Inclusivity in Teaching and Learning

**3**

**Chapter 1**

*John Fischetti*

teacher for a different kind of school.

engagement, teacher education

**1. Introduction**

**Abstract**

A Different Kind of Teacher for a

The current 'old school' paradigm of teaching and learning is based on students sitting passively in rows, completing a required syllabus in the order they are told to do so, and with very little choice. Assessment systems sort children and reinforce the status quo, promoting learning for 'some'. In the 'new school' paradigm, schools will no longer be places young people go to watch their teachers work. They are learning centres, with student engagement at the forefront and personalized approaches focussing the instruction on the needs of the learner. In this dynamic learning environment, a new approach to classroom and school leadership is vital. The implications of learning for 'all' are profound for teacher education. Schools of Education mostly place our students in schools as they are, not in schools as they need to be. That means we are replicating and perpetuating obsolescence. In this chapter, I offer a conceptual rationale for the change ahead and propose an internationally developed framework for teacher education to cut across the silos of individual states and provinces governed by individual regulators but where practices may not necessarily be driven by the knowledge base. The work is centred on implementing a Deweyan philosophy of education. We need a different kind of

**Keywords:** educational transformation, equity, personalized learning, school

We are on the precipice of a massive transformation of schooling and the assumptions around the education of children in the world. The current 'old school' paradigm of teaching and learning is based on students sitting passively in rows, completing a required syllabus in the order they are told to do so, and with very little choice. Assessment systems sort children and reinforce the status quo, promoting learning for 'some'. Obsolete uses of the normal curve ensure success for about 30% at a time when we need approaches to enable the success of all young people. This assembly-line approach to schooling too often sorts students early on based on societal socio-economic gaps or on educators' failure to adapt the learning environment to meet individual learner needs. As an example, currently at least 40% of Australian students are disengaged from their schooling [1]. This disengagement is a failure for the individuals and a tragic loss of human capacity for a country to be relevant in the 'innovation age' where critical thinking, problem solving, adaptive reasoning and collaboration are core skills. In the 'old school' model, leadership is more management than transformative. And, in teacher and leadership education,

Different Kind of School

#### **Chapter 1**

## A Different Kind of Teacher for a Different Kind of School

*John Fischetti*

#### **Abstract**

The current 'old school' paradigm of teaching and learning is based on students sitting passively in rows, completing a required syllabus in the order they are told to do so, and with very little choice. Assessment systems sort children and reinforce the status quo, promoting learning for 'some'. In the 'new school' paradigm, schools will no longer be places young people go to watch their teachers work. They are learning centres, with student engagement at the forefront and personalized approaches focussing the instruction on the needs of the learner. In this dynamic learning environment, a new approach to classroom and school leadership is vital. The implications of learning for 'all' are profound for teacher education. Schools of Education mostly place our students in schools as they are, not in schools as they need to be. That means we are replicating and perpetuating obsolescence. In this chapter, I offer a conceptual rationale for the change ahead and propose an internationally developed framework for teacher education to cut across the silos of individual states and provinces governed by individual regulators but where practices may not necessarily be driven by the knowledge base. The work is centred on implementing a Deweyan philosophy of education. We need a different kind of teacher for a different kind of school.

**Keywords:** educational transformation, equity, personalized learning, school engagement, teacher education

#### **1. Introduction**

We are on the precipice of a massive transformation of schooling and the assumptions around the education of children in the world. The current 'old school' paradigm of teaching and learning is based on students sitting passively in rows, completing a required syllabus in the order they are told to do so, and with very little choice. Assessment systems sort children and reinforce the status quo, promoting learning for 'some'. Obsolete uses of the normal curve ensure success for about 30% at a time when we need approaches to enable the success of all young people. This assembly-line approach to schooling too often sorts students early on based on societal socio-economic gaps or on educators' failure to adapt the learning environment to meet individual learner needs. As an example, currently at least 40% of Australian students are disengaged from their schooling [1]. This disengagement is a failure for the individuals and a tragic loss of human capacity for a country to be relevant in the 'innovation age' where critical thinking, problem solving, adaptive reasoning and collaboration are core skills. In the 'old school' model, leadership is more management than transformative. And, in teacher and leadership education,

we are too often preparing our new teachers for the schools we are holding onto rather than for the schools we need.

In the 'new school' paradigm, schools will no longer be places young people go to watch their teachers work. They are learning centres, with student engagement at the forefront and personalized approaches focussing the instruction on the needs of the learner. Emerging virtual reality and artificial intelligence systems (immersive technologies) will require the reinvention of content delivery and leapfrog pedagogies to new frontiers of exploring and mastering ideas and knowledge. Students in this new school approach are at the centre of the learning as they accomplish the syllabus in ways that work for each of them. Assessment from here will be formative and used to modify instruction to meet the needs of learners in real-time. That is equity in action, with learning for all as a goal.

In this dynamic learning environment, a new approach to classroom and school leadership is vital. Leadership for old school approaches was primarily management with a mission statement. In new school approaches, leadership is a complex, dynamic empowerment process. The individuals who drive education forward from here—from the classroom to the school to the boardroom—will need a new set of skills to help them create the learning environments that empower every child for success and embrace the culture and expectations of the community as vital partners in the process.

Currently the traditional curriculum and the syllabus derived from it tend to drive teaching and learning. This leads to mostly teacher-focused schools. It reinforces compliance, passivity, old school assessments and rules. Alternatively, models such as Big Picture design starts with a focus on learner passion, community engagement and authentic evidence of student learning mapped to highly benchmarked national learning outcomes. This approach is creating a new role for teachers and schools.

The implications of these changes are profound for teacher education. Some of the content of teacher education is rooted in preserving syllabus-driven didactic teaching and passive compliance-based regurgitation of low level facts by learners. Schools of education typically place students for their practica in schools as they are, not schools as they need to be. That means we are replicating and perpetuating obsolescence.

In this chapter I offer a conceptual rationale for the change ahead and propose an internationally developed research-based framework for teacher education to cut across the silos of individual states and provinces. These silos allow teacher education programs to show evidence they each uphold local/national standards that appeal to regulators. However these silos may but may not promote current research or best practices in learning and teaching. The work is grounded in the premise and promise of John Dewey. Here we are 100 years later attempting to push back at massive industries of assessment and accountability and looking to finally see Dewey's philosophy and vision realized in the concept of success for all.

#### **2. An overview of teacher education**

College and university-based teacher education programs vary considerably by size, region, student body, nature and focus of curriculum, talent of instructional staff, status within home institution, balance of coursework and practice, relation with local district, and more. Some are excellent, some are good and experimenting with ways to get better, some are weak in some respects but decent in others, some are marginal and poorly run. The language of the current criticism of teacher education, at least the most public language, does not allow for this variability. Ministers of Education throughout the Western world continue to dismiss teacher education and put in place new policies and regulations aimed at changing the face of who

**5**

*A Different Kind of Teacher for a Different Kind of School*

assumptions of the role of a teacher in our society.

criminal record of initial teaching candidates.

**2.1 A contradictory last century**

comes into and out of teacher education programs. The bottom-line message: Teacher

How did we get to this so-called and falsely perceived disaster? In the United States, the evolution of teacher education as a professional endeavour has been a bumpy journey from requirements that teachers 'will bring a bucket of water and make their pens carefully' [3]. The current assumption for candidates coming from university-based teacher education is that they are fully-credentialed reflective practitioners who personalize education for all students and who serve as learning scientists from day one on the job. It was John Dewey who helped transform the

*He must, if he is an educator, be able to judge what attitudes are actually conducive to continued growth and what are detrimental. He must, in addition, have that sympathetic understanding of individuals as individuals which gives him an idea* 

*of what is actually going on in the minds of those who are learning* [4].

Over the last hundred years or so of western culture, we have evolved as a society in contradictory ways to Dewey's vision of where education might lead us. The contradictory expectations of teacher education mirror the contradictions of the world itself. With scientific advancements from the airplane, the cure for polio and the Internet, human kind has never had more opportunities then the present time to control the world around us and to advance the causes or equity and justice, particularly through education. In that same last century, we saw horrible people do horrible things, including Stalin, Hitler and Pol Pot. The United States is the only country to have used nuclear weapons and today rogue regimes gas their own people. During this time Western schools, for the most part, have remained remarkably the same and the credentialing of teachers has been evolved in increasing regulatory requirements, including new entrance and exit processes and increased pressures on licensure bodies to ensure the positive dispositional nature and clear

The contradictions reflect a hurried culture as much of society is caught up in things that are fast and easy. Today the 'McDonaldization' of the 'fast' (food, news, social media, packages) has, among other things, led to increasing obesity and cardiovascular disease rates for the most vulnerable. Advances in research and technologies allow many of us to live healthier and longer lives than ever before, while Type II Diabetes is increasing in the most vulnerable populations in the west. In spite of billions spent on closing academic achievement gaps between the wealthiest and poorest among us, economic and opportunity gaps have increased. In addition, it led to an increase in short-cut teacher education programs fuelled by anti-government school sentiment and a for-profit mentality. Teach for American and its sister organizations in the UK and Australia are part of that massification movement. Now some want their teachers as fast and as cheap as their burgers, perhaps as long those microwaved teachers do not teach their own children. Education in that 100 years has created a sorting pipeline where the system deliberately worked to ensure that about 30% of any of us who started school would be successful in our formal schooling and accomplish post-secondary degrees. Large testing regimens were developed to assist in the sorting, using the normal curve and new-fangled psychometrics as the basis of the decision-making process. For example, the Intelligence test (IQ ) first developed in France, the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) used to admit students to universities in the United States and the Australian Tertiary Admissions Ranking (ATAR) in Australia actually sort high

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84372*

education is a disaster [2].

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

rather than for the schools we need.

equity in action, with learning for all as a goal.

teachers and schools.

we are too often preparing our new teachers for the schools we are holding onto

In the 'new school' paradigm, schools will no longer be places young people go to watch their teachers work. They are learning centres, with student engagement at the forefront and personalized approaches focussing the instruction on the needs of the learner. Emerging virtual reality and artificial intelligence systems (immersive technologies) will require the reinvention of content delivery and leapfrog pedagogies to new frontiers of exploring and mastering ideas and knowledge. Students in this new school approach are at the centre of the learning as they accomplish the syllabus in ways that work for each of them. Assessment from here will be formative and used to modify instruction to meet the needs of learners in real-time. That is

In this dynamic learning environment, a new approach to classroom and school leadership is vital. Leadership for old school approaches was primarily management with a mission statement. In new school approaches, leadership is a complex, dynamic empowerment process. The individuals who drive education forward from here—from the classroom to the school to the boardroom—will need a new set of skills to help them create the learning environments that empower every child for success and embrace the culture and expectations of the community as vital partners in the process. Currently the traditional curriculum and the syllabus derived from it tend to drive teaching and learning. This leads to mostly teacher-focused schools. It reinforces compliance, passivity, old school assessments and rules. Alternatively, models such as Big Picture design starts with a focus on learner passion, community engagement and authentic evidence of student learning mapped to highly benchmarked national learning outcomes. This approach is creating a new role for

The implications of these changes are profound for teacher education. Some of the content of teacher education is rooted in preserving syllabus-driven didactic teaching and passive compliance-based regurgitation of low level facts by learners. Schools of education typically place students for their practica in schools as they are, not schools as they need to be. That means we are replicating and perpetuating obsolescence. In this chapter I offer a conceptual rationale for the change ahead and propose an internationally developed research-based framework for teacher education to cut across the silos of individual states and provinces. These silos allow teacher education programs to show evidence they each uphold local/national standards that appeal to regulators. However these silos may but may not promote current research or best practices in learning and teaching. The work is grounded in the premise and promise of John Dewey. Here we are 100 years later attempting to push back at massive industries of assessment and accountability and looking to finally see Dewey's

College and university-based teacher education programs vary considerably by size, region, student body, nature and focus of curriculum, talent of instructional staff, status within home institution, balance of coursework and practice, relation with local district, and more. Some are excellent, some are good and experimenting with ways to get better, some are weak in some respects but decent in others, some are marginal and poorly run. The language of the current criticism of teacher education, at least the most public language, does not allow for this variability. Ministers of Education throughout the Western world continue to dismiss teacher education and put in place new policies and regulations aimed at changing the face of who

philosophy and vision realized in the concept of success for all.

**2. An overview of teacher education**

**4**

comes into and out of teacher education programs. The bottom-line message: Teacher education is a disaster [2].

How did we get to this so-called and falsely perceived disaster? In the United States, the evolution of teacher education as a professional endeavour has been a bumpy journey from requirements that teachers 'will bring a bucket of water and make their pens carefully' [3]. The current assumption for candidates coming from university-based teacher education is that they are fully-credentialed reflective practitioners who personalize education for all students and who serve as learning scientists from day one on the job. It was John Dewey who helped transform the assumptions of the role of a teacher in our society.

*He must, if he is an educator, be able to judge what attitudes are actually conducive to continued growth and what are detrimental. He must, in addition, have that sympathetic understanding of individuals as individuals which gives him an idea of what is actually going on in the minds of those who are learning* [4].

#### **2.1 A contradictory last century**

Over the last hundred years or so of western culture, we have evolved as a society in contradictory ways to Dewey's vision of where education might lead us. The contradictory expectations of teacher education mirror the contradictions of the world itself. With scientific advancements from the airplane, the cure for polio and the Internet, human kind has never had more opportunities then the present time to control the world around us and to advance the causes or equity and justice, particularly through education. In that same last century, we saw horrible people do horrible things, including Stalin, Hitler and Pol Pot. The United States is the only country to have used nuclear weapons and today rogue regimes gas their own people. During this time Western schools, for the most part, have remained remarkably the same and the credentialing of teachers has been evolved in increasing regulatory requirements, including new entrance and exit processes and increased pressures on licensure bodies to ensure the positive dispositional nature and clear criminal record of initial teaching candidates.

The contradictions reflect a hurried culture as much of society is caught up in things that are fast and easy. Today the 'McDonaldization' of the 'fast' (food, news, social media, packages) has, among other things, led to increasing obesity and cardiovascular disease rates for the most vulnerable. Advances in research and technologies allow many of us to live healthier and longer lives than ever before, while Type II Diabetes is increasing in the most vulnerable populations in the west. In spite of billions spent on closing academic achievement gaps between the wealthiest and poorest among us, economic and opportunity gaps have increased. In addition, it led to an increase in short-cut teacher education programs fuelled by anti-government school sentiment and a for-profit mentality. Teach for American and its sister organizations in the UK and Australia are part of that massification movement. Now some want their teachers as fast and as cheap as their burgers, perhaps as long those microwaved teachers do not teach their own children.

Education in that 100 years has created a sorting pipeline where the system deliberately worked to ensure that about 30% of any of us who started school would be successful in our formal schooling and accomplish post-secondary degrees. Large testing regimens were developed to assist in the sorting, using the normal curve and new-fangled psychometrics as the basis of the decision-making process. For example, the Intelligence test (IQ ) first developed in France, the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) used to admit students to universities in the United States and the Australian Tertiary Admissions Ranking (ATAR) in Australia actually sort high

school graduates based on pre-determined assumptions of knowledge and future success. This is a perpetuation of the assembly-line education system. The system is still built on the assumption that 30–40% of us will finish school with the wrote memory skills and test-taking accuracy to be selected to tertiary education. It assumes another 30% or so of us will complete secondary school with 'good enough' literacy skills to be successful in the workforce and about another 30% will not survive the syllabus-driven compliance-based system, and either marginally drop in or just drop out. This last group tended to be destined to be the lower-level employees needed to support the materialistically-driven and profit-driven capitalist economy.

Failed educational policies that have been floating around between the United Kingdom and the United States have influenced the initial preparation of teachers [5]. They have impacted curriculum, instruction, assessment and teacher education. These include the implantation of higher standards for schools followed by high stakes assessments of those standards. They have included the infusion of so-called twenty-first century learning techniques, increased rigor and new tests for initial teachers upon entry and exit from their programs. Most of those policies, including the No Child Left Behind legislation of 2002 in the United States have led to increasing achievement gaps and further erosion of equity-based goals.

We have come to a time where there is almost nothing to 'do' to support one's family with a 'middle class' life if you are in a low-skill, low-education-related job. Most of these kinds of jobs have been or will be automated. In Hangzhou, China, in 2017 Jack Ma opened a market where no one except security works there while they are open. Through the app-based interactions, customers are automatically billed for their purchases as they put them in their shopping bags and head out the door. The store is staffed to stock shelves after hours, and that is it. This type of innovation is very exciting if you like new apps. It is very scary if you work in a store. The skillsets needed to be successful require a teacher education that is transformed to this new reality that there is very little to 'do' if you are not well educated.

We have a moral, social, economic and political obligation to get everyone to reach their highest potential and for them to have the opportunity to lead inspired lives. The overall happiness and health of our citizens is an economic savings in the level of social welfare that is *not* needed when people are well educated. Proper educational attainment gains directly influence the success for at least two generations beyond the current one in school. For young people today who are undereducated, there is very little to do. Continued economic and educational divides perpetuate social inequities. These economic gaps are widening and social upheaval threatens democracy. If anything has been a disaster (as discussed in the Rose quote above) in the education of teachers it has been the mixed goals we have for the education of our children. Are schools for promoting the common good? Are classroom teachers responsible for creating positive learning environments or for improving test scores? Should we differentiate for the needs or learners or have them conform to the lesson the way it is narrowly implemented? The 'disaster' Rose confronts above may be why many education students relay that they receive conflicting messages that our new teachers face as they enter schools in their required field experiences or practica. Many hear from experienced teachers that they should forget everything taught on the university campus and take on board mostly what they see and learn in the 'real world'. Yet, other novices report that they are involved in amazing partnerships with schools, universities and communities committed to equity and student engagement in learning connected.

There have been more than 100 reports critiquing teacher education in Australia since the 1970s and almost as many in the United States and the United Kingdom. These reports led to new tests and more accountability standards and measures of teacher behaviours.

**7**

disciplinary fields.

*A Different Kind of Teacher for a Different Kind of School*

to the teacher and the plan not the other way around.

classrooms down separate corridors of the school [7].

line in a two dimensional (2D—'sit and git') education world.

in the mill, the mine or the shop.

have very little to do today.

**2.3 The global learning equity network**

line.

Today we have a regulated profession that has not necessarily changed the content of what is taught as much as developed a 'tick box' compliance process [6]. We need a major revamp of teacher education from the inside out that actually changes the model to provide all children with the education that is right for them.

When I was in school in the 1960s and 1970s, teachers typically had one lesson plan for each class, one textbook, one method of note delivery (chalkboard), one pedagogical approach (they talked), one style of seating arrangement and one discipline strategy for the whole class. My classmates and I were expected to adjust

'Differentiation' at that time was primarily for those identified with moderate to profound special needs, who were typically taught by special teachers in special

Teacher education grew out of these assumptions of 'training' for the assembly

For too long schools have been places young people go to watch their teachers work. They have relied on a deficit model of learning and teaching [8]. They have emphasized conformity rather than personalization. And today, in many parts of the world, they still mirror factories while the 3D printer is replacing the assembly

Scientists are now aware of at least 10 dimensions [9] that we must comprehend

Many jobs available in the past for those who did not finish school have been outsourced or automated, and more will be in the near future. We cannot afford

Current standards for initial teacher preparation across the western world are remarkably the same [11]. They are really organizers of evidence that new teachers and their programs must assemble inside these agreed-upon categories. Unfortunately, they are built on and support a model of learning and teaching that is nearly obsolete. We actually have very little evidence that graduates of teacher education programs use

In response, academics and educators across New Zealand, Hong Kong, South Africa, Canada, the United Kingdom, the United States and Australia have devised five new guiding questions or frameworks for teacher education [13]. They helped us create a global conversation to benchmark teacher education internationally

The frameworks evolved from conversations with leading scholars in the inter-

The Global Learning Equity Network (GLEN) aims to reinvent teacher education in the field of learning science and reinvigorate the profound role teachers play

in a very dynamic, collaborative, global innovation age. Although many of us performed well in the 2D (sit and git) model, those who were unable to adapt to it

economically or morally to continue a 2D mentality for schooling [10].

what is taught to them 3 years into their teaching. This has to change [12] .

rather than in individual states, provinces or nations.

in addressing issues of equity and student success.

This was assembly-line education. Many of us did quite well. Some of us dropped in. Some of us dropped out. It was understood that if you worked hard after you left school, even if you dropped out, you could anticipate a pretty good job

**2.2 The implications for schooling, teaching and teacher education**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84372*

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

school graduates based on pre-determined assumptions of knowledge and future success. This is a perpetuation of the assembly-line education system. The system is still built on the assumption that 30–40% of us will finish school with the wrote memory skills and test-taking accuracy to be selected to tertiary education. It assumes another 30% or so of us will complete secondary school with 'good enough' literacy skills to be successful in the workforce and about another 30% will not survive the syllabus-driven compliance-based system, and either marginally drop in or just drop out. This last group tended to be destined to be the lower-level employees needed to support the materialistically-driven and profit-driven capitalist economy. Failed educational policies that have been floating around between the United Kingdom and the United States have influenced the initial preparation of teachers [5]. They have impacted curriculum, instruction, assessment and teacher education. These include the implantation of higher standards for schools followed by high stakes assessments of those standards. They have included the infusion of so-called twenty-first century learning techniques, increased rigor and new tests for initial teachers upon entry and exit from their programs. Most of those policies, including the No Child Left Behind legislation of 2002 in the United States have led

to increasing achievement gaps and further erosion of equity-based goals.

this new reality that there is very little to 'do' if you are not well educated.

nities committed to equity and student engagement in learning connected.

There have been more than 100 reports critiquing teacher education in Australia since the 1970s and almost as many in the United States and the United Kingdom. These reports led to new tests and more accountability standards and measures of

We have come to a time where there is almost nothing to 'do' to support one's family with a 'middle class' life if you are in a low-skill, low-education-related job. Most of these kinds of jobs have been or will be automated. In Hangzhou, China, in 2017 Jack Ma opened a market where no one except security works there while they are open. Through the app-based interactions, customers are automatically billed for their purchases as they put them in their shopping bags and head out the door. The store is staffed to stock shelves after hours, and that is it. This type of innovation is very exciting if you like new apps. It is very scary if you work in a store. The skillsets needed to be successful require a teacher education that is transformed to

We have a moral, social, economic and political obligation to get everyone to reach their highest potential and for them to have the opportunity to lead inspired lives. The overall happiness and health of our citizens is an economic savings in the level of social welfare that is *not* needed when people are well educated. Proper educational attainment gains directly influence the success for at least two generations beyond the current one in school. For young people today who are undereducated, there is very little to do. Continued economic and educational divides perpetuate social inequities. These economic gaps are widening and social upheaval threatens democracy. If anything has been a disaster (as discussed in the Rose quote above) in the education of teachers it has been the mixed goals we have for the education of our children. Are schools for promoting the common good? Are classroom teachers responsible for creating positive learning environments or for improving test scores? Should we differentiate for the needs or learners or have them conform to the lesson the way it is narrowly implemented? The 'disaster' Rose confronts above may be why many education students relay that they receive conflicting messages that our new teachers face as they enter schools in their required field experiences or practica. Many hear from experienced teachers that they should forget everything taught on the university campus and take on board mostly what they see and learn in the 'real world'. Yet, other novices report that they are involved in amazing partnerships with schools, universities and commu-

**6**

teacher behaviours.

