Teaching as Practice

**129**

**1. Introduction**

**Chapter 9**

**Abstract**

Challenges Faced by Educators in

the Implementation of Continuing

Professional Teacher Development

Continuing Professional Teacher Development (CPTD) is a system that encourages educators to grow professionally. CPTD is managed by the South African Council for Educators (SACE). All educators were trained on CPTD system, but implementation at school level is a challenge because most of the teachers are technophobic and Continuing Professional Teacher Development is an electronic system. The purpose of this study is to identify the challenges that educators face in the implementation of Continuing Professional Teacher Development, and suggest improvement measures to the system. This research was a qualitative study based on the diffusion of innovation theory. Data was collected through interviews and document analysis. A total of 2 school principals and 10 educators and 2 union members and 2 district officials were purposely selected. Thematic method of data analysis was conducted. Conclusions and recommendations were drawn based on analyzed data. The study revealed that there is minimal support and monitoring taking place in schools. In addition, educators are demotivated since CPTD has no monitory incentive like Integrated

Quality Management System. The study recommended that with relevant monitoring and support, educators can be motivated to participate in CPTD

**Keywords:** challenges, educators, Continuing Professional Teacher Development

Professional development is the cornerstone for quality education to be realised in every organisation and the teaching fraternity is not an exception to the rule. During the apartheid era, the South African education was organised into racially and ethnically divided sub-systems. Since 1994, the education system was rationalised into one, single education system, introducing new curriculum which required teachers to have new knowledge and applied competence. With the onset of curriculum 2005, learners were expected to be active participants in the classroom. Assessment strategies also moved summative to being more formative in nature. The teacher took the role of facilitator to promote the creation of meaning in classroom

programmes, and professional development can be a reality.

(CPTD): Gauteng Province

*Gomba Georgina Kedibone Bernadine*

#### **Chapter 9**

## Challenges Faced by Educators in the Implementation of Continuing Professional Teacher Development (CPTD): Gauteng Province

*Gomba Georgina Kedibone Bernadine*

### **Abstract**

Continuing Professional Teacher Development (CPTD) is a system that encourages educators to grow professionally. CPTD is managed by the South African Council for Educators (SACE). All educators were trained on CPTD system, but implementation at school level is a challenge because most of the teachers are technophobic and Continuing Professional Teacher Development is an electronic system. The purpose of this study is to identify the challenges that educators face in the implementation of Continuing Professional Teacher Development, and suggest improvement measures to the system. This research was a qualitative study based on the diffusion of innovation theory. Data was collected through interviews and document analysis. A total of 2 school principals and 10 educators and 2 union members and 2 district officials were purposely selected. Thematic method of data analysis was conducted. Conclusions and recommendations were drawn based on analyzed data. The study revealed that there is minimal support and monitoring taking place in schools. In addition, educators are demotivated since CPTD has no monitory incentive like Integrated Quality Management System. The study recommended that with relevant monitoring and support, educators can be motivated to participate in CPTD programmes, and professional development can be a reality.

**Keywords:** challenges, educators, Continuing Professional Teacher Development

#### **1. Introduction**

Professional development is the cornerstone for quality education to be realised in every organisation and the teaching fraternity is not an exception to the rule. During the apartheid era, the South African education was organised into racially and ethnically divided sub-systems. Since 1994, the education system was rationalised into one, single education system, introducing new curriculum which required teachers to have new knowledge and applied competence. With the onset of curriculum 2005, learners were expected to be active participants in the classroom. Assessment strategies also moved summative to being more formative in nature. The teacher took the role of facilitator to promote the creation of meaning in classroom

instruction [1], in the National Policy Framework for Teacher Education and Development in South Africa states that, the National Teacher Education Audit conducted in 1995 showed that a third of the teaching force at that time was engaged in qualification-driven in-service education, and that in many instances, though there were considerable rewards in terms of salary increases, such qualifications had little or no impact on classroom practice. It was on the basis of this that it was found to be critical that all teachers need to enhance their skills for the delivery of the new curriculum. It is also emphasised in the policy framework that a large majority of teachers need to strengthen their subject knowledge base, pedagogical content knowledge and teaching skills. This was a serious call for priority to be given to educators' professional development. Replace the entirety of this text with the introduction to your chapter. The introduction section should provide a context for your manuscript and should be numbered as first heading. When preparing the introduction, please bear in mind that some readers will not be experts in your field of research.

