**2. Challenges in the educational sector**

*Education Systems Around the World*

for males and females [1].

schools taught religion and Arabic [3].

now the largest sea port in the region [4].

carried the name after Mohamed Ali Bouzaiene, who came from Tunisia to Oman under the reign of Sultan Said bin Taimur. The school was open for girls and boys and attended in a rented house in Muscat. The school taught the Quran, Arabic language, history, geography, and arithmetic. The school also adopted a study plan that included six classes per day, and its student enrollment did not exceed 120 students; most of the students were accommodated in common and large rooms

The semi-formal schooling started in the mid-1930s, with the first known by Nader Ben Faisal School which opened its doors in 1932; at the same time, many nonformal schools were opened which taught the Holy Quran, Arabic, and arithmetic. Beginning of the last century, the Al-Saidiyyah School in Muscat opened in 1940 as a semi-public school. The Al-Saidiyyah School included classrooms, administration, and teachers' rooms. It consisted of two stages: the first was a two-year primary school and the second was a six-year primary school. Al-Saidiyyah schools were very popular in which they accommodated for a large student body and had a curriculum attuned with the national educational goals. The school was staffed by teachers from Arab countries and some Omani teachers. The Al-Saidiyyah schools were limited to the study of the Quran and teaching matters of religion, as well as reading, writing, and arithmetic (collection, subtraction, multiplication, and division). The mathematics, science, history, geography, and Arabic language curriculum they used was available from Lebanon. The second and third Al-Saidiyyah schools where in the Muttrah region, administratively located in the Muscat province and Salalah (further point in the south of the country), respectively [2]. The school and its branches continued to grow substantially and developed in 1955, to be able to relocate to its own premises. The large part of schooling was driven by an Islamic educational framework fathered by the likes of Al-Sahabi Al-Jalil Mazin Bin-Ghodouba and Al-Jalandi Bin Masoud—these schools mainly taught the Koran with classical subjects as arithmetic, Arabic, and geography. There were also religious schools in Muscat such as Masjed Al-Khod and Madrasat Al-Zwawiah—both

The Al-Saidiyyah School in Muttrah moved to its own building in 1960; in the same year two other third and fourth primary schools were opened. Within 2 years, the primary level was completed until the sixth grade and the graduates obtained the primary certificate. Despite the school's modest and limited resources, they have been credited being citadels of cultural and intellectual movements in the Sultanate and enriching the Omani heritage and culture. The educational development in Oman was centered around population centers with critical masses and mostly around Muscat. Not later than the 1970s had Oman experienced substantive growth in the development of the educational sector with the discovery the oil and gas (which drives the modern day economy). The development was mostly located around the center of commerce of the Muscat region as well as Muttrah which has

The growth in the educational sector started in 1970 at that time the number of students did not exceed 900 and in mere 5 years there were 207 schools with 55,752 students [5]. In 1986, there were 588 schools and 218,914 students enrolled; at the end of 2015, there were 56,211 teachers and 523,522 students. Till today, Oman had provided free education and encouraged every child to enroll in a school. As of 2017, there were 565,184 students in schools; there were also 1091 schools offering what is currently known as the basic education programs and post-basic education of grade 11 and 12 programs. The school staff serving these schools amounted to 60,165 [1, 6, 7]. Added to that, the private education sector has also grown tremendously with over 486 private schools in 2015, serving more

**76**

than 97,465 students [7].

The major educational challenges in Oman were several, among the first was the long distances between population densities. The country was geographically spread over thousands of miles apart with two population centers one in the North (Muscat—now capital) and the second in the South (Salalah region, respectively) and small villages spread across Oman's mountainous terrain. It was thus hard to provide the basic infrastructural services as roads and electricity; it was also hard to find the human resources to support teachers and administrators in distant villages. The challenges were concrete and tangible particularly in improving the quality of the teaching and learning process as well as the quality of student outcomes in an information-driven world [8].

Second, with Oman being linguistically, ethnically, and religiously diverse; preservation of tradition, culture and language and concomitantly to move forward in its educational mission in face of a fast changing world was a major challenge. Thus, in unifying the country as an Arab speaking and part of the Islamic world, the reform has stressed and celebrated its cultural heritage, its diverse cultural tradition, religion and languages. Third, on seeing the changes the world has gone through in the last decade, particularly in the integration of technology in education, and the way technology has changed the school, curriculum, or even the delivery of instruction, schools in many parts of Oman were left behind to deal with the technological changes. The reform thus, stressed on modernizing the school infrastructure and technological practices.