Today we have a regulated profession that has not necessarily changed the content of what is taught as much as developed a 'tick box' compliance process [6].

We need a major revamp of teacher education from the inside out that actually changes the model to provide all children with the education that is right for them.

#### **2.2 The implications for schooling, teaching and teacher education**

When I was in school in the 1960s and 1970s, teachers typically had one lesson plan for each class, one textbook, one method of note delivery (chalkboard), one pedagogical approach (they talked), one style of seating arrangement and one discipline strategy for the whole class. My classmates and I were expected to adjust to the teacher and the plan not the other way around.

'Differentiation' at that time was primarily for those identified with moderate to profound special needs, who were typically taught by special teachers in special classrooms down separate corridors of the school [7].

This was assembly-line education. Many of us did quite well. Some of us dropped in. Some of us dropped out. It was understood that if you worked hard after you left school, even if you dropped out, you could anticipate a pretty good job in the mill, the mine or the shop.

Teacher education grew out of these assumptions of 'training' for the assembly line in a two dimensional (2D—'sit and git') education world.

For too long schools have been places young people go to watch their teachers work. They have relied on a deficit model of learning and teaching [8]. They have emphasized conformity rather than personalization. And today, in many parts of the world, they still mirror factories while the 3D printer is replacing the assembly line.

Scientists are now aware of at least 10 dimensions [9] that we must comprehend in a very dynamic, collaborative, global innovation age. Although many of us performed well in the 2D (sit and git) model, those who were unable to adapt to it have very little to do today.

Many jobs available in the past for those who did not finish school have been outsourced or automated, and more will be in the near future. We cannot afford economically or morally to continue a 2D mentality for schooling [10].

#### **2.3 The global learning equity network**

Current standards for initial teacher preparation across the western world are remarkably the same [11]. They are really organizers of evidence that new teachers and their programs must assemble inside these agreed-upon categories. Unfortunately, they are built on and support a model of learning and teaching that is nearly obsolete. We actually have very little evidence that graduates of teacher education programs use what is taught to them 3 years into their teaching. This has to change [12] .

In response, academics and educators across New Zealand, Hong Kong, South Africa, Canada, the United Kingdom, the United States and Australia have devised five new guiding questions or frameworks for teacher education [13]. They helped us create a global conversation to benchmark teacher education internationally rather than in individual states, provinces or nations.

The frameworks evolved from conversations with leading scholars in the interdisciplinary fields.

The Global Learning Equity Network (GLEN) aims to reinvent teacher education in the field of learning science and reinvigorate the profound role teachers play in addressing issues of equity and student success.

Our cloud-based Learning Equity Research and Resource Centre [14] hosts current and leading resources in scholarly and applied research on learning equity in emerging knowledge bases such as:


Most teacher education programs in the world are remarkably the same. Programs are regulated and states, provinces, shires or countries in which the states for example create organizers or standards for which teacher education programs are accredited and where panels and external reviewers determine that they are actually going well. The issue with this form of validation process is programs are surprisingly very similar right now. In an effort to please regulators by complying to standards, the scope and the sequence of teacher education are more the same than different.

The standards have created a vertical set of silos in which programs operate in isolation but with remarkable similarity and with little evidence of embedding best practice. We propose a new way to think of an international scheme for teacher education with horizontal research-based conversation across the world. Because of the imperative that we get education right for every child and that each learner is successful, the relevance of the content of teacher education programs more than mandated entrance and exit requirements from above is vital. The fears of many policy makers are related to the 'quality' of who is coming into teaching and the level of readiness of those exiting programs. The amazing knowledge bases that are driving a whole new approach to learning sciences outside of education are almost silent in the regulator mandates and new screening requirements put in place to safeguard from 'dummies' entering teaching. GLEN has developed the following frameworks to promote the two most important aspects of schooling in a free society—learning and equity.

#### **2.4 Five new frameworks to drive the reframing of teacher education**

Our resource centre facilitates the evolution of international frameworks to guide teacher education toward *learning education*. Each of our GLEN frameworks provides the latest key research for that area, as well as examples of how this research has already been implemented in an educational context, and a library of related and engaging online content [15].

The frameworks themselves are based on a synthesis of the major domains in the field. They aim to guide teacher education programs around the world to recalibrate their current models in light of new evidence in the following areas:

#### *2.4.1 Where do children live?*

The context and environment in which children live is paramount to their success as learners in formal school settings. Mostly middle class new teachers often lack deep understandings of culture, family, diversity and community dynamics.

**9**

every child.

children.

pedagogical prowess.

*A Different Kind of Teacher for a Different Kind of School*

family involvement early into their education.

yet made its way to teacher preparation [18, 19].

creativity, and fosters their innate curiosity for learning.

but also with students in Mumbai, Shanghai and Boston.

*2.4.5 Who am I as a learning and equity leader?*

world's best experts informing the process.

*2.4.4 Why is equity such a vital component for the common good?*

The most innovative teacher preparation programs embed direct community and

The work in neuroscience, psychology, indigenous cultures, the arts, technologies, equity, learning differences, etc., is all forming a new transdisciplinary area of

We have just begun to understand learning and its many forms and contexts in light of new innovations. Most of the new learning from brain research, including the recent knowledge about toxic stress [16], adolescent development [17], the importance of physical movement, creativity and the impact of technologies has not

In the past 20 years, schools have often been pressured to become testing centres rather than leaning centres. To be successful in the innovation age, young people need exposure to a dynamic curriculum that helps them master traditional literacy and numeracy skills inside of an engaging problem-solving environment that focuses on students finding their passion, developing critical thinking, enables

Teacher education should go way beyond the syllabus for each country and foster the newest and best thinking about knowing and doing in a global context. Students in Sydney are not only in competition with students in Brisbane and Perth,

A focus on equity (fairness) is paramount to overcoming injustice, providing social cohesion, improving living standards and protecting democracy. Most teacher education programs currently isolate equity issues inside of introductory courses rather than wrap learning with equity throughout their program designs. Most of the pedagogies taught to new teachers are about 'fixing' student deficits rather than building upon the amazing capacity and evolving cognitive capacity of

Whom teachers are and how they behave is one of the most underrated competencies of learning to teach. Caring, flexibility, resilience, respecting diversity, overcoming inequities, advocating for children, leadership and positively communicating with colleagues and parents are all as vital as content knowledge and

Many new teachers are strong in content, but the social aspect of their job may not be developed. It is possible for someone to meet the current standards but fail

These frameworks might be the grounding across the various standards in states and nations to guide learning and equity and to build a sound way forward with the

Implicit in these frameworks is a new approach to teacher education. I propose that teacher education programs align with an international set of frameworks and

*2.4.3 What should children know and be able to do as a result of schooling?*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84372*

*2.4.2 How and when do children learn?*

'learning sciences'.

The most innovative teacher preparation programs embed direct community and family involvement early into their education.

#### *2.4.2 How and when do children learn?*

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

• psychology

• neuroscience

• technology

• equity

• cognitive science

• special education

in emerging knowledge bases such as:

Our cloud-based Learning Equity Research and Resource Centre [14] hosts current and leading resources in scholarly and applied research on learning equity

Most teacher education programs in the world are remarkably the same. Programs are regulated and states, provinces, shires or countries in which the states for example create organizers or standards for which teacher education programs are accredited and where panels and external reviewers determine that they are actually going well. The issue with this form of validation process is programs are surprisingly very similar right now. In an effort to please regulators by complying to standards, the scope and the sequence of teacher education are more the same than different. The standards have created a vertical set of silos in which programs operate in isolation but with remarkable similarity and with little evidence of embedding best practice. We propose a new way to think of an international scheme for teacher education with horizontal research-based conversation across the world. Because of the imperative that we get education right for every child and that each learner is successful, the relevance of the content of teacher education programs more than mandated entrance and exit requirements from above is vital. The fears of many policy makers are related to the 'quality' of who is coming into teaching and the level of readiness of those exiting programs. The amazing knowledge bases that are driving a whole new approach to learning sciences outside of education are almost silent in the regulator mandates and new screening requirements put in place to safeguard from 'dummies' entering teaching. GLEN has developed the following frameworks to promote the two most important aspects of schooling in a free society—learning and equity.

**2.4 Five new frameworks to drive the reframing of teacher education**

their current models in light of new evidence in the following areas:

related and engaging online content [15].

*2.4.1 Where do children live?*

Our resource centre facilitates the evolution of international frameworks to guide teacher education toward *learning education*. Each of our GLEN frameworks provides the latest key research for that area, as well as examples of how this research has already been implemented in an educational context, and a library of

The frameworks themselves are based on a synthesis of the major domains in the field. They aim to guide teacher education programs around the world to recalibrate

The context and environment in which children live is paramount to their success as learners in formal school settings. Mostly middle class new teachers often lack deep understandings of culture, family, diversity and community dynamics.

**8**

The work in neuroscience, psychology, indigenous cultures, the arts, technologies, equity, learning differences, etc., is all forming a new transdisciplinary area of 'learning sciences'.

We have just begun to understand learning and its many forms and contexts in light of new innovations. Most of the new learning from brain research, including the recent knowledge about toxic stress [16], adolescent development [17], the importance of physical movement, creativity and the impact of technologies has not yet made its way to teacher preparation [18, 19].

#### *2.4.3 What should children know and be able to do as a result of schooling?*

In the past 20 years, schools have often been pressured to become testing centres rather than leaning centres. To be successful in the innovation age, young people need exposure to a dynamic curriculum that helps them master traditional literacy and numeracy skills inside of an engaging problem-solving environment that focuses on students finding their passion, developing critical thinking, enables creativity, and fosters their innate curiosity for learning.

Teacher education should go way beyond the syllabus for each country and foster the newest and best thinking about knowing and doing in a global context. Students in Sydney are not only in competition with students in Brisbane and Perth, but also with students in Mumbai, Shanghai and Boston.

#### *2.4.4 Why is equity such a vital component for the common good?*

A focus on equity (fairness) is paramount to overcoming injustice, providing social cohesion, improving living standards and protecting democracy. Most teacher education programs currently isolate equity issues inside of introductory courses rather than wrap learning with equity throughout their program designs.

Most of the pedagogies taught to new teachers are about 'fixing' student deficits rather than building upon the amazing capacity and evolving cognitive capacity of every child.

#### *2.4.5 Who am I as a learning and equity leader?*

Whom teachers are and how they behave is one of the most underrated competencies of learning to teach. Caring, flexibility, resilience, respecting diversity, overcoming inequities, advocating for children, leadership and positively communicating with colleagues and parents are all as vital as content knowledge and pedagogical prowess.

Many new teachers are strong in content, but the social aspect of their job may not be developed. It is possible for someone to meet the current standards but fail children.

These frameworks might be the grounding across the various standards in states and nations to guide learning and equity and to build a sound way forward with the world's best experts informing the process.

Implicit in these frameworks is a new approach to teacher education. I propose that teacher education programs align with an international set of frameworks and backwards map their research informed curriculum, instruction and assessment practices with national, state or province standards. Rather than being dictated to by policy makers, teacher educators can claim the knowledge base they contribute to and expand the interdisciplinary connections to the related fields that empower candidates across the five GLEN frameworks. This would be a new kind of teacher education built on current and future knowledge and prepare candidates for the schools we need rather than the ones we hold on to. This would indeed be a different kind of teacher prepared for a different kind of school.

#### **3. Conclusion**

When Copernicus posited, and Galileo confirmed the Sun as the centre of the solar system and that the Earth revolved around it, many learned people of the time considered this heresy. The notion that the syllabus can be accomplished by adjusting it to the passions and needs of the learners is possibly considered heresy today. To some, the idea that passion and student wellbeing help drive intellectual curiosity and lead to building cognitive capacities seems impossible at worst or unrealistic at best. However, the goal of learning for all is to design schools based upon and built around the needs of learners rather than the syllabus or the needs of adults. This is the direction we are heading led by great educators around the world who have adopted promising school designs. If we stay on top of the technological advances, smart tools can help us differentiate in powerful ways. By preparing new teachers differently, we can provide a bridge from old school to new school without a lost generation of disruption.

When I talk to parents of school age children, they often complain that some students on some days get different assistance from their teachers. They tell me this is not fair. Actually, it is fair, it is not equal. Equity is about giving each child what they need, when they need it. With fairness one of the core values of progressive countries around the world, and as we collectively address the inequities of the past, new school designs and new teacher education designs may be part of our journey to fairness. All of us deserve a fair go as a child, not a predetermined normreference box we are put in. Secondary school graduates this year around the world are the first generation of learners born since 2000. They are twenty-first century natives. We can no longer wait to embrace change. It is already here. We can do this.

#### **Acknowledgements**

The author wishes to thank the members of the Global Learning Equity Network for their groundbreaking work in creating pathways across the planet for a new approach to teacher education.

**11**

**Author details**

John Fischetti

provided the original work is properly cited.

University of Newcastle, Australia

*A Different Kind of Teacher for a Different Kind of School*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84372*

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

\*Address all correspondence to: john.fischetti@newcastle.edu.au

#### **Conflict of interest**

None.

*A Different Kind of Teacher for a Different Kind of School DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84372*

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

**3. Conclusion**

a lost generation of disruption.

**Acknowledgements**

**Conflict of interest**

None.

approach to teacher education.

kind of teacher prepared for a different kind of school.

backwards map their research informed curriculum, instruction and assessment practices with national, state or province standards. Rather than being dictated to by policy makers, teacher educators can claim the knowledge base they contribute to and expand the interdisciplinary connections to the related fields that empower candidates across the five GLEN frameworks. This would be a new kind of teacher education built on current and future knowledge and prepare candidates for the schools we need rather than the ones we hold on to. This would indeed be a different

When Copernicus posited, and Galileo confirmed the Sun as the centre of the solar system and that the Earth revolved around it, many learned people of the time considered this heresy. The notion that the syllabus can be accomplished by adjusting it to the passions and needs of the learners is possibly considered heresy today. To some, the idea that passion and student wellbeing help drive intellectual curiosity and lead to building cognitive capacities seems impossible at worst or unrealistic at best. However, the goal of learning for all is to design schools based upon and built around the needs of learners rather than the syllabus or the needs of adults. This is the direction we are heading led by great educators around the world who have adopted promising school designs. If we stay on top of the technological advances, smart tools can help us differentiate in powerful ways. By preparing new teachers differently, we can provide a bridge from old school to new school without

When I talk to parents of school age children, they often complain that some students on some days get different assistance from their teachers. They tell me this is not fair. Actually, it is fair, it is not equal. Equity is about giving each child what they need, when they need it. With fairness one of the core values of progressive countries around the world, and as we collectively address the inequities of the past, new school designs and new teacher education designs may be part of our journey to fairness. All of us deserve a fair go as a child, not a predetermined normreference box we are put in. Secondary school graduates this year around the world are the first generation of learners born since 2000. They are twenty-first century natives. We can no longer wait to embrace change. It is already here. We can do this.

The author wishes to thank the members of the Global Learning Equity Network

for their groundbreaking work in creating pathways across the planet for a new

**10**

#### **Author details**

John Fischetti University of Newcastle, Australia

\*Address all correspondence to: john.fischetti@newcastle.edu.au

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

### **References**

[1] Goss P, Sonnemann J, Griffiths K. Engaging students: Creating classrooms that improve learning. In: Grattan Institute Report No. 2017-01; February 2017. Victoria, Australia: Gratten Institute; 2017. pp. 1-40

[2] Rose M. The Washington Post. Is Teacher Education a Disaster? [Internet]. 2014. Available from: https://www.washingtonpost.com/ news/answer-sheet/wp/2014/01/13/ is-teacher-education-really-adisaster/?noredirect=on&utm\_ term=.6ec2501becbd

[3] Bial R. One-Room School. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co; 1999

[4] Dewey J. Experience and Education. New York: Free Press; 1938

[5] Fischetti J. Issues in education: The rubber duckies are here: Five trends affecting public education around the world. Childhood Education. 2014;**90**(4):316-318. DOI: 10.1080/00094056.2014.937309

[6] Mayer D. Forty years of teacher education in Australia. Journal of Education for Teaching. 1974-2014;**40**(5):461-473. DOI: 10.1080/02607476.2014.956536

[7] Graham LJ, Cologon K. The Conversation. Explainer: What Is Differentiation and Why Is It Poorly Understood? [Internet]. 2016. Available from: https://theconversation.com/ explainer-what-is-differentiation-andwhy-is-it-poorly-understood-55757

[8] Je-Bak H. Education and public attitudes toward science: Implications for the "deficit model" of education and support for science and technology. Social Science Quarterly. 2001;**82**(4):779-795. DOI: 10.1111/0038-4941.00059

[9] Williams M. Universe Today. A Universe of 10 Dimensions [Internet]. 2014. Available from: https://www. universetoday.com/48619/a-universeof-10-dimensions/

[10] Tuffley D. The Conversation. Australia Must Prepare for Massive Job Losses due to Automation [Internet]. 2015. Available from: https:// theconversation.com/australia-mustprepare-for-massive-job-losses-due-toautomation-43321

[11] Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership, AITSL. Australian Professional Standards for Teachers [Internet]. 2017. Available from: https://www.aitsl.edu. au/teach/standards

[12] Cochran-Smith M, Feiman-Nemser S, McIntyre DJ, Demers KE, editors. Handbook of Research on Teacher Education: Enduring Questions in Changing Contexts. 3rd ed. New York: Routledge; 2008

[13] The University of Newcastle. Global Learning Equity Network [Internet]. 2018. Available from: https://www. newcastle.edu.au/glen

[14] The Frameworks of the Global Learning Equity Network. Available from https://www.newcastle.edu.au/glen

[15] Fischetti J. Reframing teacher education for learning equity. Peabody Journal of Education. 2018;**93**(3):267-271. DOI: 10.1080/0161956X.2018.1469228

[16] Centre on the Developing Child at Harvard University. 3. Toxic Stress Derails Healthy Development [Internet]. 2011. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=rVwFkcOZHJw

**13**

*A Different Kind of Teacher for a Different Kind of School*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84372*

[18] Chavez-Eakle RA. New Horizons for Learning: The Relevance of Creativity in Education [Internet]. 2010. Available from: http://jhepp.library.jhu.edu/ojs/ index.php/newhorizons/article/view/71

[19] Zhao Y. Yong Zhao Creative, Entrepreneurial, and Global: 21st Century Education: Never Send a Human to do a machine's Job: Top 5 Mistakes in Ed Tech [Internet]. 2015. Available from: http://zhaolearning. com/2015/10/25/never-send-a-humanto-do-a-machine%E2%80%99s-job-

top-5-mistakes-in-ed-tech/

[17] Richards V. Adolescent development: Personal and social changes. In: Richards V, Howe A, editors. Bridging the Transition from Primary to Secondary School. London:

Routledge; 2015. pp. 56-71

*A Different Kind of Teacher for a Different Kind of School DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84372*

[17] Richards V. Adolescent development: Personal and social changes. In: Richards V, Howe A, editors. Bridging the Transition from Primary to Secondary School. London: Routledge; 2015. pp. 56-71

[18] Chavez-Eakle RA. New Horizons for Learning: The Relevance of Creativity in Education [Internet]. 2010. Available from: http://jhepp.library.jhu.edu/ojs/ index.php/newhorizons/article/view/71

[19] Zhao Y. Yong Zhao Creative, Entrepreneurial, and Global: 21st Century Education: Never Send a Human to do a machine's Job: Top 5 Mistakes in Ed Tech [Internet]. 2015. Available from: http://zhaolearning. com/2015/10/25/never-send-a-humanto-do-a-machine%E2%80%99s-jobtop-5-mistakes-in-ed-tech/

**12**

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

[1] Goss P, Sonnemann J, Griffiths K. Engaging students: Creating classrooms that improve learning. In: Grattan Institute Report No. 2017-01; February 2017. Victoria, Australia: Gratten

[9] Williams M. Universe Today. A Universe of 10 Dimensions [Internet]. 2014. Available from: https://www. universetoday.com/48619/a-universe-

[10] Tuffley D. The Conversation. Australia Must Prepare for Massive Job Losses due to Automation [Internet].

theconversation.com/australia-mustprepare-for-massive-job-losses-due-to-

Standards for Teachers [Internet]. 2017. Available from: https://www.aitsl.edu.

[13] The University of Newcastle. Global Learning Equity Network [Internet]. 2018. Available from: https://www.

[14] The Frameworks of the Global Learning Equity Network. Available from https://www.newcastle.edu.au/glen

[15] Fischetti J. Reframing teacher education for learning equity. Peabody Journal of Education. 2018;**93**(3):267-271. DOI: 10.1080/0161956X.2018.1469228

[16] Centre on the Developing Child at Harvard University. 3. Toxic Stress Derails Healthy Development [Internet]. 2011. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=rVwFkcOZHJw

[12] Cochran-Smith M, Feiman-Nemser S, McIntyre DJ, Demers KE, editors. Handbook of Research on Teacher Education: Enduring Questions in Changing Contexts. 3rd ed. New York: Routledge; 2008

2015. Available from: https://

[11] Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership, AITSL. Australian Professional

of-10-dimensions/

automation-43321

au/teach/standards

newcastle.edu.au/glen

[2] Rose M. The Washington Post. Is Teacher Education a Disaster? [Internet]. 2014. Available from: https://www.washingtonpost.com/ news/answer-sheet/wp/2014/01/13/ is-teacher-education-really-adisaster/?noredirect=on&utm\_

[3] Bial R. One-Room School. Boston:

[4] Dewey J. Experience and Education.