#### **2. What is professional development**

According to Steyn and van Niekerk (2002) in [2] professional development describes an ongoing development programme that focuses on the whole range of knowledge, skills and attitudes required to educate learners effectively. Gulston [2] further explains that professional development emphasises the participation of educators or educational leaders in development opportunities in order for them to be better equipped with knowledge and skills.

Quality in education is something that we should focus on as a system of education. It is for this reason that the one most important factor why educators should be professionally developed is based on the conviction that the quality of teachers influences the quality of learners' performance and achievement. It is true because professional development needs to be prioritised within the education system because it is important in improving or enhancing ones knowledge and skills. Mestry et al. [3] mentioned that raising the quality of teacher performance through teacher development programmes is essential, it is believed, to improve the overall performance of the education system, which makes the debate about school type, school-by-school performance, and class size, among others, look irrelevant. Pitsoe and Maila [4] emphasised this point by mentioning that teacher professional development plays an important role in changing teachers' teaching methods and assisting teachers to move beyond a comprehension of the surface features of a new idea or innovation, to a deeper understanding of a topic.

Teacher professional development should therefore, be looked at as a continuous process. This is true because learning is a lifelong process. If teachers do not keep up with the global changes, especially those that come with technology, then they will not fit in this era. It is on this basis that continuing professional development (CPD) is prioritised.

#### **3. What is continuing professional development (CPD)**

Oxbridge Academy [5] defines CPD as a term used to describe learning activities that professionals take part in to develop and enhance their skills. There are many forms of continuing professional development activities available, which include workshops, conferences, consultation, coaching, both peer coaching and expert coaching, and courses which can either be to enhance existing professional

**131**

*Challenges Faced by Educators in the Implementation of Continuing Professional Teacher…*

qualifications. CPD activities further also consist of demonstrations and peer observation, mentoring, inductions for beginner teachers, job rotation, teamwork and group work, clustering of schools and school visits, as well as designing and executing school improvement projects, communities of practice, lesson studies, reflective supervision and technical assistance [2]. We also see [6] highlighting the method of cooperative or collegial development, cascade or generation method, case study, skills development method, reflection, project method, narrative method, self-development, seminars, workshops, institutes, conferences, courses, observation of excellent practice, teachers' participation in new roles, portfolio, action research, students' performance assessment, supervision, coaching and mentoring are forms of Continuing Professional Teacher Development in Great

Allen [7] defines CPD as a process 'of tracking and documenting the skills, knowledge and experience that you gain both formally and informally as you work, beyond

Day (1999) in [9] states 'Professional development consists of all natural learning experiences and those conscious and planned activities which are intended to be of direct or indirect benefit to the individual, group or school, which contribute, through these, to the quality of education in the classroom'. Based on this definition, they agree that the purpose of CPD is four-fold. Firstly, it is intended to facilitate the implementation of policy or educational reforms. Secondly, it is aimed towards preparation of staff for the new function. It is also serves the aim of school development, and lastly, it is for personal professional development. Professional development of teachers in South Africa is aligned to these four roles to complement whole-school development. Therefore, professional development of teachers is the cornerstone for the provision of quality teaching and learning. It also implies that teachers never cease to learn. It therefore, puts emphasis on lifelong learning.

Kloosterman [10] mentions that continuing professional development involves maintaining and enhancing the knowledge, skills and experience related to your professional activities following completion of your formal training. Therefore, CPD should be a lifelong (throughout the career of a teacher), systematic, and planned process to maintain and develop professional competence, creativity and innovation. The outcome has value for both the individual and profession. Therefore, professional development of teachers is the cornerstone for the provision of quality teaching and learning. It also implies that teachers never cease to learn. It

The concept of continuing professional development is not peculiar to the South African context alone. Different countries use different policies on CPD for teachers, depending on their context. Guldenhuys and Oosthuizen [11] identify

any initial training. It's a record of what you experience, learn and then apply'. According to [8] CPD encompasses a wide variety of approaches and teaching and learning styles in a variety of setting (inside or outside of the workplace) it is distinguishable from the broader concept of learning. It is primarily related to people's professional identities and roles and the goals of the organisation they are working for. The CPD process helps you manage your own development on an ongoing basis. It is function is to help you record, review and reflect on what you learn. It is not a tick-box document recording the training you have completed. It is broader than that. The CPD process helps you manage your own development on an ongoing basis. It is function is to help you record, review and reflect on what you learn. It is

not a tick-box document recording the training you have completed.

therefore, puts emphasis on lifelong learning.