Oman's national strategy was to establish a modern society having a solid infrastructure for education and economy, being able to engage with the technological advances in an advanced and technologically driven world. The Ministry of Education also underlined and stressed on the scientific approach in teaching and in the acquisition of knowledge to move society forward, innovate, and reproduce itself scientifically. Thus, education was seen to have a perennial purpose in instilling the intellectual skills and knowledge acquisition of life skills for citizenship and life-long learning. The objective of these strategies was to build a holistic Omani character, able to deal with the current and future challenges, and engage in the making of important—objective and scientific approaches to deal with the modern and the technological age [8].

Fourth, a major challenge facing Omani graduates from secondary schools was their inability to deal with the complexity of everyday life. Thus, this included the ability to analyze and solve problems and being flexible, accommodative, and self-directed [9]. Also, alluding to the work of Wagner, Kegan, Lahey, Lemons, Garnier, Helsing, Howell, and Rasmussen [10], it was suggested the three Rs, rigor, relevance, and respect, were generally missing in Omani schools. Rigor means the ability to do and be able to perform due to their learning, relevance as it relates to what they learn for the future. Respect means the ability to deal with others and adequately respect one another in different context. This has also imputed a new way of thinking and seeing of the new curriculum and how teachers deal with knowledge, the curriculum, and how it is translated to students. It also allowed for the reconceptualization of what school outcomes fit with twenty-first century goals, as to reflect on programs that can prepare students and make them understand the world around them. The impetus also suggested that education is tied to social change, reaching beyond the limits attained by a process in which teachers and students transform their work into productive elements in society and also engage in the social or economic transformation of the nation.

Fifth, Oman like other Gulf states relies heavily on an expatriate work force. With low levels of Omani human capacity, fulfilling jobs in brick and mortar industries, Omanis on a general level have greater reliance on "external-foreign"—cheap

labor. A national strategy was put in place to train and sustain a large local unskilled labor force [11]. The goals set are still unreachable; challenges abound on the social level. Omanis vie for administrative nontechnical government jobs, and the large private sector shuns Omanis from its workforce. Even many employers feel that students once graduated from school or completed some level of tertiary education lacked "soft skills" and the ability to develop these skills, such as team work, public speaking, problem solving, critical thinking, and a strong work ethic in the public or private sectors [12].

Sixth, while Oman has a large cadre of teachers, many of these teachers according to the World Bank had little training in pedagogical practices. There was also limited practical and applied school training due to a lack of trained trainers. It was also emphasized that teachers were doing significant administrative duties, and added to that, there was increased working hours and a higher number of working days for administrators and teachers [8]. The recent literature specifically by Darling-Hammond [13] suggests that teacher quality is one of the most important factors for student achievement and draws on such factors as teacher training and further professional development. Oman's large teaching-work force reported by the World Bank lack the practical and pedagogical skills needed to operate in modern institutions. Many teachers in the area of expertise have little opportunities to undergo the needed training. There was also a lack of focus on the process of teacher practice, to deal with classroom initiatives and classroom orientations. It was apparent there was a complete alienation between teacher practice, peer activities, and student learning; thus, in many schools in-service training should focus on teaching skills for quality learning [14].

In face of the ever-changing global world, leadership believed that a strategy be in place where technology management, integration, and usage appeared to be a challenge among Omanis as they still abound to compete in a global world. It also appeared that new educational goals prepared Omanis for life and work; the new ecosystem required greater integration of technology in their daily lives. Still, Oman's adaptability was challenged in a rapidly changing technological world and a global world [2].

Lastly, challenges appeared in the preparedness of children entering early-years education. Preschool appeared to be missing and nonexistent especially for the majority of publicly funded schools. It is only recent that early education started taking shape as a precursor to primary education. Also, appetite for investment in private schools and international schools lacked the funding needed to accommodate for the majority of the population as they could not afford school fees [15]. Other important elements were the complete absence of special needs, early childhood education centers, and particularly the establishment of schools for special needs [8].

The challenges were considerable in the trajectory of Oman's development of the educational system which took a great quantitative leap firstly in the development of the educational infrastructure and the second phase, a qualitative impetus, to fit the local and basic education needs of Omani society [9].

#### **3. The educational reform**

The first reform that took place in Oman was in 1976, during which a development plan emphasized a quantitative increase in infrastructure and teacher development. In 1978, the first white paper underlined the national and global changes, linking education to the development of Omani citizens. More significantly, it stressed on the Omani identity and the ability of the large populace to modernize,

**79**

in schools [19].