[5] Fischetti J. Issues in education: The rubber duckies are here: Five trends affecting public education around the world. Childhood

Education. 2014;**90**(4):316-318. DOI: 10.1080/00094056.2014.937309

Institute; 2017. pp. 1-40

**References**

term=.6ec2501becbd

Houghton Mifflin Co; 1999

New York: Free Press; 1938

[6] Mayer D. Forty years of teacher education in Australia. Journal of Education for Teaching. 1974-2014;**40**(5):461-473. DOI: 10.1080/02607476.2014.956536

[7] Graham LJ, Cologon K. The Conversation. Explainer: What Is Differentiation and Why Is It Poorly Understood? [Internet]. 2016. Available from: https://theconversation.com/ explainer-what-is-differentiation-andwhy-is-it-poorly-understood-55757

[8] Je-Bak H. Education and public attitudes toward science: Implications for the "deficit model" of education and support for science and technology. Social Science Quarterly. 2001;**82**(4):779-795. DOI:

10.1111/0038-4941.00059

**15**

**Chapter 2**

**Abstract**

physical education

**1. Introduction**

Including Students with

Institutional Perspective

*Ronnie Lidor and Yeshayahu Hutzler*

integrate students with disabilities in PE TPP.

Disabilities in a Physical Education

Teacher Preparation Program: An

The increasing number of students with disabilities who have the goal of becoming a teacher in either elementary or high school is one of the challenges we are currently facing at the academic colleges of education in Israel. In this chapter, we address the inclusion challenge, namely how we have taken up the challenge to modify one existing teacher preparation program (TPP) in physical education (PE) to enable students with disabilities to study at the same level as the other students who are enrolled in the program. The chapter is composed of four sections. In the first section, we introduce the term *inclusive education,* elaborate upon its concepts, and highlight a number of developmental phases associated with this term. In the second section, we present the theoretical background and the practical frameworks of an inclusive pedagogy. In the third section, we describe a number of actions taken in one college that enabled students with disabilities to enroll in a PE TPP. In the fourth section, we conclude our discussion and provide a number of ideas for future research, in order to strengthen the understanding of how to

**Keywords:** inclusion, students with disabilities, teacher preparation programs,

Inclusive education is based on the fundamental right of all learners to quality education that meets their basic learning needs, encourages their personal development to the fullest extent, and considers the diversity of backgrounds and abilities to be a learning opportunity rather than a barrier [1]. Inclusion as conceptualized today has its roots in the "Normalization" movement of the late 1960s and early 1970s, which advocated community inclusion primarily for individuals with intellectual disability [2, 3]) and their subsequent "mainstreaming" or "integration" into the general education systems. The main disadvantage of "integration" was that the physical placement was not accompanied by organizational support within the general schools or by significant changes in its content and teaching practices. The term "special education" was replaced by the term "special needs," but another gap had yet to be bridged—that is, of the philosophical change from welfare to human rights-centered services [4].

#### **Chapter 2**

## Including Students with Disabilities in a Physical Education Teacher Preparation Program: An Institutional Perspective

*Ronnie Lidor and Yeshayahu Hutzler*

### **Abstract**

The increasing number of students with disabilities who have the goal of becoming a teacher in either elementary or high school is one of the challenges we are currently facing at the academic colleges of education in Israel. In this chapter, we address the inclusion challenge, namely how we have taken up the challenge to modify one existing teacher preparation program (TPP) in physical education (PE) to enable students with disabilities to study at the same level as the other students who are enrolled in the program. The chapter is composed of four sections. In the first section, we introduce the term *inclusive education,* elaborate upon its concepts, and highlight a number of developmental phases associated with this term. In the second section, we present the theoretical background and the practical frameworks of an inclusive pedagogy. In the third section, we describe a number of actions taken in one college that enabled students with disabilities to enroll in a PE TPP. In the fourth section, we conclude our discussion and provide a number of ideas for future research, in order to strengthen the understanding of how to integrate students with disabilities in PE TPP.

**Keywords:** inclusion, students with disabilities, teacher preparation programs, physical education

#### **1. Introduction**

Inclusive education is based on the fundamental right of all learners to quality education that meets their basic learning needs, encourages their personal development to the fullest extent, and considers the diversity of backgrounds and abilities to be a learning opportunity rather than a barrier [1]. Inclusion as conceptualized today has its roots in the "Normalization" movement of the late 1960s and early 1970s, which advocated community inclusion primarily for individuals with intellectual disability [2, 3]) and their subsequent "mainstreaming" or "integration" into the general education systems. The main disadvantage of "integration" was that the physical placement was not accompanied by organizational support within the general schools or by significant changes in its content and teaching practices. The term "special education" was replaced by the term "special needs," but another gap had yet to be bridged—that is, of the philosophical change from welfare to human rights-centered services [4].

The development of inclusive education was highlighted by the Salamanca Declaration on Education for Children with Special Needs [5], which asserted that inclusion in regular schools is the most effective means of combating discrimination, supporting education for all, and building an inclusive society. More recently, the United Nations Convention on Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) [6], where in Article 30.5 the rights of children with disabilities to be provided with PE as well as informal sport activities are clearly articulated, has been mandated and as of 2017 signed and ratified by 175 nations [7]. Specifically, Article 30.5 of the CRPD mandates (a) facilitating participation of individuals with disability in mainstream (inclusive) sport events; (b) ensuring the development, training for and participation in disability-specific sporting and recreational activities; (c) ensuring access of individuals with disability to sport and recreation venues; (d) ensuring that children with disabilities have equal access with other children to participation in play, recreation and leisure, and sporting activities, including those activities in the school system; and (e) ensuring the provision of (mainstream or specific) sport and leisure services to individuals with a disability.

In adhering to these specifications, the CRPD is very clear about ensuring participation in both inclusive and separate types of physical activities across the life span, with a particular emphasis on schoolchildren. More recently, the UNESCO published a statement acknowledging that inclusive, adapted, and safe opportunities to participate in PE must be provided to children with disabilities [8].

The knowledge base for including children with disabilities in adapted PE, where children with disabilities are educated within regular or separate classes utilizing adapted frameworks of curriculum development and teachers' practice, has evolved since the 1950s, mostly in the United States [9]. Based on the experience gained among teachers and scholars, theoretical and practical recommendations have been developed and practiced in many schools across the United States and Canada, leading to the establishment of the International Federation of Adapted Physical Activity (IFAPA) in the mid-1970s [10, 11] and the research journal Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly (APAQ ) in the mid-1980s. With this support of international governing bodies, and the formation of a theoretical knowledge base (e.g., [12–14]) and practical guidelines (e.g., [15, 16]), the trend toward inclusive education has increasingly been advocated by educators and scholars worldwide (e.g., [17]).

Inclusive pedagogy is understood in this regard as enabling all children to participate in school and to follow normative goals [18]. Moreover, according to Loreman and Deppeler [19], it is not enough to accept children with disabilities in a general class; they are expected to be welcomed and wanted by their peers and the staff, including the teachers and administrators. This makes the issue of staff attitudes extremely important, and the training of teachers toward inclusion an essential and mandatory practice.

Indeed, even if teachers demonstrate good intentions, they often feel inadequately trained to meet the demands of an inclusive classroom. PE teachers have been documented as being particularly vulnerable to safety and control issues associated with including students with disability in their classes (see [20]) and have been reported to exhibit less favorable attitudes toward the inclusion of students with physical, sensory, or intellectual disabilities (see [21–25]). No specific frameworks for promoting inclusive education within the PE domain have been proposed, but the general principles for teachers' empowerment proposed by the European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education [26], and based on a multinational European Union's Teacher Education for Inclusion (TE4I) project, provide good starting points. The TE4I report [27] on challenges and opportunities of inclusive education states that "the vision of a more equitable education system requires teachers equipped with the competences needed to meet diverse needs" (p. 78).

**17**

*Including Students with Disabilities in a Physical Education Teacher Preparation Program…*

**2. Theoretical background and practical frameworks of an inclusive** 

To facilitate better groundwork and commitment of the educational staff, a number of frameworks have been proposed for structuring the main pillars of the inclusive approach. For example, Downs [28] utilized a Delphi approach, and semistructured conversations with a range of practitioners and policymakers, in looking for common words that were used across participants responding to questions such as "What does inclusion mean to you?" Downs generated seven pillars of inclusion, access, attitudes, choice, partnerships, communication, policy, and opportunity, and provided an online webinar-type resource and associated checklist for the use

Downs' framework was adopted by Woods [29] for introducing an inclusive swimming framework. While Downs' seven pillars may be very helpful for community organizers, club managers, and sport association officers, they are less applicable to the educational framework. However, some of Downs' pillar descriptors are also presented within one of the most cited models—Loreman's seven pillars of support for inclusive education [30]. In the following part, we describe these and

Loreman's seven pillars [30] are an example of how successful inclusion should be implemented. The analogy of "pillars" has been selected to reflect different contributing factors, which are interdependent and essential, for securing effective inclusive education. In the following sections, these pillars are outlined, with an emphasis placed on their implementation in PE. The seven pillars are as follows:

Negative attitudes toward inclusion are associated with reduced achievement expectations from participants with disabilities and, particularly in PE, a tendency to facilitate their absenteeism, leading to a significant number of students with disability who partially or even completely avoid participation in PE [20]. Changing

The international supportive policies with regard to inclusive physical activity have been discussed earlier. However, in the United States it is up to every state—and sometimes even the educational region—to specify the regulations supporting the development of inclusive frameworks and enabling increased participation of youth and adults with a disability in physical activity. The case of a high school wheelchair athlete, McFadden versus the Howard County (Maryland) Public School System, is an example of a struggle for a human rights supportive policy led by a student with a disability and her mother, requesting that she be entitled to compete against athletes without a disability on the same track and at the same time. The success of this case led to changes

in interscholastic sports regulations in many regions in the United States [32].

the negative attitudes of PE teachers toward inclusion is challenging due to a number of reasons, including but not limited to a lack of knowledge on disability, an apparent conflict between the wish to increase performance of the whole class and to support the individual with disabilities, the environmental constraints on attention when teaching in an open space, and the need to provide additional safety

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85268*

of organizational stakeholders specified for each pillar.

additional pillars and their relevance to inclusion in PE.

**pedagogy**

**2.1 Loreman's pillars**

*2.1.1 Positive attitudes*

*2.1.2 Supportive policy*

precautions to reduce injury risk [31].

*Including Students with Disabilities in a Physical Education Teacher Preparation Program… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85268*

#### **2. Theoretical background and practical frameworks of an inclusive pedagogy**

To facilitate better groundwork and commitment of the educational staff, a number of frameworks have been proposed for structuring the main pillars of the inclusive approach. For example, Downs [28] utilized a Delphi approach, and semistructured conversations with a range of practitioners and policymakers, in looking for common words that were used across participants responding to questions such as "What does inclusion mean to you?" Downs generated seven pillars of inclusion, access, attitudes, choice, partnerships, communication, policy, and opportunity, and provided an online webinar-type resource and associated checklist for the use of organizational stakeholders specified for each pillar.

Downs' framework was adopted by Woods [29] for introducing an inclusive swimming framework. While Downs' seven pillars may be very helpful for community organizers, club managers, and sport association officers, they are less applicable to the educational framework. However, some of Downs' pillar descriptors are also presented within one of the most cited models—Loreman's seven pillars of support for inclusive education [30]. In the following part, we describe these and additional pillars and their relevance to inclusion in PE.

#### **2.1 Loreman's pillars**

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

leisure services to individuals with a disability.

essential and mandatory practice.

The development of inclusive education was highlighted by the Salamanca Declaration on Education for Children with Special Needs [5], which asserted that inclusion in regular schools is the most effective means of combating discrimination, supporting education for all, and building an inclusive society. More recently, the United Nations Convention on Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) [6], where in Article 30.5 the rights of children with disabilities to be provided with PE as well as informal sport activities are clearly articulated, has been mandated and as of 2017 signed and ratified by 175 nations [7]. Specifically, Article 30.5 of the CRPD mandates (a) facilitating participation of individuals with disability in mainstream (inclusive) sport events; (b) ensuring the development, training for and participation in disability-specific sporting and recreational activities; (c) ensuring access of individuals with disability to sport and recreation venues; (d) ensuring that children with disabilities have equal access with other children to participation in play, recreation and leisure, and sporting activities, including those activities in the school system; and (e) ensuring the provision of (mainstream or specific) sport and

In adhering to these specifications, the CRPD is very clear about ensuring participation in both inclusive and separate types of physical activities across the life span, with a particular emphasis on schoolchildren. More recently, the UNESCO published a statement acknowledging that inclusive, adapted, and safe opportuni-

The knowledge base for including children with disabilities in adapted PE, where children with disabilities are educated within regular or separate classes utilizing adapted frameworks of curriculum development and teachers' practice, has evolved since the 1950s, mostly in the United States [9]. Based on the experience gained among teachers and scholars, theoretical and practical recommendations have been developed and practiced in many schools across the United States and Canada, leading to the establishment of the International Federation of Adapted Physical Activity

ties to participate in PE must be provided to children with disabilities [8].

(IFAPA) in the mid-1970s [10, 11] and the research journal Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly (APAQ ) in the mid-1980s. With this support of international governing bodies, and the formation of a theoretical knowledge base (e.g., [12–14]) and practical guidelines (e.g., [15, 16]), the trend toward inclusive education has increasingly been advocated by educators and scholars worldwide (e.g., [17]). Inclusive pedagogy is understood in this regard as enabling all children to participate in school and to follow normative goals [18]. Moreover, according to Loreman and Deppeler [19], it is not enough to accept children with disabilities in a general class; they are expected to be welcomed and wanted by their peers and the staff, including the teachers and administrators. This makes the issue of staff attitudes extremely important, and the training of teachers toward inclusion an

Indeed, even if teachers demonstrate good intentions, they often feel inadequately trained to meet the demands of an inclusive classroom. PE teachers have been documented as being particularly vulnerable to safety and control issues associated with including students with disability in their classes (see [20]) and have been reported to exhibit less favorable attitudes toward the inclusion of students with physical, sensory, or intellectual disabilities (see [21–25]). No specific frameworks for promoting inclusive education within the PE domain have been proposed, but the general principles for teachers' empowerment proposed by the European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education [26], and based on a multinational European Union's Teacher Education for Inclusion (TE4I) project, provide good starting points. The TE4I report [27] on challenges and opportunities of inclusive education states that "the vision of a more equitable education system requires teachers equipped with the competences needed to meet diverse needs" (p. 78).

**16**

Loreman's seven pillars [30] are an example of how successful inclusion should be implemented. The analogy of "pillars" has been selected to reflect different contributing factors, which are interdependent and essential, for securing effective inclusive education. In the following sections, these pillars are outlined, with an emphasis placed on their implementation in PE. The seven pillars are as follows:

#### *2.1.1 Positive attitudes*

Negative attitudes toward inclusion are associated with reduced achievement expectations from participants with disabilities and, particularly in PE, a tendency to facilitate their absenteeism, leading to a significant number of students with disability who partially or even completely avoid participation in PE [20]. Changing the negative attitudes of PE teachers toward inclusion is challenging due to a number of reasons, including but not limited to a lack of knowledge on disability, an apparent conflict between the wish to increase performance of the whole class and to support the individual with disabilities, the environmental constraints on attention when teaching in an open space, and the need to provide additional safety precautions to reduce injury risk [31].

#### *2.1.2 Supportive policy*

The international supportive policies with regard to inclusive physical activity have been discussed earlier. However, in the United States it is up to every state—and sometimes even the educational region—to specify the regulations supporting the development of inclusive frameworks and enabling increased participation of youth and adults with a disability in physical activity. The case of a high school wheelchair athlete, McFadden versus the Howard County (Maryland) Public School System, is an example of a struggle for a human rights supportive policy led by a student with a disability and her mother, requesting that she be entitled to compete against athletes without a disability on the same track and at the same time. The success of this case led to changes in interscholastic sports regulations in many regions in the United States [32].

#### *2.1.3 Evidence-based school and classroom processes*

A range of supportive and adaptive processes exist that facilitate teaching and training students with disabilities within inclusive physical activity conditions. Such processes have been labeled with acronyms, for example, TREE, teaching style, rules, equipment, and environments modification [33]; SEMA, Systematic Ecological Modification Approach [34]; ETAT, Ecological Task Analytic Teaching in the United States [35]; and STEP, space, task, equipment, and people [36], and are used to support knowledge-based rather than intuitive decision-making when planning and performing inclusive activities.

However, only limited research has been conducted thus far on the abovementioned processes in support of one or another adaptation process and/or modality. One of the very few examples of such research is the study of Kalyvas and Reid [37], who measured performance and satisfaction of different groups in school-aged children, with and without disability, who participated in Newcomb volleyball with and without additional adaptations (e.g., using a large balloon-type ball or serving from a shorter distance), and found that adaptation improved performance in both groups of children—those with and without a disability—and that satisfaction of the children without a disability was related to their age. The older children were less satisfied with the adapted conditions. Further research is warranted to address evidence-based adaptation practices.

#### *2.1.4 Flexible curriculum and pedagogy*

Contemporary educational institutions have been criticized for presenting too much teacher-centered instruction and for striving to demonstrate normreferenced "outcomes" rather than educational processes [38]. Within this frame of reference, providing support and adaptation coming from the flexible knowledge base of practitioners specializing in teaching students with disabilities can contribute to the class climate and benefit educational processes within the class, such as engaging with small groups and peer tutoring [39]. The specific practice of opening supportive and adaptive practices for all has been acknowledged as the universal design-for-learning approach [40], which has been developed as an adaptation of the universal design approach in architecture [41], and has been recommended for inclusive PE [42]. Basically, this approach requires (a) providing multiple representations of content, for example, utilizing visual teaching aids in addition to verbally explaining and physically demonstrating; (b) providing multiple options for expression and control, such as using self-determined goals and performance criteria in addition to normative criteria; and (c) providing multiple modalities for engagement and motivation, such as peer modeling and cooperative play, in addition to competition.

#### *2.1.5 Community involvement*

Schools are a societal instrument; they provide knowledge, competencies, and skills required for later community involvement and for engaging in a productive lifestyle. For this purpose, schools are expected to connect with the community and embrace cross-lateral links [43]. Parents of children with disability, athletes representing sport clubs for individuals with disabilities, and additional community stakeholders may contribute to children's understanding of and attitudes toward inclusion. The Paralympic School Day activity or Special Olympics School demonstrations are good examples of such community involvement and were found to have a positive impact on attitudes (see [44, 45]).

**19**

**2.2 Inclusive assessment**

*Including Students with Disabilities in a Physical Education Teacher Preparation Program…*

consider such individualized activity and participation modification options. The Systematic Ecological Modification Approach (SEMA; [34]) is a taskanalytical teacher's reflection tool, providing guidance throughout the journey of inclusive practice. This approach (a) considers goal-setting with regard to the three domains of the World Health Organization's [47] International Classification of Function and Disability, (1) functioning (having the capacity to perform movement tasks), (2) activity performance, and (3) participation (in the activity tasks); (b) analyzes expected performance criteria for the typical student; (c) estimates the differences observed in the included student's performance and the potential reasons for the observed gaps, which may be considered as both personal and environmental barriers; and (d) proposes adaptations of the task performance patterns, environmental conditions, equipment used, rules of the activity, and/or instruction modalities. Utilizing such a systematic reflective tool has been found to reduce the likelihood of the biased intuitive decision-making often utilized by teachers and

administrators to reduce complexity during the inclusion practice [48].

Due to the high variability and specificity of different students with disability, many teachers feel inadequately trained and not competent enough to meet the demands of inclusive education [19, 49]. This is common also in the case of PE [50], and therefore pre-service or in-service training is necessary. Such training requires not only delivering factual information and knowledge about students with disabilities but also being focused on developing a positive attitude toward the inclusion process. According to social learning theory, attitudes are strongly related to self-efficacy that is, the perception of control and competence with regard to pursuing an activity toward a phenomenon—and therefore inclusion training should develop a sense of either physically or virtually experiencing inclusion contexts and controlling their outcome. In a recent article, Block and associates [50] reviewed and summarized a number of teacher preparation processes, including (a) providing simulations of disability conditions while attempting to perform various physical activities; (b) infusing disability-related contents across core curriculum studies; (c) participating in on-campus and off-campus practicum sessions; (d) obtaining online courses for those who lack the time to attend frontal classes; and (e) confronting participants with decision-making situations while in group settings, rating potential responses, and discussing the choices for reducing bias and facilitating informed decision-making.

In addition to the seven pillars postulated by Loreman [30], an additional context of teachers' practice appears to be of significant importance—students'

*2.1.7 Necessary training and resources*

Reflective practices are among the most important tools for teachers' self-development and include writing journals and portfolios and using systematic observations and field notes [46]. However, there are very limited means for utilizing such tools within the inclusion framework, particularly in the PE domain where disabilities are not limited to learning and/or behavioral deficiencies but rather to a broad range of physical, sensory, and mental issues that may significantly change performance goals, patterns, and contexts. For example, a student with a neurologic impairment of the lower limbs, who may be able to walk with crutches, might need a racing wheelchair in order to conform with both the developing aerobic endurance goals and rules for participating in school track competitions. Therefore, the teacher's reflections should

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85268*

*2.1.6 Meaningful reflection*

*Including Students with Disabilities in a Physical Education Teacher Preparation Program… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85268*

#### *2.1.6 Meaningful reflection*

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

*2.1.3 Evidence-based school and classroom processes*

planning and performing inclusive activities.

evidence-based adaptation practices.

*2.1.4 Flexible curriculum and pedagogy*

A range of supportive and adaptive processes exist that facilitate teaching and training students with disabilities within inclusive physical activity conditions. Such processes have been labeled with acronyms, for example, TREE, teaching style, rules, equipment, and environments modification [33]; SEMA, Systematic Ecological Modification Approach [34]; ETAT, Ecological Task Analytic Teaching in the United States [35]; and STEP, space, task, equipment, and people [36], and are used to support knowledge-based rather than intuitive decision-making when

However, only limited research has been conducted thus far on the abovementioned processes in support of one or another adaptation process and/or modality. One of the very few examples of such research is the study of Kalyvas and Reid [37], who measured performance and satisfaction of different groups in school-aged children, with and without disability, who participated in Newcomb volleyball with and without additional adaptations (e.g., using a large balloon-type ball or serving from a shorter distance), and found that adaptation improved performance in both groups of children—those with and without a disability—and that satisfaction of the children without a disability was related to their age. The older children were less satisfied with the adapted conditions. Further research is warranted to address

Contemporary educational institutions have been criticized for presenting too much teacher-centered instruction and for striving to demonstrate normreferenced "outcomes" rather than educational processes [38]. Within this frame of reference, providing support and adaptation coming from the flexible knowledge base of practitioners specializing in teaching students with disabilities can contribute to the class climate and benefit educational processes within the class, such as engaging with small groups and peer tutoring [39]. The specific practice of opening supportive and adaptive practices for all has been acknowledged as the universal design-for-learning approach [40], which has been developed as an adaptation of the universal design approach in architecture [41], and has been recommended for inclusive PE [42]. Basically, this approach requires (a) providing multiple representations of content, for example, utilizing visual teaching aids in addition to verbally explaining and physically demonstrating; (b) providing multiple options for expression and control, such as using self-determined goals and performance criteria in addition to normative criteria; and (c) providing multiple modalities for engagement and motivation, such as peer modeling and cooperative play, in addi-

Schools are a societal instrument; they provide knowledge, competencies, and skills required for later community involvement and for engaging in a productive lifestyle. For this purpose, schools are expected to connect with the community and embrace cross-lateral links [43]. Parents of children with disability, athletes representing sport clubs for individuals with disabilities, and additional community stakeholders may contribute to children's understanding of and attitudes toward inclusion. The Paralympic School Day activity or Special Olympics School demonstrations are good examples of such community involvement and were found to

**18**

tion to competition.