**3.1 The international context on CPD**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84836*

Britain, Canada and USA.

#### *Challenges Faced by Educators in the Implementation of Continuing Professional Teacher… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84836*

qualifications. CPD activities further also consist of demonstrations and peer observation, mentoring, inductions for beginner teachers, job rotation, teamwork and group work, clustering of schools and school visits, as well as designing and executing school improvement projects, communities of practice, lesson studies, reflective supervision and technical assistance [2]. We also see [6] highlighting the method of cooperative or collegial development, cascade or generation method, case study, skills development method, reflection, project method, narrative method, self-development, seminars, workshops, institutes, conferences, courses, observation of excellent practice, teachers' participation in new roles, portfolio, action research, students' performance assessment, supervision, coaching and mentoring are forms of Continuing Professional Teacher Development in Great Britain, Canada and USA.

Allen [7] defines CPD as a process 'of tracking and documenting the skills, knowledge and experience that you gain both formally and informally as you work, beyond any initial training. It's a record of what you experience, learn and then apply'.

According to [8] CPD encompasses a wide variety of approaches and teaching and learning styles in a variety of setting (inside or outside of the workplace) it is distinguishable from the broader concept of learning. It is primarily related to people's professional identities and roles and the goals of the organisation they are working for.

The CPD process helps you manage your own development on an ongoing basis. It is function is to help you record, review and reflect on what you learn. It is not a tick-box document recording the training you have completed. It is broader than that. The CPD process helps you manage your own development on an ongoing basis. It is function is to help you record, review and reflect on what you learn. It is not a tick-box document recording the training you have completed.

Day (1999) in [9] states 'Professional development consists of all natural learning experiences and those conscious and planned activities which are intended to be of direct or indirect benefit to the individual, group or school, which contribute, through these, to the quality of education in the classroom'. Based on this definition, they agree that the purpose of CPD is four-fold. Firstly, it is intended to facilitate the implementation of policy or educational reforms. Secondly, it is aimed towards preparation of staff for the new function. It is also serves the aim of school development, and lastly, it is for personal professional development. Professional development of teachers in South Africa is aligned to these four roles to complement whole-school development. Therefore, professional development of teachers is the cornerstone for the provision of quality teaching and learning. It also implies that teachers never cease to learn. It therefore, puts emphasis on lifelong learning.

Kloosterman [10] mentions that continuing professional development involves maintaining and enhancing the knowledge, skills and experience related to your professional activities following completion of your formal training. Therefore, CPD should be a lifelong (throughout the career of a teacher), systematic, and planned process to maintain and develop professional competence, creativity and innovation. The outcome has value for both the individual and profession. Therefore, professional development of teachers is the cornerstone for the provision of quality teaching and learning. It also implies that teachers never cease to learn. It therefore, puts emphasis on lifelong learning.

#### **3.1 The international context on CPD**

The concept of continuing professional development is not peculiar to the South African context alone. Different countries use different policies on CPD for teachers, depending on their context. Guldenhuys and Oosthuizen [11] identify

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

**2. What is professional development**

be better equipped with knowledge and skills.

instruction [1], in the National Policy Framework for Teacher Education and Development in South Africa states that, the National Teacher Education Audit conducted in 1995 showed that a third of the teaching force at that time was engaged in qualification-driven in-service education, and that in many instances, though there were considerable rewards in terms of salary increases, such qualifications had little or no impact on classroom practice. It was on the basis of this that it was found to be critical that all teachers need to enhance their skills for the delivery of the new curriculum. It is also emphasised in the policy framework that a large majority of teachers need to strengthen their subject knowledge base, pedagogical content knowledge and teaching skills. This was a serious call for priority to be given to educators' professional development. Replace the entirety of this text with the introduction to your chapter. The introduction section should provide a context for your manuscript and should be numbered as first heading. When preparing the introduction, please

bear in mind that some readers will not be experts in your field of research.