*Educational Reform in Oman: System and Structural Changes*

think rationally and scientifically, be able to assimilate knowledge using modern tools, and acquire the needed thinking skills, as well as become self-effective learners [16]. During the development plan, emphasis was placed on the development of the educational services and the diversification of education by establishing two preparatory schools and professional-technical institutes specialized in technical education to accommodate the intermediate certificate holders. Among these institutes were the Nizwa Agricultural Institute, Teachers Institutes, and the Commercial Secondary School [17]. Initiatives were taken for school improvements in laboratories, resource rooms or workshop facilities, technology and other building amenities. At the same period, the establishment of the first school for people with special needs known by the Al Amal School for the deaf and mentally challenged. Since its inception, Al Amal School reached 309 students in the academic year 2005/2006. The need for such schools remains to be high to this date [18]. The second Five-Year Plan 1981–1985 was a period known by the educational renaissance which continued in two directions: the spread of education through out of Oman and in parallel a qualitative leap in the improvement of the teaching and learning process. The strategy established was to spread education to the remotest areas of the Sultanate and on the other hand, a qualitative initiative that attempted to enrich the schools with the needed services and resources. The creation of the alternative primary schools known by the integrated schools continued to expand creating an integrated curriculum across subjects. The integrated school combined the two stages which supposedly had a purpose to increase the learning process. The preparatory schools were provided with the laboratory, library, and family education room for girls' school. At the same period, the teachers' institutes were established and known mostly as the "intermediate colleges"; the duration of the programs in these college was for 2 years and prepared teachers to practice teaching

In the academic year 1983/1984, the Ministry embarked on opening specialized schools, including the industrial school in Al Batin area which enrolled male students. In the following school year, the "rational school" was opened in Muscat to accommodate students with mental disabilities, rehabilitation, and providing services for students with special needs. In the academic year 1984/1985, the educational system in Oman introduced cycle 1 and cycle 2; added to that, a two-year secondary school comprising of grade 11 and 12. In the year 2001/2002, Omar bin Khatab, a privately funded institute for speech and the blind, opened its doors for students with special needs. The number of students in the academic year 1999/2000 was 11, while in 2006/2007, it reached 115; its growth reflects the greater needs for such institutes in Oman and in the Gulf. Part of the higher education development plans was a number of educational establishments to train in trade, technical, agricultural, and education which included the establishment of the Education, Institute of Justice, Institute of Health Sciences, Institute of Finance, Professional Training Institute, Institute of Public Administration, Oman College of

Industrial Arts, and the Police and Internal Security Training Centers [20].

During the period between 1985 and 1990, the scaling of educational infrastructure became more apparent with the growth of the schooling system. In line with national strategic development was promoting principles of quantitative expansion of the education sector, especially in infrastructure projects and programs. During this phase, there was also a scaling up of the educational services and educational infrastructure projects, in parallel to qualitative improvement in the educational processes. Education was seen within the macro-economic scheme, thus linking educational costs to returns in terms of building human capacity. The plan was to support young Omanis to take a greater initiative in seeking the training and eventually provide the supply for the needed human resources to serve the public and

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84913*

#### *Educational Reform in Oman: System and Structural Changes DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84913*

*Education Systems Around the World*

or private sectors [12].

skills for quality learning [14].

global world [2].

special needs [8].

**3. The educational reform**

labor. A national strategy was put in place to train and sustain a large local unskilled labor force [11]. The goals set are still unreachable; challenges abound on the social level. Omanis vie for administrative nontechnical government jobs, and the large private sector shuns Omanis from its workforce. Even many employers feel that students once graduated from school or completed some level of tertiary education lacked "soft skills" and the ability to develop these skills, such as team work, public speaking, problem solving, critical thinking, and a strong work ethic in the public

Sixth, while Oman has a large cadre of teachers, many of these teachers according to the World Bank had little training in pedagogical practices. There was also limited practical and applied school training due to a lack of trained trainers. It was also emphasized that teachers were doing significant administrative duties, and added to that, there was increased working hours and a higher number of working days for administrators and teachers [8]. The recent literature specifically by Darling-Hammond [13] suggests that teacher quality is one of the most important factors for student achievement and draws on such factors as teacher training and further professional development. Oman's large teaching-work force reported by the World Bank lack the practical and pedagogical skills needed to operate in modern institutions. Many teachers in the area of expertise have little opportunities to undergo the needed training. There was also a lack of focus on the process of teacher practice, to deal with classroom initiatives and classroom orientations. It was apparent there was a complete alienation between teacher practice, peer activities, and student learning; thus, in many schools in-service training should focus on teaching