*2.1.5 Community involvement*

have a positive impact on attitudes (see [44, 45]).

Reflective practices are among the most important tools for teachers' self-development and include writing journals and portfolios and using systematic observations and field notes [46]. However, there are very limited means for utilizing such tools within the inclusion framework, particularly in the PE domain where disabilities are not limited to learning and/or behavioral deficiencies but rather to a broad range of physical, sensory, and mental issues that may significantly change performance goals, patterns, and contexts. For example, a student with a neurologic impairment of the lower limbs, who may be able to walk with crutches, might need a racing wheelchair in order to conform with both the developing aerobic endurance goals and rules for participating in school track competitions. Therefore, the teacher's reflections should consider such individualized activity and participation modification options.

The Systematic Ecological Modification Approach (SEMA; [34]) is a taskanalytical teacher's reflection tool, providing guidance throughout the journey of inclusive practice. This approach (a) considers goal-setting with regard to the three domains of the World Health Organization's [47] International Classification of Function and Disability, (1) functioning (having the capacity to perform movement tasks), (2) activity performance, and (3) participation (in the activity tasks); (b) analyzes expected performance criteria for the typical student; (c) estimates the differences observed in the included student's performance and the potential reasons for the observed gaps, which may be considered as both personal and environmental barriers; and (d) proposes adaptations of the task performance patterns, environmental conditions, equipment used, rules of the activity, and/or instruction modalities. Utilizing such a systematic reflective tool has been found to reduce the likelihood of the biased intuitive decision-making often utilized by teachers and administrators to reduce complexity during the inclusion practice [48].

#### *2.1.7 Necessary training and resources*

Due to the high variability and specificity of different students with disability, many teachers feel inadequately trained and not competent enough to meet the demands of inclusive education [19, 49]. This is common also in the case of PE [50], and therefore pre-service or in-service training is necessary. Such training requires not only delivering factual information and knowledge about students with disabilities but also being focused on developing a positive attitude toward the inclusion process.

According to social learning theory, attitudes are strongly related to self-efficacy that is, the perception of control and competence with regard to pursuing an activity toward a phenomenon—and therefore inclusion training should develop a sense of either physically or virtually experiencing inclusion contexts and controlling their outcome. In a recent article, Block and associates [50] reviewed and summarized a number of teacher preparation processes, including (a) providing simulations of disability conditions while attempting to perform various physical activities; (b) infusing disability-related contents across core curriculum studies; (c) participating in on-campus and off-campus practicum sessions; (d) obtaining online courses for those who lack the time to attend frontal classes; and (e) confronting participants with decision-making situations while in group settings, rating potential responses, and discussing the choices for reducing bias and facilitating informed decision-making.

#### **2.2 Inclusive assessment**

In addition to the seven pillars postulated by Loreman [30], an additional context of teachers' practice appears to be of significant importance—students' assessment [51]. Assessment is important for the school system as a way of screening students' performance at different schooling levels and as a buffer for moving between systems [52]. However, assessment also provides a measure for self-evaluation, supporting the student's motivation for learning [53]. School assessment typically includes both quantitative and norm-referenced data, which are not helpful in the case of inclusive education, where individualized motor patterns of the students with disabilities are not expected to conform to the quality criteria expected in the normative population. For example, quality criteria recognized in the test of gross motor development are based on patterns which may not be meaningful for children with impaired or amputated limbs [54]. Furthermore, normative scores utilized for assessing physical fitness criteria are not applicable to individuals who may not even have the capability to propel cycling equipment or move their legs on a treadmill. Therefore, teachers are challenged with the task of developing individualized baseline-referenced tools which can be utilized for students with and without disabilities, as well as for teachers.

While developing an assessment framework, educators need to be aware of the following recommendations for policymakers and practitioners [55]: (a) assessment procedures should be relevant and adapted to accommodate students' special needs; (b) resource allocation should not only be based on initial assessment but also on ongoing assessment; (c) assessment should not only measure deficits, but also strengths, and should encourage service provision within the general framework; and (d) curricula and programs should encourage learning process-based goals and needs rather than content-led and/or driven goals.

#### **2.3 Mentoring**

One way to cope with the uncertainty about curricula and practice created through the inclusion process is to receive supervision or mentoring from experienced professionals. Processes of this kind may include dialog sessions, reviews of situations, decision-making scenarios, and work plans, providing the supervised or mentored teacher with guidance, advice, and sharing of responsibility [56]. Typically, mentors could be experienced teachers with hands-on experience, who can answer questions, suggest alternatives, and evaluate choices together with the mentee and support his or her reflexive process. However, in most countries the number of such professionals is very limited. Furthermore, research from Turkey, where an inclusion reform has occurred in education services during the last two decades, reported a negative correlation between attitudes toward inclusion and age or time teaching [57]. This has been suggested as reflecting the lack of administrative and societal support for inclusion prior to the reform. Therefore, another source for mentors is warranted—this could be individuals with a disability who provide their life experiences from an expert position—and therefore in addition to coping with a lack of knowledge, they also support reframing attitudes [58].

#### **2.4 TPPs in PE**

While teacher education for inclusion is a "hot topic," instigating various projects, reports, and discussions (e.g., [26]), very little has been documented thus far about inclusion of teachers with disability within TPPs and particularly in PE TPPs [59, 60]. A content analysis of the literature on inclusion processes of students with special needs in TPPs indicated that most studies have focused mainly on two aspects—attitudes toward inclusion and the changes/modifications required in TPPs so that the special needs of the students are considered. For example, in one study [61], 125 pre-service elementary, secondary, and special education teachers

**21**

*Including Students with Disabilities in a Physical Education Teacher Preparation Program…*

were interviewed in order to identify aspects of university coursework and assigned field experiences that contribute to their ability to implement inclusion. One of the main findings of this study revealed a lack of consistency across TPPs within one university and a disconnectedness between the knowledge of inclusion as presented through the university coursework and the students' real-world field-experience

In another study [62], one TPP that prepared both single- and dual-certification

Unfortunately, only very limited evidence exists thus far for examining aspects of inclusion processes of students with disabilities in TPPs aimed at preparing these students to be PE teachers. Furthermore, in spite of considerable research and a number of recent systematic reviews on attitudes and perspectives of PE students and teachers toward inclusion [63–68], "there is a need to bridge the intention/ behavior gap that still exists in the research on inclusion of children with disabilities

The development of TPPs began in Israel more than a hundred years ago, with a gradually increasing volume and content of teachers' education, instructional skills, and competency. TPPs in PE were established in the mid-1940s as a 1-year program

TPPs are offered by Israel in two types of higher-education institutions—universities and academic colleges of education. That is to say, a dual system of TPPs exists in the country. In TPPs offered by the universities, students are required to study at least one major discipline (but no more than two) and only then complete their teaching certification studies. The students typically complete their undergraduate disciplinary studies in 3 years, earning a Bachelor of Arts (B.A.) or a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.), and then take part in the pedagogical/teaching program for an additional 1 or 2 years of study. Upon completion of the pedagogical/teaching program, the students are awarded a teaching certificate, which enables them to teach their discipline/s in high schools. There is no link between the disciplinary

In contrast to TPPs studied at the universities, in TPPs offered at the academic colleges of education an emphasis is placed on a strong connection between the disciplinary studies and the pedagogical studies. The students learn their major discipline/s (one or two) as well as the pedagogical studies in each year of the TPP. The length of the TPP at the academic colleges of education is 4 years, and the integration between the discipline/s and the pedagogical/teaching studies already begins in the first year of the program in most of the colleges or in the second year of the program in others. In essence, a strong link between the disciplinary studies and the pedagogical studies can be observed in TPPs offered by the academic colleges of education. In fact, students who choose to study at the academic colleges of education are *required* to take pedagogical/teaching classes, even though some of them do not have an interest in becoming teachers in the educational system in Israel. Upon completing the 4-year programs offered by the academic colleges of

and gradually developed into a 4-year preparation program.

**3.1 Teacher education in Israel: a dual system of preparation/training**

master's students to teach in inclusive classrooms was reviewed. The researcher reviewed the context of the program in which, and for which, the program was designed, explained how the program was developed, and provided a description of

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85268*

observations of inclusion.

the program.

in PE" ([68], p. 330).

studies and the TPP.

**3. Inclusion in a PE TPP**

*Including Students with Disabilities in a Physical Education Teacher Preparation Program… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85268*

were interviewed in order to identify aspects of university coursework and assigned field experiences that contribute to their ability to implement inclusion. One of the main findings of this study revealed a lack of consistency across TPPs within one university and a disconnectedness between the knowledge of inclusion as presented through the university coursework and the students' real-world field-experience observations of inclusion.

In another study [62], one TPP that prepared both single- and dual-certification master's students to teach in inclusive classrooms was reviewed. The researcher reviewed the context of the program in which, and for which, the program was designed, explained how the program was developed, and provided a description of the program.

Unfortunately, only very limited evidence exists thus far for examining aspects of inclusion processes of students with disabilities in TPPs aimed at preparing these students to be PE teachers. Furthermore, in spite of considerable research and a number of recent systematic reviews on attitudes and perspectives of PE students and teachers toward inclusion [63–68], "there is a need to bridge the intention/ behavior gap that still exists in the research on inclusion of children with disabilities in PE" ([68], p. 330).

#### **3. Inclusion in a PE TPP**

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

disabilities, as well as for teachers.

**2.3 Mentoring**

**2.4 TPPs in PE**

needs rather than content-led and/or driven goals.

assessment [51]. Assessment is important for the school system as a way of screening students' performance at different schooling levels and as a buffer for moving between systems [52]. However, assessment also provides a measure for self-evaluation, supporting the student's motivation for learning [53]. School assessment typically includes both quantitative and norm-referenced data, which are not helpful in the case of inclusive education, where individualized motor patterns of the students with disabilities are not expected to conform to the quality criteria expected in the normative population. For example, quality criteria recognized in the test of gross motor development are based on patterns which may not be meaningful for children with impaired or amputated limbs [54]. Furthermore, normative scores utilized for assessing physical fitness criteria are not applicable to individuals who may not even have the capability to propel cycling equipment or move their legs on a treadmill. Therefore, teachers are challenged with the task of developing individualized baseline-referenced tools which can be utilized for students with and without

While developing an assessment framework, educators need to be aware of the following recommendations for policymakers and practitioners [55]: (a) assessment procedures should be relevant and adapted to accommodate students' special needs; (b) resource allocation should not only be based on initial assessment but also on ongoing assessment; (c) assessment should not only measure deficits, but also strengths, and should encourage service provision within the general framework; and (d) curricula and programs should encourage learning process-based goals and

One way to cope with the uncertainty about curricula and practice created through the inclusion process is to receive supervision or mentoring from experienced professionals. Processes of this kind may include dialog sessions, reviews of situations, decision-making scenarios, and work plans, providing the supervised or mentored teacher with guidance, advice, and sharing of responsibility [56]. Typically, mentors could be experienced teachers with hands-on experience, who can answer questions, suggest alternatives, and evaluate choices together with the mentee and support his or her reflexive process. However, in most countries the number of such professionals is very limited. Furthermore, research from Turkey, where an inclusion reform has occurred in education services during the last two decades, reported a negative correlation between attitudes toward inclusion and age or time teaching [57]. This has been suggested as reflecting the lack of administrative and societal support for inclusion prior to the reform. Therefore, another source for mentors is warranted—this could be individuals with a disability who provide their life experiences from an expert position—and therefore in addition to

coping with a lack of knowledge, they also support reframing attitudes [58].

While teacher education for inclusion is a "hot topic," instigating various projects, reports, and discussions (e.g., [26]), very little has been documented thus far about inclusion of teachers with disability within TPPs and particularly in PE TPPs [59, 60]. A content analysis of the literature on inclusion processes of students with special needs in TPPs indicated that most studies have focused mainly on two aspects—attitudes toward inclusion and the changes/modifications required in TPPs so that the special needs of the students are considered. For example, in one study [61], 125 pre-service elementary, secondary, and special education teachers

**20**

The development of TPPs began in Israel more than a hundred years ago, with a gradually increasing volume and content of teachers' education, instructional skills, and competency. TPPs in PE were established in the mid-1940s as a 1-year program and gradually developed into a 4-year preparation program.

#### **3.1 Teacher education in Israel: a dual system of preparation/training**

TPPs are offered by Israel in two types of higher-education institutions—universities and academic colleges of education. That is to say, a dual system of TPPs exists in the country. In TPPs offered by the universities, students are required to study at least one major discipline (but no more than two) and only then complete their teaching certification studies. The students typically complete their undergraduate disciplinary studies in 3 years, earning a Bachelor of Arts (B.A.) or a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.), and then take part in the pedagogical/teaching program for an additional 1 or 2 years of study. Upon completion of the pedagogical/teaching program, the students are awarded a teaching certificate, which enables them to teach their discipline/s in high schools. There is no link between the disciplinary studies and the TPP.

In contrast to TPPs studied at the universities, in TPPs offered at the academic colleges of education an emphasis is placed on a strong connection between the disciplinary studies and the pedagogical studies. The students learn their major discipline/s (one or two) as well as the pedagogical studies in each year of the TPP. The length of the TPP at the academic colleges of education is 4 years, and the integration between the discipline/s and the pedagogical/teaching studies already begins in the first year of the program in most of the colleges or in the second year of the program in others. In essence, a strong link between the disciplinary studies and the pedagogical studies can be observed in TPPs offered by the academic colleges of education. In fact, students who choose to study at the academic colleges of education are *required* to take pedagogical/teaching classes, even though some of them do not have an interest in becoming teachers in the educational system in Israel. Upon completing the 4-year programs offered by the academic colleges of

#### *Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

education, the students earn a Bachelor of Education (B.Ed.) degree and receive teaching certification, which enables them to teach in elementary schools in Israel. In a number of disciplines (e.g., the arts, dance, PE), the teaching certification authorizes the students to teach in high schools as well.

The close connection between the disciplinary studies and the pedagogical studies at the colleges of education has a number of advantages but also one major limitation. The following are two advantages for the imposed link between disciplinary and pedagogical studies:


However, there is also one potential limitation in the concept of linking the disciplinary studies to the pedagogical studies. Since the academic colleges of education are teaching-oriented, and their main objective is to prepare students to be capable and effective teachers in schools, a great deal of emphasis is placed on the pedagogical studies, and in turn the disciplinary studies may play a secondary role in the TPPs. In order to achieve the goal of producing good teachers, it appears that the main objective of the great majority of classes taught in TPPs offered by the academic colleges of education is to increase the pedagogical knowledge of the student rather than the knowledge of the specific discipline/s. By placing greater weight on the pedagogical studies, students can become teachers who know "how to teach" but may be lacking in fundamental disciplinary knowledge, namely, "what to teach." They will probably develop an arsenal of pedagogical devices/tools that they can use when teaching in schools but may lack a deep understanding of the scientific foundations of the selected discipline/s.

#### **3.2 An institutional approach to inclusive teacher's training**

With the increased implementation of inclusive education, teacher educators have also been challenged to make changes in their programs in order to prepare students to educate diverse learners. In this respect, if students with disabilities indeed study in TPPs, then TPPs should also be modified according to the special needs of these students [69]. In Israel, governmental bodies have made a number of attempts to adopt the policy of inclusion. For example, in the year 2002, the Israel Knesset (the unicameral national legislature of Israel) approved the Integration Law (see [70]). One of the implications of this law is that students with disabilities

**23**

*Including Students with Disabilities in a Physical Education Teacher Preparation Program…*

can be part of any academic/educational program offered by schools and highereducation institutions and must be provided with the requisite learning conditions/

From a practical point of view, various adjustments and modifications need to be made in the existing programs in order to create the optimal conditions for effective inclusion. According to the Integration Law, a special committee for inclusion should be created in each academic/educational institution, in order to (a) profile the special needs of these students and (b) assist the faculty members who work at the institution in making the required modifications in the program, based on the

When making certain adjustments in the TPPs for those students with disabilities,

impairments, two main pedagogical challenges need to be considered: (a) What actions should be taken to prepare the lecturers/instructors to work with these students? and (b) What actions should be taken with the students at large who are required to be part

In our college, The Academic College at Wingate, a number of students with disabilities have been accepted to the TPP, among them students with various physical disabilities. Our aim was to enable these students to be part of a program that is composed of different types of studies—disciplinary studies (e.g., anatomy, motor learning, statistics), pedagogical studies (e.g., teaching methods/strategies, sport pedagogy, assessment of sport skills), physical activity classes (e.g., basketball, soccer, volleyball), and instructional/teaching practices in schools. We needed to consider what modifications we needed to make in each of these categories.

In order to follow the principles of the leading frameworks of inclusion (e.g., [28, 30]), as well as to effectively deal with the pedagogical challenge of inclusion, a

a.In accordance with national legislation [70] and the International Convention on Rights of Persons with Disabilities [6], as well as following a number of applications submitted to the college, the board of the college has committed to accepting and enabling students with disabilities to participate in the PE TPP. These applications were sent by individuals with various disabilities, among them one blind student, one student with a speech disorder, one student with a physical disability (losing one leg in a terror attack), two students who had suffered a mild stroke, and one student with stunted growth. In addition to the students with these specific disabilities who had applied, the objective of the board was to enable individuals with a larger spectrum of disabilities to apply for the PE TPP. The assumption of the members of the board was that after a number of students with disabilities were accepted to the PE TPP, the word would spread that The Academic College at Wingate accepts students

The decision of the board of the college to apply the Inclusion Law, was made after examining all the pros (e.g., providing the opportunity for students with disabilities to study PE) and cons (e.g., the potential difficulties that would have to be faced, particularly those associated with the performance of the students in

such as students with physical impairments, vision impairments, or intellectual

of a learning group that is composed of students with different needs?

**3.4 How did we address the challenge of inclusion?**

with disabilities to its TPP program.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85268*

profiles of the students with disabilities.

**3.3 Pedagogical challenges**

number of actions were taken:

environments to enable them to achieve their goals.

*Including Students with Disabilities in a Physical Education Teacher Preparation Program… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85268*

can be part of any academic/educational program offered by schools and highereducation institutions and must be provided with the requisite learning conditions/ environments to enable them to achieve their goals.

From a practical point of view, various adjustments and modifications need to be made in the existing programs in order to create the optimal conditions for effective inclusion. According to the Integration Law, a special committee for inclusion should be created in each academic/educational institution, in order to (a) profile the special needs of these students and (b) assist the faculty members who work at the institution in making the required modifications in the program, based on the profiles of the students with disabilities.

#### **3.3 Pedagogical challenges**

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

plinary and pedagogical studies:

education, the students earn a Bachelor of Education (B.Ed.) degree and receive teaching certification, which enables them to teach in elementary schools in Israel. In a number of disciplines (e.g., the arts, dance, PE), the teaching certification

The close connection between the disciplinary studies and the pedagogical studies at the colleges of education has a number of advantages but also one major limitation. The following are two advantages for the imposed link between disci-

a.By taking classes in their selected discipline/s and classes in pedagogy across the 4-year program, the students are provided with a unique opportunity to integrate the different types of knowledge emerging from the various classes. Students can use concepts, ideas, and themes learned in the disciplinary classes and apply them in the pedagogical classes. When studying in the disciplinary classes, they can also further develop some of the ideas they learn in the pedagogical classes. It is assumed that the transferability effect across the different

b.Lecturers in the two types of studies—disciplinary and pedagogical—can together plan some of their classes and provide the students with examples of how information from one class (e.g., a disciplinary class) can be related to elements of information discussed in another class (e.g., a pedagogy class). In addition, in a number of classes a co-teaching model can be used. For example, a class can be taught by an expert in one of the disciplines, and another experienced teacher can provide the students with real-world instructional examples of how knowledge from the specific learned discipline can be effectively

However, there is also one potential limitation in the concept of linking the disciplinary studies to the pedagogical studies. Since the academic colleges of education are teaching-oriented, and their main objective is to prepare students to be capable and effective teachers in schools, a great deal of emphasis is placed on the pedagogical studies, and in turn the disciplinary studies may play a secondary role in the TPPs. In order to achieve the goal of producing good teachers, it appears that the main objective of the great majority of classes taught in TPPs offered by the academic colleges of education is to increase the pedagogical knowledge of the student rather than the knowledge of the specific discipline/s. By placing greater weight on the pedagogical studies, students can become teachers who know "how to teach" but may be lacking in fundamental disciplinary knowledge, namely, "what to teach." They will probably develop an arsenal of pedagogical devices/tools that they can use when teaching in schools but may lack a deep understanding of the

With the increased implementation of inclusive education, teacher educators have also been challenged to make changes in their programs in order to prepare students to educate diverse learners. In this respect, if students with disabilities indeed study in TPPs, then TPPs should also be modified according to the special needs of these students [69]. In Israel, governmental bodies have made a number of attempts to adopt the policy of inclusion. For example, in the year 2002, the Israel Knesset (the unicameral national legislature of Israel) approved the Integration Law (see [70]). One of the implications of this law is that students with disabilities

authorizes the students to teach in high schools as well.

classes taught in the TPP will thus be strengthened.

implemented in actual classes taught in school settings.

scientific foundations of the selected discipline/s.

**3.2 An institutional approach to inclusive teacher's training**

**22**

When making certain adjustments in the TPPs for those students with disabilities, such as students with physical impairments, vision impairments, or intellectual impairments, two main pedagogical challenges need to be considered: (a) What actions should be taken to prepare the lecturers/instructors to work with these students? and (b) What actions should be taken with the students at large who are required to be part of a learning group that is composed of students with different needs?

In our college, The Academic College at Wingate, a number of students with disabilities have been accepted to the TPP, among them students with various physical disabilities. Our aim was to enable these students to be part of a program that is composed of different types of studies—disciplinary studies (e.g., anatomy, motor learning, statistics), pedagogical studies (e.g., teaching methods/strategies, sport pedagogy, assessment of sport skills), physical activity classes (e.g., basketball, soccer, volleyball), and instructional/teaching practices in schools. We needed to consider what modifications we needed to make in each of these categories.