According to Steyn and van Niekerk (2002) in [2] professional development describes an ongoing development programme that focuses on the whole range of knowledge, skills and attitudes required to educate learners effectively. Gulston [2] further explains that professional development emphasises the participation of educators or educational leaders in development opportunities in order for them to

Quality in education is something that we should focus on as a system of education. It is for this reason that the one most important factor why educators should be professionally developed is based on the conviction that the quality of teachers influences the quality of learners' performance and achievement. It is true because professional development needs to be prioritised within the education system because it is important in improving or enhancing ones knowledge and skills. Mestry et al. [3] mentioned that raising the quality of teacher performance through teacher development programmes is essential, it is believed, to improve the overall performance of the education system, which makes the debate about school type, school-by-school performance, and class size, among others, look irrelevant. Pitsoe and Maila [4] emphasised this point by mentioning that teacher professional development plays an important role in changing teachers' teaching methods and assisting teachers to move beyond a comprehension of the surface features of a new idea or innovation, to a deeper understand-

Teacher professional development should therefore, be looked at as a continuous process. This is true because learning is a lifelong process. If teachers do not keep up with the global changes, especially those that come with technology, then they will not fit in this era. It is on this basis that continuing professional development (CPD)

Oxbridge Academy [5] defines CPD as a term used to describe learning activities that professionals take part in to develop and enhance their skills. There are many forms of continuing professional development activities available, which include workshops, conferences, consultation, coaching, both peer coaching and expert coaching, and courses which can either be to enhance existing professional

**3. What is continuing professional development (CPD)**

**130**

ing of a topic.

is prioritised.

different trends regarding teachers' CPD. The first trend is that of PD activities are linked to renewing of licences and career advancement or salary benefits or not, and can be optional or not. This is the practice in countries like Germany, United Kingdom, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovania and Spain. In countries like France, Greece, Iceland, etc. CPD is seen as a professional duty, but participation is optional. This is the practice in South Africa where CPD is treated as a duty for teachers, however teachers are given varied options of programmes for participation. They also earn different points for their participation in different activities and programmes.

The second trend identified by Day and Sachs (2004) in [11] is that PD activities can also be initiated by the authorities. This trend is observed in countries such as Australia, America and Japan, although there has not been a success with such trends and South Africa is no exception to this with some of the professional development being unauthorised and non-endorsed and imposed on teachers. The last trend is that of the role of research on professional development as observed in New Zealand where a research was commissioned to see what works and why to improve education outcomes. Such information was used to guide educational policy and practice about the conditions, both necessary and sufficient for professional development that has transformational impact at system level [11].

There are other countries, like the Netherlands that have introduced continuing professional development for their teachers due to changes effected in their curriculum. Seezink and Poell [12] assert that the secondary schools in Netherlands have been granted increasing autonomy by the Dutch central government to reform their curriculum and teaching methods. Reforms were then undertaken to make educational programmes more competence based. Many teachers then had trouble moving into their new roles and tasks associated with competence based education programmes (from an expert into a coaching role). This was experienced by educators in South Africa when outcomes based education moving from content based education with the teacher as a facilitator of currently National Curriculum Statements (NCS). There was a demand to improve the quality of teaching and learning. The Department of Education then realised that there is a need to develop and support educators on a continual basis. Since then, issues relating to effective professional teacher development have been on the agenda of the Department of Education in South Africa. Continuing professional development (CPD) is the means by which professionals maintain, improve and broaden their knowledge and skills and develop the personal qualities and competencies required in their working lives. It is a process for setting yourself objectives for development then charting your progress towards achieving them. It is about where you want to be and how you plan to get there.

