoy-Cubillo MC, Querol-Julián M. Assessing multimodal listening. In: Crawford B,

Fortanet-Gómez I, editors. Multimodal Analysis in Academic Settings: From Research to Teaching. London/New York: Routledge; 2015. pp. 193-212

[18] Campoy-Cubillo MC. Functional diversity and the multimodal listening construct. European Journal of Special Needs Education. 2019;**34**(2):204-219. DOI: 10.1080/08856257.2019.1581402

[19] Anderson KT, Stewart OG, Kachorsky D. Seeing academically marginalized students' multimodal

strength. Written Communication.

Valente LFG, Ferreira SBL, Cappelli C, Salgado L. Audio description on instagram: Evaluating and comparing two ways of describing images for visually impaired. In: Filipe J, Smialek M, Camp O, Hammoudi S, editors. Proceedings

designs from a position of

2017;**34**(2):104-134. DOI: 10.1177/0741088317699897

[20] Dos Santos Marques JM,

dystefl.eu/

*Multidimensional Networks for Functional Diversity in Higher Education: The Case of Second… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88073*

[14] Nijakowska J, Judith Kormos J, Hanusova S, Jaroszewicz B, Kálmos B, Sarkadi AI, et al. DysTEFL-Dyslexia for Teachers of English as a Foreign Language. Self-Study Course. 2013. Available from: http://course. dystefl.eu/

[15] Kosak-Babuder M, Kormos J, Ratajczak M, Pizorn K. The effect of read-aloud assistance on the text comprehension of dyslexic and nondyslexic English language learners. Language Testing. 2019;**36**(1):51-75. DOI: 10.1177/0265532218756946

[16] Mortimore T, Crozier WR. Dyslexia and difficulties with study skills in higher education. Studies in Higher Education. 2006;**31**(2):235-251. DOI: 10.1080/03075070600572173

[17] Campoy-Cubillo MC, Querol-Julián M. Assessing multimodal listening. In: Crawford B, Fortanet-Gómez I, editors. Multimodal Analysis in Academic Settings: From Research to Teaching. London/New York: Routledge; 2015. pp. 193-212

[18] Campoy-Cubillo MC. Functional diversity and the multimodal listening construct. European Journal of Special Needs Education. 2019;**34**(2):204-219. DOI: 10.1080/08856257.2019.1581402

[19] Anderson KT, Stewart OG, Kachorsky D. Seeing academically marginalized students' multimodal designs from a position of strength. Written Communication. 2017;**34**(2):104-134. DOI: 10.1177/0741088317699897

[20] Dos Santos Marques JM, Valente LFG, Ferreira SBL, Cappelli C, Salgado L. Audio description on instagram: Evaluating and comparing two ways of describing images for visually impaired. In: Filipe J, Smialek M, Camp O, Hammoudi S, editors. Proceedings

of the 19th International Conference on Enterprise Information Systems (ICEIS 2017). Vol. 3. Portugal: SciTePress; 2017. pp. 29-40. DOI: 10.5220/0006282500290040

[21] Ting KY. Multimodal resources to facilitate language learning for students with special needs. International Education Studies. 2014;**7**(8):85-93. DOI: 10.5539/ies.v7n8p85

[22] Wire V. Autistic spectrum disorders and learning foreign languages. Support for Learning. 2005;**20**(3):123-128. DOI: 10.1111/j.0268-2141.2005.00375.x

[23] Campoy-Cubillo MC. Dysarthria and teaching speaking skills in English as a foreign language: A case study. Miscelánea: A Journal of English and American Studies. 2016;**53**:17-45

[24] Padrón P. Asperger en el Aula: Historia de Javier. Barcelona: Ediciones Díaz de Santos; 2006

[25] Madriaga M, Goodley D, Hodge N, Martin N. Enabling transition into higher education for students with Asperger syndrome. Project Report. Higher Education Academy. 2008. Sheffield Hallam University Research Archive (SHURA). Available from: http://shura.shu.ac.uk/1004/

[26] Domagała-Zyśk E, Kontra EH, editors. English as a Foreign Language for Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Persons. Challenges and Strategies. Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing; 2016

[27] Ochse E. English for specific purposes and the deaf professional: the signmedia Project. In: Domagała-Zyśk E, Kontra EH, editors. English as a Foreign Language for Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Persons in Europe. Lublin: Wydawnictwo KUL; pp. 77-91

[28] Tuning Project. 2000. Available from: http://www.unideusto.org/ tuning/

**84**

*Second Language Acquisition - Pedagogies, Practices and Perspectives*

Worcester. 2011. Available from: https:// www2.worc.ac.uk/aqu/documents/ Accessible\_high\_quality\_placements\_ and\_work\_based\_learning\_for\_all\_

[8] Burgstahler, S. Making Science Labs Accessible to Students with Disabilities. DO-IT, University of Washington; 2008. Available from: https://www. washington.edu/doit/sites/default/ files/atoms/files/Making-Science-Labs-Accessible-Students-Disabilities.pdf