#### **3.4 How did we address the challenge of inclusion?**

In order to follow the principles of the leading frameworks of inclusion (e.g., [28, 30]), as well as to effectively deal with the pedagogical challenge of inclusion, a number of actions were taken:

a.In accordance with national legislation [70] and the International Convention on Rights of Persons with Disabilities [6], as well as following a number of applications submitted to the college, the board of the college has committed to accepting and enabling students with disabilities to participate in the PE TPP. These applications were sent by individuals with various disabilities, among them one blind student, one student with a speech disorder, one student with a physical disability (losing one leg in a terror attack), two students who had suffered a mild stroke, and one student with stunted growth. In addition to the students with these specific disabilities who had applied, the objective of the board was to enable individuals with a larger spectrum of disabilities to apply for the PE TPP. The assumption of the members of the board was that after a number of students with disabilities were accepted to the PE TPP, the word would spread that The Academic College at Wingate accepts students with disabilities to its TPP program.

The decision of the board of the college to apply the Inclusion Law, was made after examining all the pros (e.g., providing the opportunity for students with disabilities to study PE) and cons (e.g., the potential difficulties that would have to be faced, particularly those associated with the performance of the students in the physical skill-oriented classes) in applying the Inclusion Law. It was decided to assign a specific committee to advance the application of this law:


**25**

*Including Students with Disabilities in a Physical Education Teacher Preparation Program…*

lecture halls in the college were modified and equipped according to the special needs of the students, so that they could have easy access to the classroom/hall and sit comfortably during the lectures. Volunteer students (see the next point in this part—Point g) sat next to the student with disability and provided him or her with assistance, if required; (2) instructional modifications—the lecturers of the classes that the students with disabilities attended were aware of the specific impairments of each of the students and met with them a number of times during the semester at special one-on-one sessions. In these meetings, the lecturer focused on specific issues taught in the class upon the request of the student. If needed, the lecturer utilized specific instructional tools, such as a three-dimensional demonstration of human body movements using a wooden mannequin model, to assist the students and increase their understanding. In most of these meetings the student volunteers attended as well, so that they would be informed and could continue working with

Modifications made in the activity classes: the instructors who taught the activity classes (e.g., basketball, soccer, track and field) were also aware of the special needs of the students. In cases where the students with disabilities could not practice the drills with the entire class due to their limitations, the instructors prepared a special set of drills for them in advance, allowing these students to practice these drills with the volunteer students separately from the class. The preparation of the extra drills was time-consuming, but this procedure was necessary in order to allow the students with the disabilities to effectively practice the learned motor skills. The modified drills were developed in cooperation with experts in adapted physical activity who were staff members at the college. Sport instructional aids (e.g., balls of different sizes) were used in these classes in order to help the students with the

g.Recruiting students: a number of students were recruited to help the students with disabilities. These students were studying adapted physical activity as a minor field in their program and were willing to help the students with the disabilities in various activities—on-campus (e.g., studying with them at the library or at the special learning zones at the college, working with them in the physical activity classes in order to help them acquire the learned drills/skills) and offcampus (e.g., studying for exams together at home, giving them a ride home at the end of the day). These students volunteered to assist the students with disabilities; however the college covered their transportation expenses since we did not want

The volunteer students met regularly with a number of the members of the committee that was responsible for the recruitment process. These meetings were held twice during each semester (the academic year is composed of two semesters). In these meetings, the students provided a verbal report of their experiences helping the students with disabilities. They outlined the main actions they performed with these students, in and out of class. They reported about their challenges and difficulties and how they approached them. For example, when the volunteers accompanied the students with disabilities to their teaching assignments in the schools, they did not know how much "freedom" they should provide them—to enable the students with disabilities to teach alone or to occasionally intervene in the teaching process in order to help them bring across their message to the children. They also presented a number of issues that they wanted to discuss with the members of the committee, such as how to enable the students with disabilities to be more independent in their studies. All the volunteer students reported that helping students with disabilities was a constructive experience. A possible contributor to the positive experience of the

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85268*

these students on the relevant learning material.

disabilities to successfully practice the motor tasks.

their availability to be limited.

Modifications made in the classrooms in which lectures are given: two main modifications were made: (1) physical modifications—most of the classrooms/

#### *Including Students with Disabilities in a Physical Education Teacher Preparation Program… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85268*

lecture halls in the college were modified and equipped according to the special needs of the students, so that they could have easy access to the classroom/hall and sit comfortably during the lectures. Volunteer students (see the next point in this part—Point g) sat next to the student with disability and provided him or her with assistance, if required; (2) instructional modifications—the lecturers of the classes that the students with disabilities attended were aware of the specific impairments of each of the students and met with them a number of times during the semester at special one-on-one sessions. In these meetings, the lecturer focused on specific issues taught in the class upon the request of the student. If needed, the lecturer utilized specific instructional tools, such as a three-dimensional demonstration of human body movements using a wooden mannequin model, to assist the students and increase their understanding. In most of these meetings the student volunteers attended as well, so that they would be informed and could continue working with these students on the relevant learning material.

Modifications made in the activity classes: the instructors who taught the activity classes (e.g., basketball, soccer, track and field) were also aware of the special needs of the students. In cases where the students with disabilities could not practice the drills with the entire class due to their limitations, the instructors prepared a special set of drills for them in advance, allowing these students to practice these drills with the volunteer students separately from the class. The preparation of the extra drills was time-consuming, but this procedure was necessary in order to allow the students with the disabilities to effectively practice the learned motor skills. The modified drills were developed in cooperation with experts in adapted physical activity who were staff members at the college. Sport instructional aids (e.g., balls of different sizes) were used in these classes in order to help the students with the disabilities to successfully practice the motor tasks.

g.Recruiting students: a number of students were recruited to help the students with disabilities. These students were studying adapted physical activity as a minor field in their program and were willing to help the students with the disabilities in various activities—on-campus (e.g., studying with them at the library or at the special learning zones at the college, working with them in the physical activity classes in order to help them acquire the learned drills/skills) and offcampus (e.g., studying for exams together at home, giving them a ride home at the end of the day). These students volunteered to assist the students with disabilities; however the college covered their transportation expenses since we did not want their availability to be limited.

The volunteer students met regularly with a number of the members of the committee that was responsible for the recruitment process. These meetings were held twice during each semester (the academic year is composed of two semesters). In these meetings, the students provided a verbal report of their experiences helping the students with disabilities. They outlined the main actions they performed with these students, in and out of class. They reported about their challenges and difficulties and how they approached them. For example, when the volunteers accompanied the students with disabilities to their teaching assignments in the schools, they did not know how much "freedom" they should provide them—to enable the students with disabilities to teach alone or to occasionally intervene in the teaching process in order to help them bring across their message to the children. They also presented a number of issues that they wanted to discuss with the members of the committee, such as how to enable the students with disabilities to be more independent in their studies.

All the volunteer students reported that helping students with disabilities was a constructive experience. A possible contributor to the positive experience of the

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

concerning the discussed applicant.

12-year-olds composed only of 'regular' children?"

were demonstrated.

the physical skill-oriented classes) in applying the Inclusion Law. It was decided to

b.The recruitment process: a careful recruitment process was conducted by an assigned committee composed of the following staff members: two experts in adapted physical activity, two experts in sport activities (one in individual sport and one in team sport), and one expert in sport pedagogy. A number of steps were taken by the committee: (1) reviewing the medical report provided

by a physician about the mental/physical condition of the applicant; (2) meeting with the applicant to discuss the potential challenges he or she would probably have to face in the PE TPP, as well as to listen to the applicants' own requests about being part of a PE TPP, in order to assist him or her in effectively coping with the TPP's challenges; and (3) reaching a decision

c.Bringing the inclusion policy to the forefront: in a number of meetings with other faculty members, the senior faculty members (e.g., heads of schools/ departments at the college) explained the policy of the college to "open the gates" for students with disabilities. In the beginning it was not an easy task to discuss the inclusion issue with the faculty members, due to the fact that the college offers TPPs only in PE, a subject that requires not only "listening to a lecture" activities but also active participation in a variety of skill-oriented physical activity classes. Therefore, the discussions focused mainly on the importance of having students with disabilities in the college but also were centered on how to handle potential reactions—not only among lecturers, particularly those who teach physical activity classes, but also among students. As expected, there were a variety of reactions among both the lecturers and the students, for example, "Is it possible to plan a physical activity class composed of 'regular' and disabled students?"; "How can a blind student play basketball?"; and "How can a physically disabled student teach volleyball to a class of

d.Conducting workshops with lecturers and instructors: in order to cope with the abovementioned questions, a number of clinics were conducted. Two experts in the area of adapted physical activity who work at the college planned a number of meetings where major issues associated with inclusion were discussed. In addition, examples of physical activities (e.g., ball games, basic gymnastics, and folk dancing) for both "regular" students and students with disabilities

e.Disseminating information about the inclusion policy among the students: at the beginning of the semester, lecturers and instructors provided students with relevant information about the inclusion policy. They emphasized the benefits of this policy but also discussed its potential difficulties. Students were encouraged to share their feelings and perspectives about the policy. No personal

f. Making modifications in the PE TPP: in order to address the special needs of the students with disabilities, two main modifications were made: (1) modifications in the classrooms/lecture halls and (2) modifications in the activity classes.

Modifications made in the classrooms in which lectures are given: two main modifications were made: (1) physical modifications—most of the classrooms/

information about the students with disabilities was provided.

assign a specific committee to advance the application of this law:

**24**

#### *Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

volunteer students might be the knowledge and skills they acquired during their adapted physical activity training as part of the PE TPP. Indeed, they were trained in their PE TPP to work with children with disabilities. However, following the time they spent with the students with disabilities, they also felt ready to work with adults with disabilities. It appears that they appreciated being given the opportunity to work with the students with disabilities.


Some of the lecturers' and instructors' pedagogical concerns associated with the students with the disabilities were discussed in these meetings. For example, the students with disabilities are required, as are all the students in the TPP, to teach instructional units in schools during the second and third years of the program. We were not sure how to help the students with the disabilities to benefit most from their practical work in the schools. Should we let them teach only a small portion of the class? Should we allow them to teach only with the assistance of a fellow student? Or, should they serve only as assistants to the PE teacher who works at the school? Since there is more than one relevant answer to each of these questions, it was important for us to discuss them with key figures from the Ministry of Education.

Future teaching opportunities in the schools for our students with disabilities were also discussed in the meetings with the key figures from the Ministry of Education. The students with disabilities who enrolled in the PE TPP at The Academic College at Wingate have as yet not completed their 4-year program (some of them are classified as part-time students; they preferred to take fewer classes in each year of the 4-year program in order to effectively cope with the TPP's requirements, and

**27**

experiences)

*Including Students with Disabilities in a Physical Education Teacher Preparation Program…*

ing teachers to their schools should also be invited to these discussions.

**4. Conclusions and future perspectives. Was the curriculum-**

the challenges encountered while maintaining an inclusion program.

Given the development and establishment of the inclusive pedagogy in recent decades, it is unfortunate that until now very few studies, and only those of a qualitative case study design, have been conducted to examine the multifaceted aspects associated with the inclusion processes of students with disabilities studying in PE TPPs. Every inclusion process should be carefully evaluated to determine whether its educational objectives are being achieved. Presumably, each process of inclusion has educational merit but also a number of limitations (e.g., allocating a portion of the college's budget to address the challenge) that need to be analyzed and assessed. In our chapter, we demonstrated a unique approach to adapting a PE TPP for the inclusion process. We discussed a number of procedures necessary for the successful implementation of such a TPP. Furthermore, we highlighted some of

Those who are involved in inclusion processes, policymakers, lecturers, and in this case those students with disabilities who were enrolled in the PE TPP, should be able to answer the following question—*Was the curriculum-pedagogical effort worth it?* In other words, did all the changes/modifications made in the TPP contribute to helping the students with disabilities achieve their goals? In order to assess how we have addressed the inclusion challenge in our college, we plan to adopt a number of research approaches combining both quantitative and qualitative designs (see [71]).

a.A survey design (a procedure in which researchers administer a survey to a sample or to an entire population of people in order to assess the attitudes, opinions, behaviors, and/or characteristics of the sample/population)

b.A grounded theory design (a systematic, qualitative procedure used to generate a theory that explains, on a broad conceptual level, a process, an action, or an

c.An ethnographic design (a qualitative procedure for describing, analyzing, and interpreting culture-sharing groups' shared patterns of behavior, beliefs, and

d.A narrative research design (describing the lives of individuals, collecting and telling stories about the individuals' lives, and writing narratives of individual

therefore by doing so, they extended their studies to 5 or 6 years instead of the usual 4). However, knowing that these students, namely, our future PE teachers, might need some kind of assistance also while working in the schools (in and out of class), we felt that an early discussion on how to enable an effective inclusion process of teachers with disabilities into the schools should be conducted with those individuals who would be responsible for hiring them (e.g., key figures from the Ministry of Education). Our aim in these discussions was also to develop an understanding of how to enable the inclusion of physical educators with disabilities into the schools. In fact, additional discussions should be held in order to generate ideas on how to ensure that students with disabilities will be hired as PE teachers. For example, school principals who highly value the inclusion process and who are responsible for recruit-

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85268*

**pedagogical effort worth it?**

Among these approaches are:

interaction concerning a substantive issue)

language that develop over time)

*Including Students with Disabilities in a Physical Education Teacher Preparation Program… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85268*

therefore by doing so, they extended their studies to 5 or 6 years instead of the usual 4). However, knowing that these students, namely, our future PE teachers, might need some kind of assistance also while working in the schools (in and out of class), we felt that an early discussion on how to enable an effective inclusion process of teachers with disabilities into the schools should be conducted with those individuals who would be responsible for hiring them (e.g., key figures from the Ministry of Education). Our aim in these discussions was also to develop an understanding of how to enable the inclusion of physical educators with disabilities into the schools. In fact, additional discussions should be held in order to generate ideas on how to ensure that students with disabilities will be hired as PE teachers. For example, school principals who highly value the inclusion process and who are responsible for recruiting teachers to their schools should also be invited to these discussions.

#### **4. Conclusions and future perspectives. Was the curriculumpedagogical effort worth it?**

Given the development and establishment of the inclusive pedagogy in recent decades, it is unfortunate that until now very few studies, and only those of a qualitative case study design, have been conducted to examine the multifaceted aspects associated with the inclusion processes of students with disabilities studying in PE TPPs. Every inclusion process should be carefully evaluated to determine whether its educational objectives are being achieved. Presumably, each process of inclusion has educational merit but also a number of limitations (e.g., allocating a portion of the college's budget to address the challenge) that need to be analyzed and assessed. In our chapter, we demonstrated a unique approach to adapting a PE TPP for the inclusion process. We discussed a number of procedures necessary for the successful implementation of such a TPP. Furthermore, we highlighted some of the challenges encountered while maintaining an inclusion program.

Those who are involved in inclusion processes, policymakers, lecturers, and in this case those students with disabilities who were enrolled in the PE TPP, should be able to answer the following question—*Was the curriculum-pedagogical effort worth it?* In other words, did all the changes/modifications made in the TPP contribute to helping the students with disabilities achieve their goals? In order to assess how we have addressed the inclusion challenge in our college, we plan to adopt a number of research approaches combining both quantitative and qualitative designs (see [71]). Among these approaches are:


*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

to work with the students with disabilities.

frequency of the "moments of success."

elementary, junior high, or high school.

volunteer students might be the knowledge and skills they acquired during their adapted physical activity training as part of the PE TPP. Indeed, they were trained in their PE TPP to work with children with disabilities. However, following the time they spent with the students with disabilities, they also felt ready to work with adults with disabilities. It appears that they appreciated being given the opportunity

h.Meetings with the students with disabilities: once in a semester, typically at the end of the semester, a meeting of the students with disabilities and the other key figures was arranged. These meetings were composed of the student with the disability, a number of the members of the committee that was responsible for the recruitment process of the student, and the volunteer students who helped the student with disabilities. The main purpose of these meetings was to listen to the "story" of the students with disabilities, in order to understand how they actually felt in the PE TPP. To achieve this, the students with disabilities shared their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts about their involvement in the program, in and out of class. They reported about the challenges and difficulties they encountered in the classes they took, as well as about their personal and academic achievements, and talked about how they viewed the modifications made in the TPP. They also provided their own personal report on how they felt about teaching in schools and what help they needed in order to improve their teaching skills. As with any other student who studies in the PE TPP, the students with disabilities had some "moments of success" and "moments of failure" in teaching PE in schools. These experiences were elaborated upon in the meetings, in an attempt to increase the number and

i. Members of the college staff responsible for the inclusion program met with key figures from the Ministry of Education: a series of meetings were conducted with a number of key figures from the Ministry of Education (e.g., the principle supervisor of PE) in order to (1) provide these individuals with an updated report on the inclusion of the students with disabilities in our TPP; (2) consult with them on how to improve the inclusion process; and (3) discuss future teaching opportunities for the students with disabilities in schools, be it

Some of the lecturers' and instructors' pedagogical concerns associated with the students with the disabilities were discussed in these meetings. For example, the students with disabilities are required, as are all the students in the TPP, to teach instructional units in schools during the second and third years of the program. We were not sure how to help the students with the disabilities to benefit most from their practical work in the schools. Should we let them teach only a small portion of the class? Should we allow them to teach only with the assistance of a fellow student? Or, should they serve only as assistants to the PE teacher who works at the school? Since there is more than one relevant answer to each of these questions, it was important for us to discuss them with key figures from the Ministry of

Future teaching opportunities in the schools for our students with disabilities were also discussed in the meetings with the key figures from the Ministry of

Education. The students with disabilities who enrolled in the PE TPP at The Academic College at Wingate have as yet not completed their 4-year program (some of them are classified as part-time students; they preferred to take fewer classes in each year of the 4-year program in order to effectively cope with the TPP's requirements, and

**26**

Education.

In another optional design—a mixed-methods research design—researchers collect, analyze, and "mix" both quantitative and qualitative methods in a single study or a series of studies in order to understand the research problem.

The use of the abovementioned designs can assist researchers in collecting data on various aspects of PE TPPs in which students with disabilities study with regular students. Data that can be collected from faculty members, board and committees members, and students at large can assist in evaluating the strengths of the inclusion process (e.g., political, educational, pedagogical), how the program helped students with disabilities develop their disciplinary/pedagogical knowledge, and what aspects of the program need to be improved upon. In addition, these designs can help researchers collect data from those individuals who work with students with disabilities in the field (i.e., school settings), namely, the teachers who supervise them in their teaching practices, the regional PE supervisors, and the principals of the schools. The data obtained from external sources (e.g., teachers who supervise the students in their teaching practices in schools) can complement the data collected from internal sources (e.g., the students) and provide the researcher with a full picture of the changes/modifications made in the TPP, so that the needs of students with disabilities can be met.

The inclusion challenge has attracted a great deal of attention at The Academic College at Wingate during the last few years. In this modern/postmodern era, we feel that to address such a challenge is a kind of cultural-social mission. By gathering and analyzing quantitative and particularly qualitative data, we will be able to increase our understanding of how we have addressed the inclusion challenge and, more importantly, how we will be able to enhance some aspects of the TPP so that students with disabilities will be able to gain the greatest benefit from the preparation program.

#### **Author details**

Ronnie Lidor\* and Yeshayahu Hutzler The Academic College at Wingate, Wingate Institute, Netanya, Israel

\*Address all correspondence to: lidor@wincol.ac.il

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**29**

*Including Students with Disabilities in a Physical Education Teacher Preparation Program…*

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[10] Reid G. The International

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*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85268*

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Retardation; 1969

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*Including Students with Disabilities in a Physical Education Teacher Preparation Program… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85268*

#### **References**

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

students with disabilities can be met.

In another optional design—a mixed-methods research design—researchers collect, analyze, and "mix" both quantitative and qualitative methods in a single study

The use of the abovementioned designs can assist researchers in collecting data on various aspects of PE TPPs in which students with disabilities study with regular students. Data that can be collected from faculty members, board and committees members, and students at large can assist in evaluating the strengths of the inclusion process (e.g., political, educational, pedagogical), how the program helped students with disabilities develop their disciplinary/pedagogical knowledge, and what aspects of the program need to be improved upon. In addition, these designs can help researchers collect data from those individuals who work with students with disabilities in the field (i.e., school settings), namely, the teachers who supervise them in their teaching practices, the regional PE supervisors, and the principals of the schools. The data obtained from external sources (e.g., teachers who supervise the students in their teaching practices in schools) can complement the data collected from internal sources (e.g., the students) and provide the researcher with a full picture of the changes/modifications made in the TPP, so that the needs of

The inclusion challenge has attracted a great deal of attention at The Academic College at Wingate during the last few years. In this modern/postmodern era, we feel that to address such a challenge is a kind of cultural-social mission. By gathering and analyzing quantitative and particularly qualitative data, we will be able to increase our understanding of how we have addressed the inclusion challenge and, more importantly, how we will be able to enhance some aspects of the TPP so that students with disabilities will be able to gain the greatest benefit from the prepara-

or a series of studies in order to understand the research problem.

**28**

**Author details**

tion program.

provided the original work is properly cited.

Ronnie Lidor\* and Yeshayahu Hutzler

\*Address all correspondence to: lidor@wincol.ac.il

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

The Academic College at Wingate, Wingate Institute, Netanya, Israel

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[38] Goodman JF, Bond L. The individualized educational program: A retrospective critique. Journal of Special Education. 1993;**26**:408-422

[39] Sherlock-Shangraw R. Creating inclusive youth sport environments. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance. 2013;**84**:40-46

[40] Cargiulo RM, Metcalf D. Teaching in Today's Inclusive Classrooms: A Universal Design for Learning Approach. 2nd ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth; 2013

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[49] Lancaster J, Bain A. The design of inclusive education courses and the self-efficacy of pre-service teacher

**30**

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

[18] Florian L, Black-Hawkins K. Exploring inclusive pedagogy. British Educational Research Journal. 2011;**37**:813-828. DOI: 10.1080/01411926.2010.501096

[19] Loreman T, Deppeler J. Working towards full inclusion in education. Access: The National Issues Journal for People with a Disability. 2002;**3**:5-8

Empowering Teachers to Promote Inclusive Education: Literature Review. Odense, Denmark: European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education. 2015. Available from: https://www.european-agency.org/ publications/reviews/empoweringteachers-to-promote-inclusiveeducation-literature-review

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Europe–Challenges and Opportunities. Odense, Denmark: European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education. 2011. Available from: https:// www.european-agency.org/sites/default/ files/te4i-challenges-and-opportunities\_

TE4I-Synthesis-Report-EN.pdf

[28] Downs P. Episode 65: The 7 Pillars of Inclusion. 2016.Available from: http://theinclusionclub.com/

[29] Woods M. Inclusive Swimming Framework: A Blueprint for Ensuring Swimming and Aquatics Reflect the Diversity of the Australian community. Canberra, Australia: Swimming Australia. 2015. Available from: file:///C:/Users/Hutzler/Downloads/ InclusiveSwimmingFramework.pdf

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the-7-pillars-of-inclusion

Schooling. 2007;**3**:22-38

hsj.2005.0019

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[21] Casebolt KM, Hodge SR. High school physical education teachers' beliefs about teaching students with mild to severe disabilities. The Physical

[22] Hutzler Y. Attitudes toward the participation of individuals with

[23] Hutzler Y, Shama E. Attitudes and self-efficacy of Arabic-speaking physical education teachers in Israel toward including children with disabilities. International Journal of Social Science Studies. 2017;**5**:28-42. DOI: 10.11114/ijsss.v5i10.2668

[24] Lieberman LJ, Robinson BL, Rollheiser H. Youth with visual impairments: Experiences in general physical education. Rehabilitation and Education for Blindness and Visual Impairment. 2006;**38**:35-48. DOI:

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10.3200/REVU.38.1.35-48

disabilities in physical activity: A review.