#### **4. Continuing Professional Teacher Development in the South African context**

In South Africa the continuing professional development of teachers is managed through the implementation of Continuing Professional Teacher Development (CPTD) system. Ref. [13], through the National Policy Framework for Teacher Education and Development, mandates the South African Council for Educators (SACE) to manage the system. Therefore, as stated by [14] in the SACE professional development and research mandate, 'the South African Council for Educators (SACE), as a statutory body for professional educators has overall responsibility for the implementation, management and quality assurance of the CPTD system'. The OECD report on reviews of national policies for education in South Africa (2008) emphasised the role of SACE in teacher development by mentioning that 'SACE is

**133**

providers.

needs.

activities.

*Challenges Faced by Educators in the Implementation of Continuing Professional Teacher…*

one of the most important bodies for the teaching profession in South Africa and it is well positioned to improve the public image of teaching' [15]. The system encourages educators to engage in professional development in order to achieve maximum benefits, hence the system awards points to the teachers for their development. Research shows that an inspiring and informed teacher is the most important school-related factor influencing learner performance. Given the poor performance of South African schools in this area, it is critical that we pay close attention to how we train and support both new and experienced educators. Continuing Professional Teacher Development (CPTD) is an integral part of teacher education because only continued learning and training assures a high level of expertise and ensures teachers keep up-to-date with new research on how children learn, emerging technolo-

Ref. [17] proclaims that The CPTD Management System will be made available to all teachers whether state-employed, employed by School Governing Bodies, or employed by independent schools. Ref. [17] reiterates that 'The main ideas are to encourage teachers to become better at their jobs and to encourage school communities to become better sites of teaching, learning and development'. The teaching profession is seen here as a revolving profession, especially with changing technology. So educators are expected to learn on a continued basis to be able to meet the global demands. CPTD is one way to encourage this. 'Professional development is part of SACE's Code of Professional Ethics for educators'. Each educator pledges to uphold the Code when they register with SACE. Section 7 of the SACE Code says that all educators must 'keep abreast of educational trends and developments' and

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84836*

gies for the classroom and new curriculum resources [16].

'promote the on-going development of teachers as a profession' [17].

document to assist each teacher with professional growth. It will contain:

• The teacher's analysis of professional development needs (PGP).

• Information on the CPTD Management System.

• A record of the teacher's PD activities and PD points.

them through the CPTD system. These include the following:

• Type 1 activities: these are teacher initiated activities.

• Type 2 activities: these are school initiated activities.

Among the prescripts of SACE is that each educator develops a Personal Development Plan (PDP) file as part of the CPTD system. The PDP is a resource

• Advice on understanding and analysing a teacher's professional development

• Guidance on how the teacher can undertake or access professional development

• Links between the teacher's PD activities and quarterly work schedule [17].

The PDP is a resource file in which the teacher is expected to record his or her CPTD activities. The activities have value for professional development. Therefore, teachers will be allocated points on the basis of such activities when they report

• Type 3 activities: these are externally driven activities offered by outside service

*Challenges Faced by Educators in the Implementation of Continuing Professional Teacher… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84836*

one of the most important bodies for the teaching profession in South Africa and it is well positioned to improve the public image of teaching' [15]. The system encourages educators to engage in professional development in order to achieve maximum benefits, hence the system awards points to the teachers for their development.

Research shows that an inspiring and informed teacher is the most important school-related factor influencing learner performance. Given the poor performance of South African schools in this area, it is critical that we pay close attention to how we train and support both new and experienced educators. Continuing Professional Teacher Development (CPTD) is an integral part of teacher education because only continued learning and training assures a high level of expertise and ensures teachers keep up-to-date with new research on how children learn, emerging technologies for the classroom and new curriculum resources [16].

Ref. [17] proclaims that The CPTD Management System will be made available to all teachers whether state-employed, employed by School Governing Bodies, or employed by independent schools. Ref. [17] reiterates that 'The main ideas are to encourage teachers to become better at their jobs and to encourage school communities to become better sites of teaching, learning and development'. The teaching profession is seen here as a revolving profession, especially with changing technology. So educators are expected to learn on a continued basis to be able to meet the global demands. CPTD is one way to encourage this. 'Professional development is part of SACE's Code of Professional Ethics for educators'. Each educator pledges to uphold the Code when they register with SACE. Section 7 of the SACE Code says that all educators must 'keep abreast of educational trends and developments' and 'promote the on-going development of teachers as a profession' [17].