In face of the ever-changing global world, leadership believed that a strategy be in place where technology management, integration, and usage appeared to be a challenge among Omanis as they still abound to compete in a global world. It also appeared that new educational goals prepared Omanis for life and work; the new ecosystem required greater integration of technology in their daily lives. Still, Oman's adaptability was challenged in a rapidly changing technological world and a

Lastly, challenges appeared in the preparedness of children entering early-years education. Preschool appeared to be missing and nonexistent especially for the majority of publicly funded schools. It is only recent that early education started taking shape as a precursor to primary education. Also, appetite for investment in private schools and international schools lacked the funding needed to accommodate for the majority of the population as they could not afford school fees [15]. Other important elements were the complete absence of special needs, early childhood education centers, and particularly the establishment of schools for

The challenges were considerable in the trajectory of Oman's development of the educational system which took a great quantitative leap firstly in the development of the educational infrastructure and the second phase, a qualitative impetus, to fit

The first reform that took place in Oman was in 1976, during which a development plan emphasized a quantitative increase in infrastructure and teacher development. In 1978, the first white paper underlined the national and global changes, linking education to the development of Omani citizens. More significantly, it stressed on the Omani identity and the ability of the large populace to modernize,

the local and basic education needs of Omani society [9].

**78**

think rationally and scientifically, be able to assimilate knowledge using modern tools, and acquire the needed thinking skills, as well as become self-effective learners [16]. During the development plan, emphasis was placed on the development of the educational services and the diversification of education by establishing two preparatory schools and professional-technical institutes specialized in technical education to accommodate the intermediate certificate holders. Among these institutes were the Nizwa Agricultural Institute, Teachers Institutes, and the Commercial Secondary School [17]. Initiatives were taken for school improvements in laboratories, resource rooms or workshop facilities, technology and other building amenities. At the same period, the establishment of the first school for people with special needs known by the Al Amal School for the deaf and mentally challenged. Since its inception, Al Amal School reached 309 students in the academic year 2005/2006. The need for such schools remains to be high to this date [18].

The second Five-Year Plan 1981–1985 was a period known by the educational renaissance which continued in two directions: the spread of education through out of Oman and in parallel a qualitative leap in the improvement of the teaching and learning process. The strategy established was to spread education to the remotest areas of the Sultanate and on the other hand, a qualitative initiative that attempted to enrich the schools with the needed services and resources. The creation of the alternative primary schools known by the integrated schools continued to expand creating an integrated curriculum across subjects. The integrated school combined the two stages which supposedly had a purpose to increase the learning process. The preparatory schools were provided with the laboratory, library, and family education room for girls' school. At the same period, the teachers' institutes were established and known mostly as the "intermediate colleges"; the duration of the programs in these college was for 2 years and prepared teachers to practice teaching in schools [19].

In the academic year 1983/1984, the Ministry embarked on opening specialized schools, including the industrial school in Al Batin area which enrolled male students. In the following school year, the "rational school" was opened in Muscat to accommodate students with mental disabilities, rehabilitation, and providing services for students with special needs. In the academic year 1984/1985, the educational system in Oman introduced cycle 1 and cycle 2; added to that, a two-year secondary school comprising of grade 11 and 12. In the year 2001/2002, Omar bin Khatab, a privately funded institute for speech and the blind, opened its doors for students with special needs. The number of students in the academic year 1999/2000 was 11, while in 2006/2007, it reached 115; its growth reflects the greater needs for such institutes in Oman and in the Gulf. Part of the higher education development plans was a number of educational establishments to train in trade, technical, agricultural, and education which included the establishment of the Education, Institute of Justice, Institute of Health Sciences, Institute of Finance, Professional Training Institute, Institute of Public Administration, Oman College of Industrial Arts, and the Police and Internal Security Training Centers [20].

During the period between 1985 and 1990, the scaling of educational infrastructure became more apparent with the growth of the schooling system. In line with national strategic development was promoting principles of quantitative expansion of the education sector, especially in infrastructure projects and programs. During this phase, there was also a scaling up of the educational services and educational infrastructure projects, in parallel to qualitative improvement in the educational processes. Education was seen within the macro-economic scheme, thus linking educational costs to returns in terms of building human capacity. The plan was to support young Omanis to take a greater initiative in seeking the training and eventually provide the supply for the needed human resources to serve the public and

private-industrial sector with the increase in student enrollment and by encouraging every child to seek an education especially in the remotest areas of the country. It was thus necessary to find some suitable educational outposts in the rural areas of the Sultanate to serve students across Oman. Compounded with the rush to improve teacher quality, the Ministry extended and stressed on the development of education in the Sultanate in terms of quality and quantity, through teacher development and infrastructure of schools, respectively. It also took a challenge where it began to train Omani teachers to obtain the pedagogical skills in subject specialization.