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[57] Özer D, Nablant S, Aǧlamis E, Baran F, Kaya Samut P, Aktop A, et al. Physical education teachers' attitudes towards children with intellectual disability: The impact of time in service, gender, and previous acquaintance. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research. 2013;**57**:1001-1013. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365- 2788.2012.01596.x. Epub 2012 Jul 23

[58] Fitzerald H. Mentoring: Special educational needs and disability. In: Chambers FC, editor. Mentoring in Physical Education and Sports Coaching. London: Routledge; 2015. pp. 57-65

[59] Grenier MA, Horrell A, Genovese B. Doing things my way: Teaching physical education with a disability. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly. 2014;**31**:325-342

[60] Reina R, Alvaro-Ruiz J. Full inclusion of a student with visual impairment over the full physical activity and sport sciences degree: A case study. European Journal of Adapted Physical Activity. 2016;**9**:40-52. http:// eujapa.upol.cz/index.php/EUJAPA/ article/view/185/78

[61] Swanson Gehrke R, Cocchiarella M. Preservice special and general educators' knowledge of inclusion. Teacher Education and Special Education. 2013;**36**:204-216

[62] Oyler C. Teacher preparation for inclusive and critical (special) education. Teacher Education and Special Education. 2011;**34**:201-218

[63] Haegele JA, Sutherland S. Perspectives of students with disabilities toward physical education: A qualitative inquiry review. Quest. 2015;**67**:255-273. DOI: 10.1080/00336297.2015.1050118

[64] Pocock T, Miyahara M. Inclusion of students with disability in physical education: A qualitative meta-analysis. International Journal of Inclusive Education. 2018;**22**:751-766. DOI: 10.1080/13603116.2017.1412508

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[70] Kolzchut. The Integration Law. 2019. Retrieved from: http://www. knesset.gov.il/laws/heb/FileD.asp on

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Boston, MA: Pearson; 2012

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apaq.2016-0017

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*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

education students. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education. 2007;**54**:245-256. DOI: education teachers' attitudes towards children with intellectual disability: The impact of time in service, gender, and previous acquaintance. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research. 2013;**57**:1001-1013. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365- 2788.2012.01596.x. Epub 2012 Jul 23

[58] Fitzerald H. Mentoring: Special educational needs and disability. In: Chambers FC, editor. Mentoring in Physical Education and Sports Coaching. London: Routledge; 2015. pp. 57-65

[59] Grenier MA, Horrell A, Genovese B. Doing things my way: Teaching physical education with a disability. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly.

[60] Reina R, Alvaro-Ruiz J. Full inclusion of a student with visual impairment over the full physical activity and sport sciences degree: A case study. European Journal of Adapted Physical Activity. 2016;**9**:40-52. http:// eujapa.upol.cz/index.php/EUJAPA/

[61] Swanson Gehrke R, Cocchiarella M. Preservice special and general educators' knowledge of inclusion. Teacher Education and Special Education. 2013;**36**:204-216

[62] Oyler C. Teacher preparation for inclusive and critical (special) education. Teacher Education and Special Education. 2011;**34**:201-218

[64] Pocock T, Miyahara M. Inclusion of students with disability in physical education: A qualitative meta-analysis. International Journal of Inclusive Education. 2018;**22**:751-766. DOI: 10.1080/13603116.2017.1412508

[63] Haegele JA, Sutherland S. Perspectives of students with disabilities toward physical education: A qualitative inquiry review. Quest. 2015;**67**:255-273. DOI: 10.1080/00336297.2015.1050118

2014;**31**:325-342

article/view/185/78

[50] Block M, Grenier M, Hutzler Y. Strategies to maximize social participation and inclusive of students with disabilities in physical education. In: Morin AJS, Maïano C, Tracey D, Craven RG, editors. Inclusive Physical Activities: International Perspectives. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing; 2017. pp. 109-132

[51] Opertti R, Ji L, editors. Training Tools for Curriculum Development: Inclusive Student Assessment. Geneva, Switzerland: IBE-UNESCO; 2017

[52] Clarke M. Framework for Building an Effective Student Assessment System. Washington, DC: The World

Learning: An International Perspective on Evaluation and Assessment. Paris, France: OECD Reviews of evaluation and assessment in education; 2013. DOI:

[54] Ulrich DA. Test of Gross Motor Development. Austin, TX: Pro-ed

[55] Watkins A, editor. Assessment in Inclusive Settings: Key Issues for Policy and Practice. Odense, Denmark: European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education; 2007. p. 2007

[56] UNESCO. Seven Essential Components for Teacher Education for Inclusion (details). IEA: Inclusive Education in Action Website. 2017. Available form: http://www.inclusiveeducation-in-action.org/iea/index. php?menuid=25&reporeid=247

[57] Özer D, Nablant S, Aǧlamis E, Baran F, Kaya Samut P, Aktop A, et al. Physical

[53] OECD. Synergies for Better

10.1787/9789264190658-en

Bank Group; 2011

Publishers; 2000

10.1080/10349120701330610

**32**

[66] Rekaa H, Hanisch H, Ytterhus B. Inclusion in physical education: Teacher attitudes and student perspectives: A systematic review. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education. 2018;**66**:1-20. DOI: 10.1080/1034912X.2018.1435852

[67] Tant M, Watelain E. Forty years later, a systematic literature review on inclusion in physical education (1975-2015): A teacher perspective. Educational Research Review. 2016;**19**:1-17

[68] Wilhelmsen T, Sørensen M. Inclusion of children with disabilities in physical education: A systematic review of literature from 2009 to 2015. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly. 2017;**34**:311-337. DOI: 10.1123/ apaq.2016-0017

[69] Kim JR. Influence of teacher preparation programmes on preservice teachers' attitudes toward inclusion. International Journal of Inclusive Education. 2011;**15**(3):355-377

[70] Kolzchut. The Integration Law. 2019. Retrieved from: http://www. knesset.gov.il/laws/heb/FileD.asp on 20.1.2019

[71] Creswell JW. Educational Research– Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research. Boston, MA: Pearson; 2012

Chapter 3

Abstract

philosophy.

explorative analysis

1. Introduction

35

The Difference of Teachers'

Beliefs Related to Students'

Fujian Ethnic Regions

Practice of Confucian Analects: A

Comparison among Three Chinese

Confucian culture is an important shared cultural characteristic in Chinese soci-

eties. The transmissions under different historical effects lead to differences of perceiving students' practice of the Confucian Analects in society. The behaviors and beliefs of teachers represent their beliefs in observing students' moral practices. The present study examined students' practice of Confucian Analects observed by Chinese teachers in Fujian region of China, Taiwan, and Malaysia. Based on praxis approach, the present study contracted eight major constituents of Analects for explorative analysis. Seven hundred sixty questionnaires are returned and validated for explorative and comparative analyses. The results indicated that the constituents were correlated, and the teachers in the Fujian region thought that their students had the highest practice of the Confucian Analects, than Taiwan and Malaysia. The implication of this study suggested that cultural difference affects the perception of Chinese teachers in students' practice of Confucian Analects and can be deployed in educational settings to increase the life fulfillment of Confucian

Keywords: Confucian analects, moral education, cultural effect, praxis approach,

Confucian culture, considered a common characteristic in Chinese societies, was originated by Confucius in 551 B.C. The Confucian Analects (a record of the dialogs between Confucius and his disciples) are the foundation of Confucianism. The "orthodoxy" mentioned above refers to students' practice of Confucianism, which is also one of the main subjects embedded in Chinese education settings. In students with different Chinese heritages, as reflected from the different political, social, and economic factors in this particular area, their practice of the Confucian Analects would be different. Based on praxis approach, which refers to teachers introspect others of the act of engaging, applying, exercising, realizing, or practicing ideas, the present research attempts to explore the differences in students' practice of the

Jon-Chao Hong, Ming-Yueh Hwang and Kai-Hsin Tai

#### Chapter 3

## The Difference of Teachers' Beliefs Related to Students' Practice of Confucian Analects: A Comparison among Three Chinese Fujian Ethnic Regions

Jon-Chao Hong, Ming-Yueh Hwang and Kai-Hsin Tai

### Abstract

Confucian culture is an important shared cultural characteristic in Chinese societies. The transmissions under different historical effects lead to differences of perceiving students' practice of the Confucian Analects in society. The behaviors and beliefs of teachers represent their beliefs in observing students' moral practices. The present study examined students' practice of Confucian Analects observed by Chinese teachers in Fujian region of China, Taiwan, and Malaysia. Based on praxis approach, the present study contracted eight major constituents of Analects for explorative analysis. Seven hundred sixty questionnaires are returned and validated for explorative and comparative analyses. The results indicated that the constituents were correlated, and the teachers in the Fujian region thought that their students had the highest practice of the Confucian Analects, than Taiwan and Malaysia. The implication of this study suggested that cultural difference affects the perception of Chinese teachers in students' practice of Confucian Analects and can be deployed in educational settings to increase the life fulfillment of Confucian philosophy.

Keywords: Confucian analects, moral education, cultural effect, praxis approach, explorative analysis

#### 1. Introduction

Confucian culture, considered a common characteristic in Chinese societies, was originated by Confucius in 551 B.C. The Confucian Analects (a record of the dialogs between Confucius and his disciples) are the foundation of Confucianism. The "orthodoxy" mentioned above refers to students' practice of Confucianism, which is also one of the main subjects embedded in Chinese education settings. In students with different Chinese heritages, as reflected from the different political, social, and economic factors in this particular area, their practice of the Confucian Analects would be different. Based on praxis approach, which refers to teachers introspect others of the act of engaging, applying, exercising, realizing, or practicing ideas, the present research attempts to explore the differences in students' practice of the

Confucian Analects as perceived by teachers in three Asian regions (the Fujian Region of China, Taiwan, and Malaysia).

2.1.1.3 Reflection

2.1.2 Denotation of courtesy

2.1.2.1 Respect

2.1.2.2 Conservatism

conservative behaviors [1].

2.1.3 Denotation of righteousness

2.1.2.3 Prudence

2.1.3.1 Propriety

37

others' psychological response (Analects, 16:29).

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82054

respectful language in speaking to others and so on.

Reflective thinking takes into consideration all of the relevant factors in a certain situation and produces non-sentimentally grounded reasons for action. Considering that reflection constitutes a crucial part of moral judgment, it is evident that emotions provide only a partial basis for considerate, dispassionate judgment in Confucian thought; therefore, radical emotional actions should be rejected accordingly [11]. In the Confucian Analects, the originally rational human nature comes to reflect on the stimulation of external objects by generating two types of emotional responses, viz., liking and disliking (or desire and aversion) with the judgment of

The Difference of Teachers' Beliefs Related to Students' Practice of Confucian…

Respect remains an essential element in maintaining the status of the elderly [12, 13]. Confucius said, "Do not do to others what you do not want them to do to you" (Analects 15:13). In another example, he said, "In serving his parents, a son may demonstrate with gentle; when son sees that parents are not inclined to follow son's suggestions, son should show an increased degree of compromise at the spot, but does not abandon his purpose to suggest them after a while with good condition; and he does not complain" (Analects, 4:18). Moreover, from [14] the analysis of the Analects, the forms of respect were distinguished, such as (1) care respect, providing care and services for elders or others; (2) victual respect, serving foods and drinks for others or elders' first choice; and (3) linguistic respect, using

Chinese ethics was characterized by a certain style of conservatism which held that change through individual action could only have limited influence on the environment, since the environment was ruled by external and contingent forces [15]. Confucian philosophy leads the Chinese to avoid extremism in expressing their opinions and curiosity to maintain harmony [16]. Confucius believed courtesy was a norm of good behavior. Any discourteous behavior would not be virtuous and would cause undesirable results [17]. In The Analects, ritual and courtesy (li) are

In short, one could call wisdom a mature prudence. In Confucianism, prudence de-emphasizes self-interest holding that self-interest is the concern of the "mean man" for profit [18]. Confucius' disciple Zilu was called "bold," but Confucius reminded him that a truly virtuous person puts prudence first, because it can bring righteous virtue into its proper place (Analects, 17:23). Confucius asserted that in

The Confucian approach requires one to hold a proper attitude toward striving for human virtues and profits [1]. A junzi is always considered as cunning, which

the bold person without prudence, knowledge would become "unruly."

#### 2. Literature review

Chinese Confucianism and Western Aristotelian ethic have many things in common. They both emphasize the virtues of human beings [1], and they both believe that models of individuals are of great importance for teaching appropriate behavior [2]. To Confucius, a person with good morals was regarded as a gentleman (junzi), and to Aristotle, such a person was a phronimos. Both junzi and phronimos mean the distinguishing characteristics of honesty and proper behavior, which are both based on the need for human beings to cultivate and practice virtuous behavior. The concepts of a virtuous citizen can be traced back to the famous works of Plato and Aristotle, Republic and Politics, respectively, both of which stress the importance of citizenship [3]. Chan also mentions that Asians understand the significance of moral behavior because "ren" is the basis of social order, "li" is the basis of ethical behavior, and "jia" is the basis of family. Confucian culture is an important part of their cultural inheritance [4–7] in particular to those citizens who speak Chinese. Therefore, the present study is a preliminary empirical exploration of this concept to understand the factors affecting students' practice of the Confucian Analects.

#### 2.1 The Confucian Analects

The Confucian Analects state that human beings should be concerned with more than 20 virtues, such as benevolence, righteousness, courtesy, wisdom, loyalty, forbearance, faithfulness, humbleness, respect, filial piety, and so on. In order to conduct this current explorative research, the present study classified some core virtues into "benevolence," "courtesy," and "righteousness" to be elaborated as follows.

#### 2.1.1 Denotation of benevolence

#### 2.1.1.1 Self-discipline

Benevolence (ren) is the lifelong quest to be the most genuine, sincere, and humane person possible. "Benevolence" is the real sense of communication between individuals, which is essentially the relationship between "me and you." The process of becoming ren, a benevolent gentleman or superior person, is essential for self-perfection as described by Confucius. Confucius believed that human perfection can be attained by anyone. Those who devote themselves to the process of ren are called junzi. People are encouraged to become superior people by selfdiscipline or self-control to make oneself more benevolent to others [8].

#### 2.1.1.2 Generosity

One virtue specifically mentioned by Fowers [9] is generosity. Horrigan [10] defined generosity as the give-and-take of philanthropy that binds together givers and recipients. In brief, generosity can help us to become balanced and healthy, both mentally and physically. For example, Confucius said, "What are you going to repay kindness with? Meet resentment with straightness and respond to kindness with kindness" (Analects, 14:34). Indeed, benevolence comes about students' practice of generosity originates from the self and not from others.

The Difference of Teachers' Beliefs Related to Students' Practice of Confucian… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82054

#### 2.1.1.3 Reflection

Confucian Analects as perceived by teachers in three Asian regions (the Fujian

Chinese Confucianism and Western Aristotelian ethic have many things in common. They both emphasize the virtues of human beings [1], and they both believe that models of individuals are of great importance for teaching appropriate behavior [2]. To Confucius, a person with good morals was regarded as a gentleman (junzi), and to Aristotle, such a person was a phronimos. Both junzi and phronimos mean the distinguishing characteristics of honesty and proper behavior, which are both based on the need for human beings to cultivate and practice virtuous behavior. The concepts of a virtuous citizen can be traced back to the famous works of Plato and Aristotle, Republic and Politics, respectively, both of which stress the importance of citizenship [3]. Chan also mentions that Asians understand the significance of moral behavior because "ren" is the basis of social order, "li" is the basis of ethical behavior, and "jia" is the basis of family. Confucian culture is an important part of their cultural inheritance [4–7] in particular to those citizens who speak Chinese. Therefore, the present study is a preliminary empirical exploration of this concept to understand the factors affecting students' practice of the Confucian

The Confucian Analects state that human beings should be concerned with more

than 20 virtues, such as benevolence, righteousness, courtesy, wisdom, loyalty, forbearance, faithfulness, humbleness, respect, filial piety, and so on. In order to conduct this current explorative research, the present study classified some core virtues into "benevolence," "courtesy," and "righteousness" to be elaborated as

Benevolence (ren) is the lifelong quest to be the most genuine, sincere, and humane person possible. "Benevolence" is the real sense of communication between individuals, which is essentially the relationship between "me and you." The process of becoming ren, a benevolent gentleman or superior person, is essential for self-perfection as described by Confucius. Confucius believed that human perfection can be attained by anyone. Those who devote themselves to the process of ren are called junzi. People are encouraged to become superior people by selfdiscipline or self-control to make oneself more benevolent to others [8].

One virtue specifically mentioned by Fowers [9] is generosity. Horrigan [10] defined generosity as the give-and-take of philanthropy that binds together givers and recipients. In brief, generosity can help us to become balanced and healthy, both mentally and physically. For example, Confucius said, "What are you going to repay kindness with? Meet resentment with straightness and respond to kindness with kindness" (Analects, 14:34). Indeed, benevolence comes about students' prac-

tice of generosity originates from the self and not from others.

Region of China, Taiwan, and Malaysia).

Teacher Education in the 21st Century

2. Literature review

Analects.

follows.

2.1 The Confucian Analects

2.1.1 Denotation of benevolence

2.1.1.1 Self-discipline

2.1.1.2 Generosity

36

Reflective thinking takes into consideration all of the relevant factors in a certain situation and produces non-sentimentally grounded reasons for action. Considering that reflection constitutes a crucial part of moral judgment, it is evident that emotions provide only a partial basis for considerate, dispassionate judgment in Confucian thought; therefore, radical emotional actions should be rejected accordingly [11]. In the Confucian Analects, the originally rational human nature comes to reflect on the stimulation of external objects by generating two types of emotional responses, viz., liking and disliking (or desire and aversion) with the judgment of others' psychological response (Analects, 16:29).

#### 2.1.2 Denotation of courtesy

#### 2.1.2.1 Respect

Respect remains an essential element in maintaining the status of the elderly [12, 13]. Confucius said, "Do not do to others what you do not want them to do to you" (Analects 15:13). In another example, he said, "In serving his parents, a son may demonstrate with gentle; when son sees that parents are not inclined to follow son's suggestions, son should show an increased degree of compromise at the spot, but does not abandon his purpose to suggest them after a while with good condition; and he does not complain" (Analects, 4:18). Moreover, from [14] the analysis of the Analects, the forms of respect were distinguished, such as (1) care respect, providing care and services for elders or others; (2) victual respect, serving foods and drinks for others or elders' first choice; and (3) linguistic respect, using respectful language in speaking to others and so on.

#### 2.1.2.2 Conservatism

Chinese ethics was characterized by a certain style of conservatism which held that change through individual action could only have limited influence on the environment, since the environment was ruled by external and contingent forces [15]. Confucian philosophy leads the Chinese to avoid extremism in expressing their opinions and curiosity to maintain harmony [16]. Confucius believed courtesy was a norm of good behavior. Any discourteous behavior would not be virtuous and would cause undesirable results [17]. In The Analects, ritual and courtesy (li) are conservative behaviors [1].

#### 2.1.2.3 Prudence

In short, one could call wisdom a mature prudence. In Confucianism, prudence de-emphasizes self-interest holding that self-interest is the concern of the "mean man" for profit [18]. Confucius' disciple Zilu was called "bold," but Confucius reminded him that a truly virtuous person puts prudence first, because it can bring righteous virtue into its proper place (Analects, 17:23). Confucius asserted that in the bold person without prudence, knowledge would become "unruly."

#### 2.1.3 Denotation of righteousness

#### 2.1.3.1 Propriety

The Confucian approach requires one to hold a proper attitude toward striving for human virtues and profits [1]. A junzi is always considered as cunning, which

means to gain dubious ends and always has no anxieties and fears. On the contrary, a narrow-minded person loves property, always worries about material possessions, and is motivated by profit. For example, Confucius said, "Carefulness, without the rules of propriety, becomes timidity; boldness, without the rules of propriety, becomes insubordination; straightforwardness, without the rules of propriety, becomes rudeness" (Analects, 8:2). Thus, Chinese culture belittles those who without the rules of propriety will just say this and that but do nothing with righteousness.

experience is provided, it is meaningful for the system. The process of social perception also changes because of culture. As such, with the diverse cultures, people have different perceptions and practices of traditional Confucian orthodoxy. The

The Difference of Teachers' Beliefs Related to Students' Practice of Confucian…

Hypothesis 1: There are significant correlations among the constructs of the

Hypothesis 2: There are significant differences in the perceptions of students'

The present study focused mainly on developing an instrument to measure the perception and practice of the Confucian Analects and employing the instrument to examine the perception of school teachers in their students' practice of the Confu-

For observational studies conducted in educational and psychological research,

The present study mainly explores the perceptions of students' practice of the Confucian Analects by Chinese teachers in three Asian regions. The study chose three regions where the subjects' ancestors all majorly came from the Fujian region, and their mother language was Minnanese (also known as Fujianese or Taiwanese). The research subjects were primary school teachers in the Fujian region of China,

Minnanese), and primary school teachers in Southern Taiwan (80% of whom can speak Minnanese). For the study, there were 1200 questionnaires distributed, with 500 questionnaires to the Fujian region of China, 500 questionnaires to Taiwan, and 200 questionnaires to Malaysia. There were 760 questionnaires returned, with a return rate of 63.3%, which included 418 questionnaires from the Fujian region of China, 204 questionnaires from Taiwan, and 138 questionnaires from Malaysia. The majority of respondents were female 486 (63.9%). In age distribution, teachers aged 40 and younger accounted for 613 responses, with 122 samples from teachers aged

Vogt [22] identified that the two of the most common sampling strategies are convenience sampling and purposive sampling. He confirmed that this trend of having purposive sampling being the most common form of sampling is still true in contemporary social science research. Accordingly, the present study adopted the purposive sampling method based on those teachers who attended in-service professional development programs during the summer vacation of 2012. Questionnaires were delivered by those workshop organizers or administrators including the Educational Bureau of Fujian province, the Taiwan Teacher Professional Development Center, and the Malaysia Taiwan Alumni. The latter organization managed workshops particular for Chinese school teachers in summer vacations around south parts of Malaysia where most Fujianese live by. In regard to ethical issues, teachers were informed that they were not obliged to participate in this research project. The importance of maintaining confidentiality of personal information was

also being stressed to participants in the introductory statements.

primary school teachers in Southern Malaysia (80% of whom can speak

41–50 years and 25 samples from teachers aged 51 years and older.

following hypotheses are proposed to guide this study:

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82054

practicing the Analects among the three Asian regions.