Among the prescripts of SACE is that each educator develops a Personal Development Plan (PDP) file as part of the CPTD system. The PDP is a resource document to assist each teacher with professional growth. It will contain:


The PDP is a resource file in which the teacher is expected to record his or her CPTD activities. The activities have value for professional development. Therefore, teachers will be allocated points on the basis of such activities when they report them through the CPTD system. These include the following:


*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

activities and programmes.

different trends regarding teachers' CPD. The first trend is that of PD activities are linked to renewing of licences and career advancement or salary benefits or not, and can be optional or not. This is the practice in countries like Germany, United Kingdom, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovania and Spain. In countries like France, Greece, Iceland, etc. CPD is seen as a professional duty, but participation is optional. This is the practice in South Africa where CPD is treated as a duty for teachers, however teachers are given varied options of programmes for participation. They also earn different points for their participation in different

The second trend identified by Day and Sachs (2004) in [11] is that PD activities can also be initiated by the authorities. This trend is observed in countries such as Australia, America and Japan, although there has not been a success with such trends and South Africa is no exception to this with some of the professional development being unauthorised and non-endorsed and imposed on teachers. The last trend is that of the role of research on professional development as observed in New Zealand where a research was commissioned to see what works and why to improve education outcomes. Such information was used to guide educational policy and practice about the conditions, both necessary and sufficient for profes-

There are other countries, like the Netherlands that have introduced continuing professional development for their teachers due to changes effected in their curriculum. Seezink and Poell [12] assert that the secondary schools in Netherlands have been granted increasing autonomy by the Dutch central government to reform their curriculum and teaching methods. Reforms were then undertaken to make educational programmes more competence based. Many teachers then had trouble moving into their new roles and tasks associated with competence based education programmes (from an expert into a coaching role). This was experienced by educators in South Africa when outcomes based education moving from content based education with the teacher as a facilitator of currently National Curriculum Statements (NCS). There was a demand to improve the quality of teaching and learning. The Department of Education then realised that there is a need to develop and support educators on a continual basis. Since then, issues relating to effective professional teacher development have been on the agenda of the Department of Education in South Africa. Continuing professional development (CPD) is the means by which professionals maintain, improve and broaden their knowledge and skills and develop the personal qualities and competencies required in their working lives. It is a process for setting yourself objectives for development then charting your progress towards achieving them. It is about where you want to be and how you plan to get there.

**4. Continuing Professional Teacher Development in the South African** 

through the implementation of Continuing Professional Teacher Development (CPTD) system. Ref. [13], through the National Policy Framework for Teacher Education and Development, mandates the South African Council for Educators (SACE) to manage the system. Therefore, as stated by [14] in the SACE professional development and research mandate, 'the South African Council for Educators (SACE), as a statutory body for professional educators has overall responsibility for the implementation, management and quality assurance of the CPTD system'. The OECD report on reviews of national policies for education in South Africa (2008) emphasised the role of SACE in teacher development by mentioning that 'SACE is

In South Africa the continuing professional development of teachers is managed

sional development that has transformational impact at system level [11].

**132**

**context**

#### **5. Theoretical background**

Diffusion of innovation theory was adopted for the study. The diffusion of innovation theory is one of the social science theories which was developed by Rogers in 1962. The theory relies on human capital and believes that innovations should be widely adopted in order to attain development and sustainability. The diffusion of innovation theory is regarded as an important change model for guiding technological innovation. Where the innovation itself is modified and presented in ways that meet the needs across all levels of adopters. The diffusion of innovation refers to the process that occurs as people adopt a new idea, product, practice, philosophy, and so on [18]. Rogers believed that in a social system the innovation is communicated by the process of diffusion. This process occurs at different stages. The stages include:


The other important thing about the theory is about who makes the decision to accept the innovation. Rogers came up with three ways of taking decision about acceptance of an innovation. These include optional wherein individuals made a decision about an innovation in the social system by themselves. The second way is through a collective, wherein a decision to accept an innovation is made by all individuals in a social system. Lastly, the decision to accept an innovation can be made by the authority, wherein few individuals makes a decision for the entire social system.