In the academic year 1991/1992, the Ministry made substantial changes to expanding the system and moved to eradicate illiteracy among adults; also the beginning of afternoon schools started the adult education programs. At the same period, the Ministry of Education increased the number of teacher training colleges and other specialized colleges as the Institute of Educational Rehabilitation. The establishment of the teaching colleges allowed Omanis to obtain the pedagogical training having subject specializations to reach teaching qualifications for those whose first degrees were in subject specialization [4].

The period from 1991 to 1995 included infrastructure developments and aimed at continuing the achievement of educational outcomes by balancing between quantity and quality. More accountable measures were in place to balance between spending and the educational returns produced. In the period between 1996 and 2000, Oman set goals to modernize all aspects of Omani life with the desire to achieve self-sufficiency, economic diversification, and sustenance to keep abreast with the global and technological advancement [21].

In the same period between 1991 and 1995, the Ministry of Education had embarked on the establishment of the basic education system which was later implemented in 1998/1999 academic year, which aimed to develop the educational infrastructure to improve the quality and reduce its cost. The Ministry was also able to instill and prepare students to deal with twenty-first century skills, building on soft skills by encouraging the learner to deal with the necessary aspects to better develop the communication skills, self-learning, and the ability to think critically and thus adapt to the latest developments [22]. In the late 1990s and at the beginning of the new century, the implementation of the basic education system came to replace the primary, preparatory, and secondary school; it aimed to develop programs that were centered around twenty-firstst century skills. From 2001 to 2005, the same level of development and growth continued the previous stage [23]. Specifically, from 2006 to 2010, the period was characterized mostly by scaling the implementation of the basic and post-basic education system. In addition to expanding the application of the latter to all schools, the years 2006–2010 were dedicated to the development of post-basic education in addition to the development and application of the basic education in the lower classes. It became apparent that educational change focused on the content and linked the theoretical applications with practical applications. The approach was also to develop a research initiative allowing greater insight and curriculum revision. It also stressed on the post-basic education system, in line with international experience and benchmarking.

The period between 2010 to the present experienced substantive initiative in the improvement of teaching practices, creation of forums, and teaching collaboratives. Increasingly, schools were given the autonomy to run their own training programs, and this included the development of curriculum, collaborative initiatives that draw on their own capacity of local teacher trainees, and training programs. Many public schools were in line with national and strategic initiatives, an overall initiative stressed on self-sufficiency initiatives with a general aim to sustain Omani teachers and develop effective teacher training programs. A broad aspect of this project was the assessment of school and teachers' needs in the newly educational structure

**81**

*Educational Reform in Oman: System and Structural Changes*

the collaborative communities between and within schools [24].

communities where teachers and staff would share expertise.

established, keeping in mind that few studies or reports have emerged addressing the training programs and the kind of teacher training needed. Nor was there an assessment of the educational facilities, teaching styles, or learning styles within schools. Also, many schools started to share expertise with each other and initiated

At the same period, the Ministry of Education was interested in assessing school supervisors as well as teachers. Assessment took a 360-degree approach in which it covered all aspects of the school system; concurrently, great strides were taken to improve the quality of teachers especially in providing continuous professional development, instilling research capacity and action research as a necessary element for teacher development to improve classroom practices and teaching quality. The Ministry also encouraged schools to improve practices by creating collaborative

The reform established the basic and the post-basic education system in 2007/2008. The basic education system extended from grade 1 to 10. The structure was divided into two cycles; the first cycle consisted of four years (grades 1–4) and cycle two consisted of 6 years (grades 5–10). These two cycles are considered as the basic education; the post-basic education students enter into secondary education made of grades 11 and 12, or otherwise join vocational training institutions. The new post-basic education system organized on a "core plus electives" model for grades 11 and 12 was introduced in 2007. This gradually replaced the existing system of 6 years of primary, 3 years of preparatory, and 3 years of secondary schools, but the range from beginning to completion has remained the same. The basic and guiding principles of the basic education included the stress on structural and system wide changes in the schools as in (1) the development of a philosophy of education; (2) establishment of a set of objectives compatible with student needs; (3) restructuring of the school and educational system through delegation of responsibilities, policies, rules, and regulation; (4) reinforcement of teaching mathematics and science in the English Language; (5) population of students to enter the

higher education system; (6) stress on life skills throughout the curriculum; (7) allow for project-based learning; (8) provide students the autonomy to choose from different courses; (9) development of life skills as needed; (10) creation of teaching strategies and methods that integrate technology; (11) effective professional development for all school staff; (12) continuous infrastructure development

in technology; and (13) quality assurance and improvement initiatives.