Analects.

4. Research design

4.1 Research procedure

4.2 Research participants

39

cian Analects in different regions.

#### 2.1.3.2 Responsiveness

Chinese people are evaluated by many moral standards, for instance, loyal or disloyal ministers, upright or corrupt officials, filial or non-filial sons, and so on. Therefore, consideration and responsiveness become important and expected interpersonal behaviors [19]. For example, "Promises must be kept, actions must produce results" (Analects, 13:20). Confucian junzi holds that moral awareness and responsiveness are necessary for harmony in human relations. The ideal personality obliterates the subjectivity of individuals. The value of an individual is in one's externality or integral nature. A superior person does not put blame on others but instead takes responsibility for misdeeds and is always considerate and entirely unselfish.

#### 2.2 Confucian culture of the Chinese people in the three Asian regions

Chinese heritages under different historical transition have developed different practice of the Confucian Analects. In the 1970s, Mainland China experienced Confucianism lamentably suppressed. Recently, there has been a trend toward a revival and reopening of Confucian culture, such as open many Confucian schools around the world.

Taiwan, with more than 70% Fujianese heritages, has kept long thought of itself as a place for inheritance and transmission of traditional Chinese culture and orthodoxy due to several reasons: Confucianism has been included in teaching materials for school children, and Confucian culture is integrated into the teaching of the Chinese language. Taiwan society is having more experience with diversification and differences. For the past three decades, Confucianism has been encouraged and advocated by the governmental policy that in and of itself exemplifies the traditional use of Confucianism in politics.

Malaysia is a culturally diverse society, with ethnic Chinese heritages, mostly Fujianese, accounting for 24% of the people. Malaysian and English are the official languages of the country. Malaysian Fujianese pay close attention to their children's education, which follows the best traditions of Chinese culture. Similar to the Taiwanese who study traditional Confucianism, new Malaysian Chinese are also aware of the conflicts of basic values between Confucianism and Western culture. Those oversea Chinese have been living in Malaysia for several generations, if there has been no fundamental change in the original values and inclinations of Confucianism would be interested to be examined.

#### 3. Research hypotheses

The psychological process in between is affected by the internal cultural form and standard [20]. The "cultural meaning system" has therefore become an important model to explain cultural and social perceptions [21]. When personal

The Difference of Teachers' Beliefs Related to Students' Practice of Confucian… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82054

experience is provided, it is meaningful for the system. The process of social perception also changes because of culture. As such, with the diverse cultures, people have different perceptions and practices of traditional Confucian orthodoxy. The following hypotheses are proposed to guide this study:

Hypothesis 1: There are significant correlations among the constructs of the Analects.

Hypothesis 2: There are significant differences in the perceptions of students' practicing the Analects among the three Asian regions.

#### 4. Research design

means to gain dubious ends and always has no anxieties and fears. On the contrary,

possessions, and is motivated by profit. For example, Confucius said, "Carefulness, without the rules of propriety, becomes timidity; boldness, without the rules of propriety, becomes insubordination; straightforwardness, without the rules of propriety, becomes rudeness" (Analects, 8:2). Thus, Chinese culture belittles those who without the rules of propriety will just say this and that but do nothing with

Chinese people are evaluated by many moral standards, for instance, loyal or disloyal ministers, upright or corrupt officials, filial or non-filial sons, and so on. Therefore, consideration and responsiveness become important and expected interpersonal behaviors [19]. For example, "Promises must be kept, actions must produce results" (Analects, 13:20). Confucian junzi holds that moral awareness and responsiveness are necessary for harmony in human relations. The ideal personality obliterates the subjectivity of individuals. The value of an individual is in one's externality or integral nature. A superior person does not put blame on others but instead takes responsibility for misdeeds and is always considerate and entirely

2.2 Confucian culture of the Chinese people in the three Asian regions

practice of the Confucian Analects. In the 1970s, Mainland China experienced Confucianism lamentably suppressed. Recently, there has been a trend toward a revival and reopening of Confucian culture, such as open many Confucian schools

as a place for inheritance and transmission of traditional Chinese culture and orthodoxy due to several reasons: Confucianism has been included in teaching materials for school children, and Confucian culture is integrated into the teaching of the Chinese language. Taiwan society is having more experience with diversification and differences. For the past three decades, Confucianism has been encouraged and advocated by the governmental policy that in and of itself exemplifies the

Chinese heritages under different historical transition have developed different

Taiwan, with more than 70% Fujianese heritages, has kept long thought of itself

Malaysia is a culturally diverse society, with ethnic Chinese heritages, mostly Fujianese, accounting for 24% of the people. Malaysian and English are the official languages of the country. Malaysian Fujianese pay close attention to their children's education, which follows the best traditions of Chinese culture. Similar to the Taiwanese who study traditional Confucianism, new Malaysian Chinese are also aware of the conflicts of basic values between Confucianism and Western culture. Those oversea Chinese have been living in Malaysia for several generations, if there has been no fundamental change in the original values and inclinations of Confu-

The psychological process in between is affected by the internal cultural form and standard [20]. The "cultural meaning system" has therefore become an impor-

tant model to explain cultural and social perceptions [21]. When personal

a narrow-minded person loves property, always worries about material

righteousness.

unselfish.

around the world.

traditional use of Confucianism in politics.

cianism would be interested to be examined.

3. Research hypotheses

38

2.1.3.2 Responsiveness

Teacher Education in the 21st Century

The present study focused mainly on developing an instrument to measure the perception and practice of the Confucian Analects and employing the instrument to examine the perception of school teachers in their students' practice of the Confucian Analects in different regions.

#### 4.1 Research procedure

For observational studies conducted in educational and psychological research, Vogt [22] identified that the two of the most common sampling strategies are convenience sampling and purposive sampling. He confirmed that this trend of having purposive sampling being the most common form of sampling is still true in contemporary social science research. Accordingly, the present study adopted the purposive sampling method based on those teachers who attended in-service professional development programs during the summer vacation of 2012. Questionnaires were delivered by those workshop organizers or administrators including the Educational Bureau of Fujian province, the Taiwan Teacher Professional Development Center, and the Malaysia Taiwan Alumni. The latter organization managed workshops particular for Chinese school teachers in summer vacations around south parts of Malaysia where most Fujianese live by. In regard to ethical issues, teachers were informed that they were not obliged to participate in this research project. The importance of maintaining confidentiality of personal information was also being stressed to participants in the introductory statements.

#### 4.2 Research participants

The present study mainly explores the perceptions of students' practice of the Confucian Analects by Chinese teachers in three Asian regions. The study chose three regions where the subjects' ancestors all majorly came from the Fujian region, and their mother language was Minnanese (also known as Fujianese or Taiwanese). The research subjects were primary school teachers in the Fujian region of China, primary school teachers in Southern Malaysia (80% of whom can speak Minnanese), and primary school teachers in Southern Taiwan (80% of whom can speak Minnanese). For the study, there were 1200 questionnaires distributed, with 500 questionnaires to the Fujian region of China, 500 questionnaires to Taiwan, and 200 questionnaires to Malaysia. There were 760 questionnaires returned, with a return rate of 63.3%, which included 418 questionnaires from the Fujian region of China, 204 questionnaires from Taiwan, and 138 questionnaires from Malaysia. The majority of respondents were female 486 (63.9%). In age distribution, teachers aged 40 and younger accounted for 613 responses, with 122 samples from teachers aged 41–50 years and 25 samples from teachers aged 51 years and older.

#### 4.3 Research instrument

According to the above exploration of the meaning of Confucian culture, the present study devised 80 questions in eight categories. First, the study invited 290 teachers in Taiwan to take a pilot test. Item analysis was adopted to identify inappropriate questions, leaving 59 questions to be included in the survey questionnaire. According to their personal perceptions, the surveyed teachers ranked the adjoining students (i.e., who were students ever being taught by the research participated teacher) on each question using a 5-point scale where 1 represented nearly no one, 2 represented few students, 3 represented some students, 4 represented most students, and 5 represented nearly all students.

teachers in Taiwan and Malaysia thought that the adjoining students still curiously watch, inquire about, and talk much about things unrelated to them. The teachers in the Fujian region of China thought that the behavior of the adjoining students revealed a more self-centered approach to life, which led them to blame others for

The Difference of Teachers' Beliefs Related to Students' Practice of Confucian…

This study adapted exploratory factor analysis to examine the correlation among factors. Before factor analysis, the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy was .852; the results of the first factor analysis showed 15 factors with characteristic values greater than 1. As to the rotated component matrix, as shown by the scree plot, the characteristic value of the first five factors was greater than 2, and the cumulative explanatory power of the first eight components exceeded 50%. Therefore, 12 questions after the eighth constructs were deleted. After that, factor analysis was performed again. In terms of construct validity, the KMO value was .862, and there were 11 factors with characteristic values greater than 1, all factor loadings were statistically significant. The first eight components were taken, and the subsequent 14 questions were deleted due to their insignificant explanatory power. Finally, after the second factor analyses, the 33 questions were classified according to eight constructs: (1) prudence, (2) responsiveness, (3) conservatism, (4) propriety, (5) generosity, (6) self-discipline, (7) respect,

and (8) reflection. The factors and questions are listed in Table 1.

5 People do not care about the facial expression and response of the other

3 People are very happy to extend hospitality to friends traveling from remote

1 People offer help when other people are doing good things, but offer no help

4 People act according to the principles of right or wrong rather than the

person and continue to talk on and on ()

advantages or disadvantages to themselves

Questions ( indicates questions scored in reverse order) M SD Factor

1 Young people are too libidinous () 3.04 0.84 0.715 2 People in the prime of life like to fight with others () 3.15 0.81 0.777 3 The aged are keen on getting petty advantages () 3.14 0.81 0.802 4 People speak out of turn () 3.25 0.72 0.731

1 People keep promises and match their words with actions 3.45 0.72 0.752 2 People do not brag about their good deeds 3.33 0.78 0.630

1 People do not curiously watch things that do not concern them 2.95 0.86 0.864 2 People do not inquire about things that do not concern them 2.97 0.87 0.931 3 People do not talk about things that do not concern them 3.15 0.88 0.869

2 People do not insert themselves into other people's business 3.76 0.80 0.614

loading

3.32 0.69 0.728

3.93 0.71 0.716

3.06 0.82 0.613

3.95 0.82 0.762

their mistakes.

Qt. No.

Factor 1: Prudence α = 0.82

Factor 2: Responsiveness α = 0.82

Factor 3: Conservatism α = 0.82

Factor 4: Propriety α = 0.81

41

when they are doing bad things

places

5.2 Reliability and validity analyses

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82054

#### 5. Data analysis

The present study used SPSS 19 to analyze the descriptive data and perform confirmatory factor analysis including reliability analysis, validity analysis, and factor analysis. The Pearson coefficient of correlation was used to explore the correlation matrix between variables.

#### 5.1 Descriptive analysis

The analysis of the descriptive statistics showed that when the average scores for the perception of students' practice of the Confucian Analects under different background variables such as gender, age, and distance from downtown are used as the criteria, questions with higher-than-average scores are predominant in four constructs: responsiveness, propriety, generosity, and respect. The teachers in both Taiwan and Malaysia had a lower recognition (M < 3.0) for the conservatism of the adjoining students. Conversely, the teachers in the Fujian region of China had a higher recognition (M > 3.0) for the conservatism of the adjoining students.

With regard to the construct of prudence, for the various background variables, the teachers' perceptions of the adjoining students' behavior were lower than their average perception for students' practice of the other constructs in the Confucian Analects. However, for the construct of respect, the perceptions of the teachers over 51 years of age of the adjoining students' behavior were lower than the average scores for all ages of the perceptions of students' practice of the Confucian Analects (M = 3.09). This was due in part to their more negative responses to the question, "Sons and daughters should show respect to their parents, do not defy their ideas; and the junior generation should actively take care of the elderly."

Teachers in Taiwan scored the adjoining students higher than average for responsiveness, propriety, generosity, and respect, but the lowest score was for conservatism. The perceptions of the teachers in Malaysia of the adjoining students' behavior were higher than the average scores in the three constructs of responsiveness, propriety, and respect, but not in the construct of generosity. The perceptions of the teachers in Malaysia of the adjoining students' conservatism were lowest, which was similar to the perceptions of the teachers in Taiwan. The perceptions of the teachers in the Fujian region of China of the adjoining students' behavior were higher than the total average scores for the perceptions of students' practice of the Confucian Analects, which was similar to the teachers in Malaysia.

However, the Chinese teachers' perceptions of the adjoining students' behavior achieved the lowest scores in the construct of self-discipline, revealing that when the racial, national, and social atmosphere is different, the perceptions of students' practice of the Confucian Analects are also different. For example, the

#### The Difference of Teachers' Beliefs Related to Students' Practice of Confucian… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82054

teachers in Taiwan and Malaysia thought that the adjoining students still curiously watch, inquire about, and talk much about things unrelated to them. The teachers in the Fujian region of China thought that the behavior of the adjoining students revealed a more self-centered approach to life, which led them to blame others for their mistakes.

#### 5.2 Reliability and validity analyses

4.3 Research instrument

Teacher Education in the 21st Century

5. Data analysis

5.1 Descriptive analysis

in Malaysia.

40

dents, and 5 represented nearly all students.

correlation matrix between variables.

According to the above exploration of the meaning of Confucian culture, the present study devised 80 questions in eight categories. First, the study invited 290 teachers in Taiwan to take a pilot test. Item analysis was adopted to identify inappropriate questions, leaving 59 questions to be included in the survey questionnaire. According to their personal perceptions, the surveyed teachers ranked the adjoining students (i.e., who were students ever being taught by the research participated teacher) on each question using a 5-point scale where 1 represented nearly no one, 2 represented few students, 3 represented some students, 4 represented most stu-

The present study used SPSS 19 to analyze the descriptive data and perform confirmatory factor analysis including reliability analysis, validity analysis, and factor analysis. The Pearson coefficient of correlation was used to explore the

The analysis of the descriptive statistics showed that when the average scores for

With regard to the construct of prudence, for the various background variables, the teachers' perceptions of the adjoining students' behavior were lower than their average perception for students' practice of the other constructs in the Confucian Analects. However, for the construct of respect, the perceptions of the teachers over 51 years of age of the adjoining students' behavior were lower than the average scores for all ages of the perceptions of students' practice of the Confucian Analects (M = 3.09). This was due in part to their more negative responses to the question, "Sons and daughters should show respect to their parents, do not defy their ideas;

the perception of students' practice of the Confucian Analects under different background variables such as gender, age, and distance from downtown are used as the criteria, questions with higher-than-average scores are predominant in four constructs: responsiveness, propriety, generosity, and respect. The teachers in both Taiwan and Malaysia had a lower recognition (M < 3.0) for the conservatism of the adjoining students. Conversely, the teachers in the Fujian region of China had a higher recognition (M > 3.0) for the conservatism of the adjoining students.

and the junior generation should actively take care of the elderly."

behavior were higher than the average scores in the three constructs of

lowest, which was similar to the perceptions of the teachers in Taiwan. The perceptions of the teachers in the Fujian region of China of the adjoining students'

behavior were higher than the total average scores for the perceptions of students' practice of the Confucian Analects, which was similar to the teachers

the racial, national, and social atmosphere is different, the perceptions of students' practice of the Confucian Analects are also different. For example, the

Teachers in Taiwan scored the adjoining students higher than average for responsiveness, propriety, generosity, and respect, but the lowest score was for conservatism. The perceptions of the teachers in Malaysia of the adjoining students'

responsiveness, propriety, and respect, but not in the construct of generosity. The perceptions of the teachers in Malaysia of the adjoining students' conservatism were

However, the Chinese teachers' perceptions of the adjoining students' behavior achieved the lowest scores in the construct of self-discipline, revealing that when

This study adapted exploratory factor analysis to examine the correlation among factors. Before factor analysis, the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy was .852; the results of the first factor analysis showed 15 factors with characteristic values greater than 1. As to the rotated component matrix, as shown by the scree plot, the characteristic value of the first five factors was greater than 2, and the cumulative explanatory power of the first eight components exceeded 50%. Therefore, 12 questions after the eighth constructs were deleted. After that, factor analysis was performed again. In terms of construct validity, the KMO value was .862, and there were 11 factors with characteristic values greater than 1, all factor loadings were statistically significant. The first eight components were taken, and the subsequent 14 questions were deleted due to their insignificant explanatory power. Finally, after the second factor analyses, the 33 questions were classified according to eight constructs: (1) prudence, (2) responsiveness, (3) conservatism, (4) propriety, (5) generosity, (6) self-discipline, (7) respect, and (8) reflection. The factors and questions are listed in Table 1.



generosity, 0.81; prudence, 0.86; self-discipline, 0.82; respect, 0.86; and reflection,

The Difference of Teachers' Beliefs Related to Students' Practice of Confucian…

The results were analyzed in two steps. The first step, the degree of linear relationship between each construct was calculated and used Pearson's r coefficient of correlation. The second step, we adopted one-way ANOVA to compare the difference between teachers' perception of students' fulfillment in three areas.

Regarding the correlation between each construct and the perceptions of students' practice of the Confucian Analects, each of the eight constructs had a high correlation with the perceptions of students' practice of the Confucian Analects. These eight constructs were also correlated to each other, implying that each construct was significantly affected by the others. As for the correlation between the perceptions of students' practice of the Confucian Analects and each construct, the positive correlation to prudence appeared in those constructs, responsiveness (r = 0.135, p < 0.01), propriety (r = 0.116, p < 0.01), self-discipline (r = 0.141, p < 0.01), and reflection (r = 0.551, p < 0.001) but negatively correlated to generosity (r = 0.247, p < 0.01). The positive correlation to responsiveness appeared in those constructs, conservatism (r = 0.433, p < 0.001),

self-discipline (r = 0.141, p < 0.01), respect (r = 0.574, p < 0.001), and reflection (r = 0.091, p < 0.05). The positive correlation to conservatism appeared in those constructs, propriety (r = 0.437, p < 0.001), self-discipline (r = 0.561, p < 0.001),

and respect (r = 0.561, p < 0.001), but negatively correlated to generosity (r = 0.479, p < 0.001). The positive correlation to propriety appeared in those constructs, generosity (r = 0.535, p < 0.001), self-discipline

(r = 0.438, p < 0.001), self-discipline (r = 0.453, p < 0.001), and reflection (r = 0.121, p < 0.01). The positive correlation to generosity appeared in those constructs, self-discipline (r = 0.584, p < 0.001) and respect (r = 0.419, p < 0.001), but negatively correlated to reflection (r = 0.172, p < 0.01). The positive correlation to self-discipline appeared in those constructs, respect (r = 0.457, p < 0.001) and reflection (r = 0.126, p < 0.01) (Table 2).

Some interesting findings from the correlation analysis, for instance, generosity, were negatively correlated to prudence, conservatism, and reflection but positively

propriety (r = 0.520, p < 0.001), generosity (r = 0.561, p < 0.001),

correlated to responsiveness, propriety, self-discipline, and respect.

teachers in different region

43

6.2 Comparisons of students' practice of Confucian Analects perceived by

Differences between three or more treatments were tested using one-way ANOVA followed by post hoc analysis using Scheffe test, which corrects p values for multiple comparisons [23]. To measure the magnitude of differences between constructs, effect size was calculated using Cohen's d [24]. Based on Cohen [25], the effect sizes for Scheffe method were expressed by Cohen's d with classification into small (Cohen's d = 0.2), medium (Cohen's d = 0.5), and large (Cohen's d = 0.8). Statistical analysis showed that teachers in different regions thought differently about their adjoining students' practice of the Confucian Analects (Table 3). The

relationships between fixed variables (different regions) and other eight

6.1 Correlation analysis among different constructs

0.81, as shown in Table 1.

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82054

6. Research results

#### Table 1.

Factors loading analysis.

Cronbach's α reliability analysis was used to investigate the reliability of the questionnaire. In this study, the Cronbach's α was 0.83 indicating that the questionnaire was reliable. The Cronbach's α reliabilities of the individual constructs were as follows: responsiveness, 0.82; conservatism, 0.82; propriety, 0.82;

generosity, 0.81; prudence, 0.86; self-discipline, 0.82; respect, 0.86; and reflection, 0.81, as shown in Table 1.

### 6. Research results

The results were analyzed in two steps. The first step, the degree of linear relationship between each construct was calculated and used Pearson's r coefficient of correlation. The second step, we adopted one-way ANOVA to compare the difference between teachers' perception of students' fulfillment in three areas.

#### 6.1 Correlation analysis among different constructs

Regarding the correlation between each construct and the perceptions of students' practice of the Confucian Analects, each of the eight constructs had a high correlation with the perceptions of students' practice of the Confucian Analects. These eight constructs were also correlated to each other, implying that each construct was significantly affected by the others. As for the correlation between the perceptions of students' practice of the Confucian Analects and each construct, the positive correlation to prudence appeared in those constructs, responsiveness (r = 0.135, p < 0.01), propriety (r = 0.116, p < 0.01), self-discipline (r = 0.141, p < 0.01), and reflection (r = 0.551, p < 0.001) but negatively correlated to generosity (r = 0.247, p < 0.01). The positive correlation to responsiveness appeared in those constructs, conservatism (r = 0.433, p < 0.001), propriety (r = 0.520, p < 0.001), generosity (r = 0.561, p < 0.001), self-discipline (r = 0.141, p < 0.01), respect (r = 0.574, p < 0.001), and reflection (r = 0.091, p < 0.05). The positive correlation to conservatism appeared in those constructs, propriety (r = 0.437, p < 0.001), self-discipline (r = 0.561, p < 0.001), and respect (r = 0.561, p < 0.001), but negatively correlated to generosity (r = 0.479, p < 0.001). The positive correlation to propriety appeared in those constructs, generosity (r = 0.535, p < 0.001), self-discipline (r = 0.438, p < 0.001), self-discipline (r = 0.453, p < 0.001), and reflection (r = 0.121, p < 0.01). The positive correlation to generosity appeared in those constructs, self-discipline (r = 0.584, p < 0.001) and respect (r = 0.419, p < 0.001), but negatively correlated to reflection (r = 0.172, p < 0.01). The positive correlation to self-discipline appeared in those constructs, respect (r = 0.457, p < 0.001) and reflection (r = 0.126, p < 0.01) (Table 2).