The CPTD, in line with the theory is new innovation within the education system, and an electronic system, which has been advocated to all teachers at different levels and must be adopted and put to practice for the benefit of their continuing. Professional development. It would be interesting to establish where educators are in terms of the stages in this theory regarding CPTD implementation. It will also be interesting to establish how information on CPTD is communicated and sustained for educators.

#### **6. Methodology**

The research was conducted through a qualitative interpretivist approach. Qualitative research is viewed by [19], as a paradigm that recognises that researchers bring in their subjectivity (views, perspectives, framework for making sense of the world, their politics and passions). Saving-Baden and Howell Major [20], on the other hand, define it as a social research aimed at investigating the way in which people make sense of their ideas and experiences. They also emphasise that qualitative research focuses on an emic perspective of views of people and their perceptions, meanings and interpretations. The researcher, therefore, focused on the way teachers see their world within the continuing professional development.

A case study design was used as the method of research with one school selected for the study. The population interviewed school principals and teachers, district officials and union members. Purposive sampling was used for their selection. All educators selected are the ones who have been trained, and declared ready, to

**135**

*Challenges Faced by Educators in the Implementation of Continuing Professional Teacher…*

implement Continuing Professional Teacher Development system. The district officials were selected on the basis of their involvement in CPTD training, monitoring and support. Data analysis was conducted through the use of thematic approach. This involved the characterisation of collected data, through the establishment of relationships between concepts and ideas. Common themes were then identified and these were further interpreted to create meaningful findings on the research topic.

CPTD has been well received by the department and teacher unions as a system for managing and monitoring teacher professional development, however it has not been without its challenges. In the light of this the following challenges in the

There is generally non-participation of educators in the system due to inaccessibility of IT and resources (Gadgets), particularly for those schools where network

*'*We are expected to register and make our submissions through the CPTD electronic system, yet our schools do not even have WI-FI. Even in cases where schools have WI-FI, data for the school is limited and is used for administrative purposes. Maybe our principals will manage because they get free data

'It is true that we get data from the department, however this is not enough to cater for all our needs as a school. Some of us were "born before technology"

It is clear from the inputs of educators above that CPTD implementation is a

Ageing profession or those near retirement are reluctant to participate, Educators who are in the retirement brackets, and who are in the majority reluctant to participate. This came out strongly from those educators who are left with 1–3 years of service within the department of education. This is in agreement with the findings from the study conducted by [21] when they stated that in each career cycle teachers vary in their concerns and commitment, including their professional development behaviour and needs. Richter et al. (2011) in [11] emphasised this when they mention that teachers in their final stage of teaching tend to reduce their commitment and career ambition. They focus more on their personal goals. One of

'What is that CPTD? Will it be of benefit to my retirement? I am too old to start new programmes in the profession. All I want is to retire and go home to rest'.

so we do not even know how to use these gadgets properly'.

serious challenge, not unless all educators have access to resources.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84836*

implementation of CPTD were identifies in this study.

*7.1.1 Poor or non-participation of teachers in CPTC activities*

**7.1 Challenges of CPTD implementation**

is poor. One educator stated this:

from the department'.

*7.1.2 Lack of interest by some educators*

these educators responded by saying that:

One principal mentioned the following:

**7. Discussion**

*Challenges Faced by Educators in the Implementation of Continuing Professional Teacher… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84836*

implement Continuing Professional Teacher Development system. The district officials were selected on the basis of their involvement in CPTD training, monitoring and support. Data analysis was conducted through the use of thematic approach. This involved the characterisation of collected data, through the establishment of relationships between concepts and ideas. Common themes were then identified and these were further interpreted to create meaningful findings on the research topic.

#### **7. Discussion**

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

**5. Theoretical background**

different stages. The stages include:

1.Awareness of the need for an innovation.

2.Decision to adopt or reject an innovation.

3.Initial use of an innovation to test it.

4.Continued use of the innovation.