[9] García-Pastor MD, Miller R. Unveiling the needs of students who stutter in the language skills-a study on anxiety and stuttering in EFL learning. European Journal of Special Needs Education. 2019;**34**(2):1-17. DOI:

10.1080/08856257.2019.1581400

[10] Almond P, Winter P, Cameto R, Russell M, Sato E, Clarke-Midura J, et al. Technology-enabled and universally designed assessment: Considering access in measuring the achievement of students with disabilities—A foundation for research. The Journal of Technology, Learning and Assessment. 2010;**10**(5): 4-51. Available from: http://www.jtla.org

[11] Mäkelä T, Puupponen H. Good practices for ensuring access and equity in higher education. In: Dovigo F, Casanova L, editors. Good Practices for Equity and Inclusion in Higher Education, Collana Educazione Inclusiva-Inclusive Education Series. Vol. 2017, 6. Bergamo: University of

[12] Kormos J. The Second Language Learning Processes of Students with Specific Learning Difficulties (Second Language Acquisition Research Series).

Bergamo; 2017. pp. 41-55

New York: Routledge; 2017

Multilingual Matters; 2010

[13] Nijakowska J. Dyslexia in the Foreign Language Classroom. Bristol:

students.PDF

[1] Romañach J, Lobato M. Functional diversity, a new term in the struggle for dignity in the diversity of the human being. In: Independent Living Forum. 2005. Available from: https://disabilitystudies.leeds.ac.uk/wp-content/ uploads/sites/40/library/zavier-Functional-Diversity-Romanach.pdf

[2] Vogt K, Sperling I, Brüstle M. TALE

[3] Nijakowska J, Tsagari D, Spanoudis G. English as a foreign language teacher

learners: The case of Greece, Cyprus, and Poland. Dyslexia. 2018;**24**(4):357-379

Martínez J, Fontcuberta Estrada X, García Martínez A, De Wispelaere J. Guía para la evaluación de programas y políticas públicas de discapacidad. CERMI. Madrid:

Teachers' Assessment Literacy Enhancement Needs analysis report. Erasmus + European Union. 2018. Project No. 2015-1CY01-KA201-011863 (project No. 2015-1-CY01-KA201-011863). Available from: http://taleproject.eu/

mod/page/view.php?id=1198

training needs and perceived preparedness to include dyslexic

[4] Ballesteros Pena A, Calero

Grupo Editorial Cinca; 2013

[5] Recomendaciones discapacidad. Guía de orientación. Gran Canaria: Universidad de Gran Canaria. Vicerrectorado de estudiantes y extensión universitaria; 2011

[6] Disability Advisory Service. Disability Support Advice. Oxford: Oxford University; Available from: https://www1.admin.ox.ac.uk/aad/ swss/disability/aboutdisability/ disabilitysupportadvice/

[7] Stowell M, LeFevre L, Chapman V. Accessible High Quality Placements and Work Based Learning for all Students. Guidance for Staff in Managing Work Placements for Disabled Students. United Kingdom: University of

**References**

**87**

**Chapter 6**

**Abstract**

Rethinking the Role of Research in

Pre-service Training of Teachers of

English as a Foreign Language: Case

of the University Teacher-Training

*Marie-Immaculée Ndayimirije and Rachel Nsimire Bigawa*

Teachers of EFL in under-resourced countries often find themselves confronted with teaching and learning issues that cannot always find timely and sustainable solutions within the wealth of language knowledge acquired through academic lectures, or in the kind of responses offered by means of in-service training programs. In Burundi, the tradition has long been for teachers to look to the Ministry of Education for answers to curriculum implementation challenges, especially in the case of new reforms. This paper argues that such an attitude can be transformed among teachers of English at secondary school level if initial teacher-training courses promote reflective teaching and equip them with classroom research skills as part of the training process. The authors take a critical look at the pre-service teacher education practice in the university teacher-training college "Ecole Normale Supérieure" in Burundi. They suggest improvements that can help the College bridge the gaps in the current training practices in order to better prepare teachers

College in Burundi

for active participation in their professional development.

reflective skills, professional development

**1. Introduction**

**Keywords:** Burundi, EFL teachers, pre-service training practices, research and

Over time, countries around the world have continuously taken steps to adjust their national English language teaching (ELT) policies to the growing status of English as a world language. Depending on the setting, the trend has generally shifted between English becoming one among the instructional mediums, upgrading ELT through an integration of communicative language teaching and increased diplomatic ties with countries and organizations within the English speaking zones. These characteristics have all marked the Burundi English language policy of the last decade, especially subsequently to Burundi's entry into the East African Community (EAC) in 2007. With English being voted one of the Community's official languages (in parallel to French and Swahili), not only has the English language gained momentum, but also ELT has become an even greater curricular priority in

#### **Chapter 6**
