**3.4 Outcomes**

*Current Issues in Knowledge Management*

constitute its directory of knowledge [30].

the level of a team or at the level of the whole organization.

*3.2.2 Managerial and sociological approach of knowledge management*

5, the need to use and to develop one's abilities, to flourish in one's work.

**3.3 International standard ISO 30401:2018**

with characteristics and needs.

Consequently, each employee must have a sense of belonging to the company; he must be integrated into a network of people and have good relations with others; he must be respected and recognized; he must take pleasure in the accomplishment of his work. The KM must provide the means to be autonomous and to develop its own

Finally, we introduce the last International Standard ISO 30401:2018 (November 2018) [39] entitled "Knowledge Management Systems Requirements." This document sets out the requirements for the knowledge management systems of organizations, leading to the successful implementation of knowledge management. However, the document preserves a certain latitude in the application of these requirements, which allows each organization to comply with them in accordance

In the introduction of this standard, knowledge management is envisaged in the following way: Knowledge management is a discipline focused on the ways in

creation of the wealth.

material resource being a part of the capital, Edith Penrose opened the way to a new economic theory which has to place the knowledge in the center of the process of

*Second phase*: a new vision of the company, through the notions of directory of knowledge and of organizational routines expressed by [31]. In their work *An Evolutionary Theory of Economic Change*, the authors define the notion of skill as a capacity to coordinate a sequence of behavior to reach goals in a given context. Besides, they define the notion of organizational routine as a predictable and regular behavioral plan. These routines are the siege of the knowledge of the organization, because beyond any formalization, the best way of storing the knowledge of the organization lies in the exercise of these. So, all the routines of an organization

*Third phase*: an organizational change taking care of the problem of capitalization of the knowledge of the company [1, 31, 32]. Concretely, the company has to learn to establish connections between her members. This means connecting people whose cooperation will generate new and useful knowledge for themselves and for the company. These connections can take place as well at the individual level as at

Thiétard [33] proposes the following definition of management: "Management can be defined as the way to conduct, direct, structure and develop an organization. It touches on all the organizational and decision-making aspects of how she works. Management is less concerned with the procedures to be applied, whether they are accounting, legal or social procedures, than the animation of groups of men and women who must work together for the purpose of a finalized collective action" (p. 1). Thus, the diversity of situations, the complexity of problems, and the multiplicity of actors concerned by the KM should be studied. We can say that managerial and sociological approach of the KM emphasizes the link between learning and action and the constraints of the social system which requires giving meaning to working hours. This last point of view is based on the theory of needs and motivations pointed out by [34–38] and in particular on a pyramid hierarchy of motivations determining the human behavior proposed by the American psychologist Abraham Harold Maslow (1908–1970), who distinguishes five levels of need [37], notably level

**40**

potential.

At the end of this section devoted to KM, it appears that this discipline has followed developments strongly rooted in two contradictory and complementary paradigms: the positivist paradigm and the constructivist paradigm. Although not always leading to expected results, the KM positivist paradigm remains the implicit paradigm most recognized by KM researchers and practitioners.

From our point of view, this paradigm needs to be expanded to a more general point of view based on a constructivist paradigm. We refer to this approach as "the managerial and socio-technical approach to KM" (Section 2.4). This perspective brings together the elements on which the "management based on knowledge" is founded.