The foreseen outcomes of the basic education system were to bring the work experience into the educational system. Its intent was to replace expatriate labor force with highly qualified Omani citizens which would have the advanced training before they enter the workplace and thus compete with the large expatriate one. This was also a way to entice and encourage Omanis to have a greater role in the labor market, and in particular emphasize and entice women to take part in the labor market [12]. The other and main focus was on the post-basic education reform which focused on grade 11 and 12. The Ministry of Education attempted to impute the educational process and reinforce the educational reform by stressing on reshaping the last two grades of 11 and 12 of secondary schools. It also attempted to reexamine the content and how it could be translated into practical terms to the lives of students. The stress on the last two grades after the basic education had students relate their education to the real world. The new initiative also stressed on the curriculum and teacher training to emphasize critical thinking, long-life learning,

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84913*

**4. Basic and post-basic education**

#### *Educational Reform in Oman: System and Structural Changes DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84913*

*Education Systems Around the World*

whose first degrees were in subject specialization [4].

with the global and technological advancement [21].

private-industrial sector with the increase in student enrollment and by encouraging every child to seek an education especially in the remotest areas of the country. It was thus necessary to find some suitable educational outposts in the rural areas of the Sultanate to serve students across Oman. Compounded with the rush to improve teacher quality, the Ministry extended and stressed on the development of education in the Sultanate in terms of quality and quantity, through teacher development and infrastructure of schools, respectively. It also took a challenge where it began to train Omani teachers to obtain the pedagogical skills in subject specialization. In the academic year 1991/1992, the Ministry made substantial changes to expanding the system and moved to eradicate illiteracy among adults; also the beginning of afternoon schools started the adult education programs. At the same period, the Ministry of Education increased the number of teacher training colleges and other specialized colleges as the Institute of Educational Rehabilitation. The establishment of the teaching colleges allowed Omanis to obtain the pedagogical training having subject specializations to reach teaching qualifications for those

The period from 1991 to 1995 included infrastructure developments and aimed

at continuing the achievement of educational outcomes by balancing between quantity and quality. More accountable measures were in place to balance between spending and the educational returns produced. In the period between 1996 and 2000, Oman set goals to modernize all aspects of Omani life with the desire to achieve self-sufficiency, economic diversification, and sustenance to keep abreast

In the same period between 1991 and 1995, the Ministry of Education had embarked on the establishment of the basic education system which was later implemented in 1998/1999 academic year, which aimed to develop the educational infrastructure to improve the quality and reduce its cost. The Ministry was also able to instill and prepare students to deal with twenty-first century skills, building on soft skills by encouraging the learner to deal with the necessary aspects to better develop the communication skills, self-learning, and the ability to think critically and thus adapt to the latest developments [22]. In the late 1990s and at the beginning of the new century, the implementation of the basic education system came to replace the primary, preparatory, and secondary school; it aimed to develop programs that were centered around twenty-firstst century skills. From 2001 to 2005, the same level of development and growth continued the previous stage [23]. Specifically, from 2006 to 2010, the period was characterized mostly by scaling the implementation of the basic and post-basic education system. In addition to expanding the application of the latter to all schools, the years 2006–2010 were dedicated to the development of post-basic education in addition to the development and application of the basic education in the lower classes. It became apparent that educational change focused on the content and linked the theoretical applications with practical applications. The approach was also to develop a research initiative allowing greater insight and curriculum revision. It also stressed on the post-basic education system, in line with international experience and benchmarking.

The period between 2010 to the present experienced substantive initiative in the improvement of teaching practices, creation of forums, and teaching collaboratives. Increasingly, schools were given the autonomy to run their own training programs, and this included the development of curriculum, collaborative initiatives that draw on their own capacity of local teacher trainees, and training programs. Many public schools were in line with national and strategic initiatives, an overall initiative stressed on self-sufficiency initiatives with a general aim to sustain Omani teachers and develop effective teacher training programs. A broad aspect of this project was the assessment of school and teachers' needs in the newly educational structure

**80**

established, keeping in mind that few studies or reports have emerged addressing the training programs and the kind of teacher training needed. Nor was there an assessment of the educational facilities, teaching styles, or learning styles within schools. Also, many schools started to share expertise with each other and initiated the collaborative communities between and within schools [24].