Some interesting findings from the correlation analysis, for instance, generosity, were negatively correlated to prudence, conservatism, and reflection but positively correlated to responsiveness, propriety, self-discipline, and respect.

#### 6.2 Comparisons of students' practice of Confucian Analects perceived by teachers in different region

Differences between three or more treatments were tested using one-way ANOVA followed by post hoc analysis using Scheffe test, which corrects p values for multiple comparisons [23]. To measure the magnitude of differences between constructs, effect size was calculated using Cohen's d [24]. Based on Cohen [25], the effect sizes for Scheffe method were expressed by Cohen's d with classification into small (Cohen's d = 0.2), medium (Cohen's d = 0.5), and large (Cohen's d = 0.8).

Statistical analysis showed that teachers in different regions thought differently about their adjoining students' practice of the Confucian Analects (Table 3). The relationships between fixed variables (different regions) and other eight

Cronbach's α reliability analysis was used to investigate the reliability of the

3 Should there be delicious food, junior generation lets the elderly eat it first 3.48 0.81 0.821

2 People think negatively and see others' intention pessimistically () 3.24 0.76 0.828

4 People speak carefully and work hard and fast (+) 3.05 0.71 0.828

Questions ( indicates questions scored in reverse order) M SD Factor

3 People do not do anything offensive to God and reason even if no one is

4 People show sorrow and sympathy to unfortunate things and do not rejoice in

1 Although people dislike their superior's attitude toward them, they do not take

2 Although people dislike their subordinates' attitude toward them, they do not

3 High-status people do not bully and oppress low-status people. Low-status people also do not rely on high-status people to achieve higher status

4 Do not inquire into the things in the past because they have already become

1 People learn from the strengths of others. When seeing others' weaknesses,

2 When fishing, people do not catch too many fish and are concerned for the

3 When hunting, people do not shoot sleeping birds; they do engage in sneak attacks; and they take no advantage from people unprepared

5 When people make mistakes, they do not shift the blame onto others; they learn their lessons and do not make the same mistakes again

6 People only care about eating and drinking sufficiently every day; they are

1 Seeing their parents have faulted, sons and daughters give them advice tactfully. If the parents do not want to listen to the advice, their sons and daughters still show respect to them, do not defy their ideas, and talk to them

2 The junior generation actively takes care of the elder members of the family

1 People do things impulsively and rashly, with no consideration for the

3 People do not care about what other people dislike; but what other people like

4 People forsake a luxurious and prideful life in favor of a frugal and

mindless in doing right things and have no life goal ()

loading

3.85 0.88 0.772

3.83 0.83 0.728

3.46 0.78 0.833

3.53 0.78 0.841

3.13 0.87 0.745

3.19 0.83 0.743

3.31 0.80 0.701

3.01 0.88 0.801

2.98 0.91 0.819

3.11 0.83 0.793

3.10 0.82 0.810

3.44 0.82 0.744

3.12 0.83 0.539

3.62 0.77 0.866

3.22 0.79 0.795

3.14 0.81 0.793

questionnaire was reliable. The Cronbach's α reliabilities of the individual constructs

questionnaire. In this study, the Cronbach's α was 0.83 indicating that the

Qt. No.

watching them

Factor 5: Generosity α = 0.86

facts

Factor 6: Self-discipline α = 0.82

environment

conservative life

Factor 7: Respect α = 0.86

Factor 8: Reflection α = 0.81

outcome ()

Table 1.

42

Factors loading analysis.

later at an appropriate time

affects their preferences ()

and helps them with their work or activities

the misfortune of others

Teacher Education in the 21st Century

the same attitude with their subordinates

they remind themselves to make improvements

take the same with their superiors

were as follows: responsiveness, 0.82; conservatism, 0.82; propriety, 0.82;


Table 2. Correlationmatrix ofdifferentconstructs.

dimensions were tested using one-way ANOVA. From Table 3, all dimensions were shown to be statically significant (p < 0.01); the responses to different regions of Chinese teachers at all levels were influential. From the above results, multiple

Fixed variable Dependent variable df F Significance d Three areas Prudence 2 5.006 0.007\*\* 0.28

The Difference of Teachers' Beliefs Related to Students' Practice of Confucian…

Responsiveness 2 5.084 0.007\*\* 0.42 Conservatism 2 10.609 0.000\*\*\* 0.36 Propriety 2 26.574 0.000\*\*\* 0.29 Generosity 2 6.896 0.001\*\* 0.45 Self-discipline 2 4.123 0.010\* 0.36 Respect 2 13.624 0.000\*\*\* 0.33 Reflection 2 16.003 0.000\*\*\* 0.41

For multiple comparisons, the data of mean difference is first classified into Areas 1 and 2 in different directions; the results are shown in Table 4. Further comparison of the teachers in the three regions showed that the teachers in the Fujian region of China (Md = 0.153 and 0.494 are all negative: Taiwan < China and Malaysia < China) had the highest perceptions of their students' practice of the Confucian Analects, the teachers in Taiwan came next, and the teachers in Malaysia (Md = 0.1049 and 0.0494 are all negative: Taiwan < Malaysia and Fujian, China < Malaysia) had the lowest perceptions of the adjoining students'

According to the above comparative results, the teachers in the Fujian region of China thought that the adjoining students had the highest practice of the Confucian Analects and believed that the Confucian Analects were practiced frequently. However, this may be because the students in the Fujian region believe that the Confucian Analects originated from the Chinese complex, leading to the appearance of pan-moralist performance. Therefore, the possibility of overestimation of the students' practice of the Confucian Analects must be investigated further. Berry and

Sam [26] once commented that according to his life experience in different foreign countries, among the Chinese people in Taiwan, Singapore, and the Fujian region of China, those from the Fujian region of China think most highly of interests

Area 1 Area 2 Mean (1–2) Significance Difference Remarks

Taiwan > Malaysia Taiwan < China

Malaysia < Taiwan Malaysia < China

China > Taiwan China > Malaysia China > Taiwan > Malaysia

0.010\* 0.031\*

0.010\* 0.000\*\*\*

0.031\* 0.000\*\*\*

comparisons can be carried out (Table 4).

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82054

p < 0.05, \*\*p < 0.01, \*\*\* p < 0.001.

\*

Table 3. One-way ANOVA.

practice of the Confucian Analects (Table 4).

and have the most adventurous spirit.

0.1049 (\* ) 0.0494 (\* )

0.1049 (\* )

0.1543 (\* )

> 0.494 (\* ) 0.153 (\* )

Taiwan Malaysia

Malaysia Taiwan

China Taiwan

Post hoc comparisons.

\*

45

Table 4.

China

China

Malaysia

p < 0.05, \*\*p < 0.01, \*\*\*p < 0.001.


The Difference of Teachers' Beliefs Related to Students' Practice of Confucian… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82054

Table 3.

One-way ANOVA.

dimensions were tested using one-way ANOVA. From Table 3, all dimensions were shown to be statically significant (p < 0.01); the responses to different regions of Chinese teachers at all levels were influential. From the above results, multiple comparisons can be carried out (Table 4).

For multiple comparisons, the data of mean difference is first classified into Areas 1 and 2 in different directions; the results are shown in Table 4. Further comparison of the teachers in the three regions showed that the teachers in the Fujian region of China (Md = 0.153 and 0.494 are all negative: Taiwan < China and Malaysia < China) had the highest perceptions of their students' practice of the Confucian Analects, the teachers in Taiwan came next, and the teachers in Malaysia (Md = 0.1049 and 0.0494 are all negative: Taiwan < Malaysia and Fujian, China < Malaysia) had the lowest perceptions of the adjoining students' practice of the Confucian Analects (Table 4).

According to the above comparative results, the teachers in the Fujian region of China thought that the adjoining students had the highest practice of the Confucian Analects and believed that the Confucian Analects were practiced frequently. However, this may be because the students in the Fujian region believe that the Confucian Analects originated from the Chinese complex, leading to the appearance of pan-moralist performance. Therefore, the possibility of overestimation of the students' practice of the Confucian Analects must be investigated further. Berry and Sam [26] once commented that according to his life experience in different foreign countries, among the Chinese people in Taiwan, Singapore, and the Fujian region of China, those from the Fujian region of China think most highly of interests and have the most adventurous spirit.


Table 4. Post hoc comparisons.

Prudence

44

Prudence Responsiveness

Conservatism

Propriety Generosity

Self-discipline

Respect

Reflection

\*

\*\* p < 0.01, \*\*\* p < 0.001.

> p < 0.05,

Table 2. Correlation

 matrix of different constructs.

 0.141\*\* 0.071 0.551\*\*\*

0.091\*

0.072

0.121\*\*

0.172\*\*

0.126\*\*

0.058

1

0.574

0.345

0.453

0.419

0.457

1

\*\*\*

\*\*\*

\*\*\*

\*\*\*

\*\*\*

0.247

0.561

0.510\*\*\*

0.453\*\*\*

0.438\*\*\*

0.584\*\*\*

1

0.479

0.535

1

Teacher Education in the 21st Century

\*\*\*

\*\*\*

\*\*\*

\*\*

0.081

0.116\*

0.520\*\*\*

0.433

1

0.437\*\*\*

1

\*\*\*

 0.135

\*\*

1

1

Responsiveness

Conservatism

 Propriety

 Generosity

Self-discipline

 Respect

 Reflection

 Overall

Relative to the teachers in Fujian China, the teachers in Malaysia had lower perceptions of the surrounding students' practice of the Confucian Analects. The reason behind this may have been due to the influence of English education on the students of Malaysia. The teachers in Malaysia may have had higher expectations for students' practice of the lofty Confucian Analects. Therefore, the perceptions of the teachers in Malaysia of the adjoining students' practice of the Confucian Analects may have been underestimated.

philosophy has emphasized these two virtues of the Confucian Analects, leading to the appearance of pan-moralist performance while answering the questionnaire. Moreover, regarding the Confucian Analects'study, Tak and King [33] conducted interviews with individual contemporary Confucian merchants in China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, and Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, on their business practices. Their study centered on the perceived conflicts experienced by those Confucian merchants with respect to business practices that adhere to Confucian ethics and those that adhere to the notion of the maximization of profit. This may not explain some of the results found in the present study, which indicated that, in average, Chinese Malaysians had the lowest perceptions of students' practice of the

The Difference of Teachers' Beliefs Related to Students' Practice of Confucian…

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82054

The people of the three Asian regions (the Fujian region of China, Taiwan, and Malaysia) share Fujianese as the main dialect but are immersed in different social and cultural circumstances. In brief, the Chinese teachers in the Fujian region of China had the highest average perception of their adjoining students' practice of the Confucian Analects, teachers in Taiwan had a lower average perception of their adjoining students' practice of the Confucian Analects, and teachers in Malaysia had the lowest average perception of their adjoining students' practice of the Confucian Analects. Based on the high practice of the ethic, teachers are committed to school goals and values [34, 35] and are more willing to go above and beyond the call of duty to contribute to successful change that the success of schools depends fundamentally on. Therefore, the result of the present study can be applied to leadership practice in the society influenced by Confucianism; students observe obligations associated with different roles. According to Zhang et al. [36], the Confucian Analects should become the basis for school management to shape good school culture. Again due to this study which adapted the praxis approach, those participants might have the "leniency or severity error" which is defined as the rater having the tendency to assign a higher or lower rating to an individual than is warranted by the rater's behavior [37]. In this case, students from different cultures may have different tendencies of leniency errors; thus, the results of this current research only can be explained based on the exclusion of cultural influence. The present study developed a scale for testing the perceptions of students' practice of the Confucian Analects by using Chinese teachers in the Asian regions, where Fujianese is considered the main dialect of the research subjects. Thus, this study is limited to the Fujianese-speaking area. However, Confucian Analects are not only popular in Fujianese-speaking area but also widespread in many Asian countries (e.g., Korea, Japan, etc.), so further studies may encompass other areas to realize the cultural

This work was financially supported by the "Chinese Language and Technology Center" of National Taiwan Normal University (NTNU) from The Featured Areas Research Center Program within the framework of the Higher Education Sprout

effect on students' practice of Confucian Analects.

Project by the Ministry of Education (MOE) in Taiwan.

Acknowledgements

47

Confucian Analects.

8. Conclusion

#### 7. Discussion

The results of the present study show that among the three Asian Fujianesespeaking regions that are deeply influenced by Confucian culture, Chinese teachers had different perceptions and concepts on students' practice of the Confucian Analects. In the development process of different regions using the same dialect (Minnanese or Fujianese), it appears that culture had created differences in perception. According to the correlation analysis, the result showed that all eight constructs were positively associated, which indicated that if one perceived their adjoining students could have a good practice in one construct of the Confucian Analects, and then other constructs could also be performed well.

An individual who exhibits ren is a junzi, which can be translated and idealized as "gentleman." For instance, Li and Wegerif [27] highlight "Look not at what is contrary to propriety; listen not to what is contrary to propriety; speak not what is contrary to propriety; make no movement which is contrary to propriety." That supports behavior as junzi (Confucius, o.p 1893, 12: 1). As in cultivating students to be junzi, Confucian Analects attempt to discipline them as dependent on authority figures and obedient and conforming to rules and deadlines [28]; in corresponding to this assertion, Morony et al. [29] pointed out that Confucian Asian countries were lower on self-concept than European countries. In contrast to the confidence of students, Confucian Asian countries were higher than European countries, while they investigate the cross-cultural variance of mathematical self-beliefs in relation to mathematics achievement in two world regions: Confucian Asia (Singapore, South Korea, Hong Kong, and Taiwan) and Europe (Denmark, The Netherlands, Finland, Serbia, and Latvia). However, in comparing the Confucian Analects practice in different regions, the results showed that some constructs, conservatism and propriety, were superior from Fujian region to Taiwan and Malaysian regions. The results also indicated that in prudence, students from Taiwan were superior to Fujian; in self-discipline, students from Taiwan were superior to Fujian and Malaysia. On the other hand, the results revealed that in generosity and respect, students from Malaysia were superior to Taiwan and Fujian. However, the results demonstrated that in reflection, students from Fujian were superior to both Taiwan and Malaysia.

It is obvious that respect is defined by the Confucians as positive duty; a minister should take into account all the objective conditions to determine whether respect is a typical "imperfect duty" [30] (i.e., you do not entice a blame should you respect to others that you could simply not reason condition just thought it was imposed). Regarding Confucian as an unforgiving mindset, students do things with caution [31]. Where generosity is a part of Confucian forgiveness, students from Malaysia appear to be more generous than the other two areas. The influence of regional culture manifests itself in many facets of standardization and preferences [32]. This may be because the students in the Fujian region believe that educational

#### The Difference of Teachers' Beliefs Related to Students' Practice of Confucian… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82054

philosophy has emphasized these two virtues of the Confucian Analects, leading to the appearance of pan-moralist performance while answering the questionnaire.

Moreover, regarding the Confucian Analects'study, Tak and King [33] conducted interviews with individual contemporary Confucian merchants in China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, and Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, on their business practices. Their study centered on the perceived conflicts experienced by those Confucian merchants with respect to business practices that adhere to Confucian ethics and those that adhere to the notion of the maximization of profit. This may not explain some of the results found in the present study, which indicated that, in average, Chinese Malaysians had the lowest perceptions of students' practice of the Confucian Analects.

#### 8. Conclusion

Relative to the teachers in Fujian China, the teachers in Malaysia had lower perceptions of the surrounding students' practice of the Confucian Analects. The reason behind this may have been due to the influence of English education on the students of Malaysia. The teachers in Malaysia may have had higher expectations for students' practice of the lofty Confucian Analects. Therefore, the perceptions of the teachers in Malaysia of the adjoining students' practice of the Confucian Ana-

The results of the present study show that among the three Asian Fujianesespeaking regions that are deeply influenced by Confucian culture, Chinese teachers had different perceptions and concepts on students' practice of the Confucian Analects. In the development process of different regions using the same dialect (Minnanese or Fujianese), it appears that culture had created differences in perception. According to the correlation analysis, the result showed that all eight constructs were positively associated, which indicated that if one perceived their adjoining students could have a good practice in one construct of the Confucian

An individual who exhibits ren is a junzi, which can be translated and idealized as "gentleman." For instance, Li and Wegerif [27] highlight "Look not at what is contrary to propriety; listen not to what is contrary to propriety; speak not what is contrary to propriety; make no movement which is contrary to propriety." That supports behavior as junzi (Confucius, o.p 1893, 12: 1). As in cultivating students to be junzi, Confucian Analects attempt to discipline them as dependent on authority figures and obedient and conforming to rules and deadlines [28]; in corresponding to this assertion, Morony et al. [29] pointed out that Confucian Asian countries were lower on self-concept than European countries. In contrast to the confidence of students, Confucian Asian countries were higher than European countries, while they investigate the cross-cultural variance of mathematical self-beliefs in relation to mathematics achievement in two world regions: Confucian Asia (Singapore, South Korea, Hong Kong, and Taiwan) and Europe (Denmark, The Netherlands, Finland, Serbia, and Latvia). However, in comparing the Confucian Analects practice in different regions, the results showed that some constructs, conservatism and propriety, were superior from Fujian region to Taiwan and Malaysian regions. The results also indicated that in prudence, students from Taiwan were superior to Fujian; in self-discipline, students from Taiwan were superior to Fujian and Malaysia. On the other hand, the results revealed that in generosity and respect, students from Malaysia were superior to Taiwan and Fujian. However, the results demonstrated that in reflection, students from Fujian were superior to both Taiwan and

It is obvious that respect is defined by the Confucians as positive duty; a minister should take into account all the objective conditions to determine whether respect is a typical "imperfect duty" [30] (i.e., you do not entice a blame should you respect to others that you could simply not reason condition just thought it was imposed). Regarding Confucian as an unforgiving mindset, students do things with caution [31]. Where generosity is a part of Confucian forgiveness, students from Malaysia appear to be more generous than the other two areas. The influence of regional culture manifests itself in many facets of standardization and preferences [32]. This

may be because the students in the Fujian region believe that educational

Analects, and then other constructs could also be performed well.

lects may have been underestimated.

Teacher Education in the 21st Century

7. Discussion

Malaysia.

46

The people of the three Asian regions (the Fujian region of China, Taiwan, and Malaysia) share Fujianese as the main dialect but are immersed in different social and cultural circumstances. In brief, the Chinese teachers in the Fujian region of China had the highest average perception of their adjoining students' practice of the Confucian Analects, teachers in Taiwan had a lower average perception of their adjoining students' practice of the Confucian Analects, and teachers in Malaysia had the lowest average perception of their adjoining students' practice of the Confucian Analects. Based on the high practice of the ethic, teachers are committed to school goals and values [34, 35] and are more willing to go above and beyond the call of duty to contribute to successful change that the success of schools depends fundamentally on. Therefore, the result of the present study can be applied to leadership practice in the society influenced by Confucianism; students observe obligations associated with different roles. According to Zhang et al. [36], the Confucian Analects should become the basis for school management to shape good school culture.

Again due to this study which adapted the praxis approach, those participants might have the "leniency or severity error" which is defined as the rater having the tendency to assign a higher or lower rating to an individual than is warranted by the rater's behavior [37]. In this case, students from different cultures may have different tendencies of leniency errors; thus, the results of this current research only can be explained based on the exclusion of cultural influence. The present study developed a scale for testing the perceptions of students' practice of the Confucian Analects by using Chinese teachers in the Asian regions, where Fujianese is considered the main dialect of the research subjects. Thus, this study is limited to the Fujianese-speaking area. However, Confucian Analects are not only popular in Fujianese-speaking area but also widespread in many Asian countries (e.g., Korea, Japan, etc.), so further studies may encompass other areas to realize the cultural effect on students' practice of Confucian Analects.

#### Acknowledgements

This work was financially supported by the "Chinese Language and Technology Center" of National Taiwan Normal University (NTNU) from The Featured Areas Research Center Program within the framework of the Higher Education Sprout Project by the Ministry of Education (MOE) in Taiwan.

### Conflict of interest

This research was not funded, and the authors declare they have no conflict of interest.

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[7] Suen H, Cheung SO, Mondejar R. Managing ethical behavior in

influence ethics management? International Journal of Project Management. 2007;25:57-265

Preview by Jin Li. American Psychologist. 2003;58(2):146-148

construction organizations in Asia: How do the teachings of Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism and globalization

[8] Li J. The core of Confucian learning:

[9] Fowers BJ. Virtue and Psychology: Pursuing Excellence in Ordinary

[4] Hofstede GH, Bond MH. The Confucius connection: From cultural

roots to economic growth.

Ethics. 2003;43:153-162

4-21

1999

49

[1] Chan GKY. The relevance and value of Confucianism in contemporary business ethics. Journal of Business

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82054

The Difference of Teachers' Beliefs Related to Students' Practice of Confucian…

Practice. Washington D. C.: American Psychological Association; 2005

[10] Horrigan B. The Simms/Mann family foundation: Generosity at work. EXPLORE: The Journal of Science and

[11] Kim MS. An inquiry into the development of the ethical theory of emotions in the Analects and the Mencius. Dissertation of the University

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conspicuous missing link to understand ethical and moral constructs of human care. In: Leininger M, editor. Ethical and Moral Construct of Care. Detroit: Wayne State Univ. Press; 1990

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[15] Furth C. Culture and politics in modern Chinese conservatism. In: Furth

[16] Ueltschy LC, Laroche M, Zhang M, Cho H, Yingwei R. Is there really an Asian connection? Professional service quality perceptions and customer satisfaction. Journal of Business Research. 2009;62(10):972-979

[17] Lau DC. The Analects of Confucius. England: Penguin Books Ltd; 1979

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uidaho.edu/ngier/etabc.pdf

C, editor. The Limits of Change. Cambridge: Harvard University Press;

1976. pp. 22-53

Healing. 2006;2(4):299

of Michigan; 2008

#### Author details

Jon-Chao Hong, Ming-Yueh Hwang\* and Kai-Hsin Tai Chinese Language and Technology Center, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan

\*Address all correspondence to: t06013@ntnu.edu.tw

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

The Difference of Teachers' Beliefs Related to Students' Practice of Confucian… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82054

#### References

Conflict of interest

Teacher Education in the 21st Century

interest.

Author details

Taipei, Taiwan

48

Jon-Chao Hong, Ming-Yueh Hwang\* and Kai-Hsin Tai

\*Address all correspondence to: t06013@ntnu.edu.tw

provided the original work is properly cited.

Chinese Language and Technology Center, National Taiwan Normal University,

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

This research was not funded, and the authors declare they have no conflict of

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Section 2

Teacher Development

Section 2