At the same period, the Ministry of Education was interested in assessing school supervisors as well as teachers. Assessment took a 360-degree approach in which it covered all aspects of the school system; concurrently, great strides were taken to improve the quality of teachers especially in providing continuous professional development, instilling research capacity and action research as a necessary element for teacher development to improve classroom practices and teaching quality. The Ministry also encouraged schools to improve practices by creating collaborative communities where teachers and staff would share expertise.

### **4. Basic and post-basic education**

The reform established the basic and the post-basic education system in 2007/2008. The basic education system extended from grade 1 to 10. The structure was divided into two cycles; the first cycle consisted of four years (grades 1–4) and cycle two consisted of 6 years (grades 5–10). These two cycles are considered as the basic education; the post-basic education students enter into secondary education made of grades 11 and 12, or otherwise join vocational training institutions. The new post-basic education system organized on a "core plus electives" model for grades 11 and 12 was introduced in 2007. This gradually replaced the existing system of 6 years of primary, 3 years of preparatory, and 3 years of secondary schools, but the range from beginning to completion has remained the same. The basic and guiding principles of the basic education included the stress on structural and system wide changes in the schools as in (1) the development of a philosophy of education; (2) establishment of a set of objectives compatible with student needs; (3) restructuring of the school and educational system through delegation of responsibilities, policies, rules, and regulation; (4) reinforcement of teaching mathematics and science in the English Language; (5) population of students to enter the higher education system; (6) stress on life skills throughout the curriculum; (7) allow for project-based learning; (8) provide students the autonomy to choose from different courses; (9) development of life skills as needed; (10) creation of teaching strategies and methods that integrate technology; (11) effective professional development for all school staff; (12) continuous infrastructure development in technology; and (13) quality assurance and improvement initiatives.

The foreseen outcomes of the basic education system were to bring the work experience into the educational system. Its intent was to replace expatriate labor force with highly qualified Omani citizens which would have the advanced training before they enter the workplace and thus compete with the large expatriate one. This was also a way to entice and encourage Omanis to have a greater role in the labor market, and in particular emphasize and entice women to take part in the labor market [12]. The other and main focus was on the post-basic education reform which focused on grade 11 and 12. The Ministry of Education attempted to impute the educational process and reinforce the educational reform by stressing on reshaping the last two grades of 11 and 12 of secondary schools. It also attempted to reexamine the content and how it could be translated into practical terms to the lives of students. The stress on the last two grades after the basic education had students relate their education to the real world. The new initiative also stressed on the curriculum and teacher training to emphasize critical thinking, long-life learning,

citizenship of the world, and global issues, as well as humanity, cultural diversity, instances, and context which make them value the contextual richness. The postbasic framework drew on three important frames in the hope that it reflects on the outcomes that embody the latter dispositions and include the theoretical knowledge, research, community service, and overall excellence.

While the basic and post-basic education system of grade 11 and 12 began in 2007 and scaled to all public schools in Oman, it completed the transformation of all public schools. Couched within new educational philosophies, the Ministry dedicated a large part of its resources to train and retrain teachers and school staff on the curriculum and teacher training [25]. Today, the educational system is well under way and draws on those elements of continuous improvement, benchmarked along international standards allowing for involvement and awareness by the public.

### **5. Review of the educational system**

The educational reform that took place in the 1970s, was not evaluated until 1994. The initiative involved a collaboration between the Ministry of Education and the Scottish Qualification Authority, and collaboration between their evaluation summed the educational conditions in Oman. The educational system was traditional, curricula were rather generalized, and education was content-centered as opposed to student centered. Schools and the Ministry lacked a clear vision and mission. Books were outdated, and the educational process was mainly driven by tests and centered around the dense curriculum [25]. Teachers also lacked the skills needed to transform schools into places of learning or made initiatives to face the challenges to advance the needs of the Sultanate of Oman. The initiative envisioned to produce high-quality graduates of general education geared toward skills in problem-solving, critical thinking, and analytical skills [26]. A later study came from the World Bank and the Ministry of Education with two main recommendations in their assessment: creating a culture of excellence and making and developing strong pedagogical skills among teachers [27].

The leadership had also invested interest in education and made great strides in the improvement of quality of education for the development of high-quality human resources imputed by the Oman's economic future in vision 2020 [1]. The Vision 2020 of Oman was a landmark document and provided a frame to move the Omani economy forward. The document also served as a framework of the country's educational system. The Vision 2020 aimed to achieve the status of a "Newly Industrialized Economy,", lowering the disparities between Oman and Oil-rich countries in its surrounding. In vision 2020, Oman attempted to build a solid foundation for human resource development, to offset dependency on Oman's limited oil reserves. The blueprint document was both to move the educational strategy forward among Oman's other economic, social, and human resource developments.

Through the Vision 2020, several educational recommendations were made to the Ministry of Education; among those suggestions was to create a basic education road map that can prepare students to continue their education or join the work force. Mainly the five-year plan between 1996–2000 focused on the development of human capacity [23]. Educational training was one of the key pillars through the improvement of the curriculum that focused on two main aspects. Firstly, the content of the curriculum and secondly, teaching methods. In terms of the curriculum and subject matter, the attempt was to reduce the theoretical parts and connect the material to lives of students and the real world. In addition, teachers were required to align the curriculum to student abilities at each educational phase. Teachers were to reduce the reliance on rote learning and memorization and move

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*Educational Reform in Oman: System and Structural Changes*

forward through constructivist approaches with focus on problem-solving, critical thinking skills, and cooperative work, with the assumptions that students were inclined to move away from rote learning and teacher practices centered on classrooms around student initiatives and learning [24]. In parallel to the changes in the system, the initiative was to write a new curriculum supported by teacher guides. The new material was gradually implemented in the schools starting 1998/1999 and

The basic education was different from the general education in that it integrated between theory and applications, developing the individual character. The basic education curriculum aimed at providing the learners with the required life skills and preparing them for the work place through life skills, independence, and values embedded in the curricula. Given the challenges of English language proficiency [24] and likewise competencies in mathematics and science, a curricular review was eminent. More so the Ministry was intent on developing a curricula and

A major benchmark in Omani educational history was in 1997 right after the Vision 2020 publication; a clear agenda was put in place which outlined the strategic plan for the next two decades. Its main goals were to equip students with the technological, scientific, and advanced knowledge to move the country's educational system as well as its economic development along twenty-first century skills. The plan was to improve the educational system as a whole which included teacher qualifications, changing the way assessment was performed, closing the afternoon

school system and lastly but not least, extending the school day and year.

to all areas and to keep a balance of teachers in rural and urban areas.

System wide changes appeared in the integration of content subject matter, which included the integration bundle subjects as Islamic Studies, Arabic and Social Studies and in another, Mathematics and Science. Each field had the same teacher who teaches the bundle subjects which insured to some extent the integration of the material. Other new subjects were introduced in the curriculum as information technology and environmental life skills. While curriculum changes were done gradually, the adaptation was done in stages. To allow for school staff to deal with the major changes to the curriculum methodology for basic education, the new system was first introduced to 17 schools in the 1998/1999 academic year and 25 schools the next academic year, having been delivered to all schools in 2006/2007. In addition,

Significant challenges were seen in how teachers undertook the classroom teaching. Many instructional practices have been pervasive and centered on the traditional rote methods, away from the more substantive and deep approaches to learning. In addition, the alignment of content, sequence, and teacher practices appeared to be unaligned to grade level. While faced with substantive barriers for the improvement of schools, the Ministry of Education has been unable to provide the required resources for the realization of the comprehensive initiatives to improve the quality of education of the required level. But initiatives for improvement has been widespread, this including the process of decentralization as a policy which provided administrative and financial autonomy, giving regional authorities jurisdiction in making administrative and budgetary decisions to state directories. The Ministry of Education lacked the capacity to provide training programs for Omani teachers and management of human resources. Added to the fact that a great number of teachers were migrating from the rural areas to urban areas, leaving many rural schools understaffed [2], it was also not easy to also distribute teachers

methods for the two subjects of mathematics and science [25].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84913*

continued to date.

**6. Facing the challenges**

#### *Educational Reform in Oman: System and Structural Changes DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84913*

forward through constructivist approaches with focus on problem-solving, critical thinking skills, and cooperative work, with the assumptions that students were inclined to move away from rote learning and teacher practices centered on classrooms around student initiatives and learning [24]. In parallel to the changes in the system, the initiative was to write a new curriculum supported by teacher guides. The new material was gradually implemented in the schools starting 1998/1999 and continued to date.

The basic education was different from the general education in that it integrated between theory and applications, developing the individual character. The basic education curriculum aimed at providing the learners with the required life skills and preparing them for the work place through life skills, independence, and values embedded in the curricula. Given the challenges of English language proficiency [24] and likewise competencies in mathematics and science, a curricular review was eminent. More so the Ministry was intent on developing a curricula and methods for the two subjects of mathematics and science [25].