Diffusion of innovation theory was adopted for the study. The diffusion of innovation theory is one of the social science theories which was developed by Rogers in 1962. The theory relies on human capital and believes that innovations should be widely adopted in order to attain development and sustainability. The diffusion of innovation theory is regarded as an important change model for guiding technological innovation. Where the innovation itself is modified and presented in ways that meet the needs across all levels of adopters. The diffusion of innovation refers to the process that occurs as people adopt a new idea, product, practice, philosophy, and so on [18]. Rogers believed that in a social system the innovation is communicated by the process of diffusion. This process occurs at

The other important thing about the theory is about who makes the decision to accept the innovation. Rogers came up with three ways of taking decision about acceptance of an innovation. These include optional wherein individuals made a decision about an innovation in the social system by themselves. The second way is through a collective, wherein a decision to accept an innovation is made by all individuals in a social system. Lastly, the decision to accept an innovation can be made by the authority, wherein few individuals makes a decision for the entire social system. The CPTD, in line with the theory is new innovation within the education system, and an electronic system, which has been advocated to all teachers at different levels and must be adopted and put to practice for the benefit of their continuing. Professional development. It would be interesting to establish where educators are in terms of the stages in this theory regarding CPTD implementation. It will also be interesting to establish how information on CPTD is communicated and sustained for educators.

The research was conducted through a qualitative interpretivist approach.

A case study design was used as the method of research with one school selected for the study. The population interviewed school principals and teachers, district officials and union members. Purposive sampling was used for their selection. All educators selected are the ones who have been trained, and declared ready, to

Qualitative research is viewed by [19], as a paradigm that recognises that researchers bring in their subjectivity (views, perspectives, framework for making sense of the world, their politics and passions). Saving-Baden and Howell Major [20], on the other hand, define it as a social research aimed at investigating the way in which people make sense of their ideas and experiences. They also emphasise that qualitative research focuses on an emic perspective of views of people and their perceptions, meanings and interpretations. The researcher, therefore, focused on the way teachers see their world within the continuing

**134**

**6. Methodology**

professional development.

CPTD has been well received by the department and teacher unions as a system for managing and monitoring teacher professional development, however it has not been without its challenges. In the light of this the following challenges in the implementation of CPTD were identifies in this study.

#### **7.1 Challenges of CPTD implementation**

#### *7.1.1 Poor or non-participation of teachers in CPTC activities*

There is generally non-participation of educators in the system due to inaccessibility of IT and resources (Gadgets), particularly for those schools where network is poor. One educator stated this:

*'*We are expected to register and make our submissions through the CPTD electronic system, yet our schools do not even have WI-FI. Even in cases where schools have WI-FI, data for the school is limited and is used for administrative purposes. Maybe our principals will manage because they get free data from the department'.

One principal mentioned the following:

'It is true that we get data from the department, however this is not enough to cater for all our needs as a school. Some of us were "born before technology" so we do not even know how to use these gadgets properly'.

It is clear from the inputs of educators above that CPTD implementation is a serious challenge, not unless all educators have access to resources.

#### *7.1.2 Lack of interest by some educators*

Ageing profession or those near retirement are reluctant to participate, Educators who are in the retirement brackets, and who are in the majority reluctant to participate. This came out strongly from those educators who are left with 1–3 years of service within the department of education. This is in agreement with the findings from the study conducted by [21] when they stated that in each career cycle teachers vary in their concerns and commitment, including their professional development behaviour and needs. Richter et al. (2011) in [11] emphasised this when they mention that teachers in their final stage of teaching tend to reduce their commitment and career ambition. They focus more on their personal goals. One of these educators responded by saying that:

'What is that CPTD? Will it be of benefit to my retirement? I am too old to start new programmes in the profession. All I want is to retire and go home to rest'.

A greater percentage of educators are technophobic and as a result do not participate. This is illustrated in the words of one principal above when he confessed that some of them cannot even use these gadgets properly.

#### *7.1.3 Poor planning by SACE*

The CPTD Portal's capacity disadvantages the educators reporting processes. The electronic submission system of SACE also has its challenges and requires upgrading. Teachers have a challenge of accessing or even operating the CPTD system. Educators end up submitting hard copies of their forms, which creates another problem of capturing for SACE and this, leads to resubmission.

#### *7.1.4 Lack of support by school management*

There is lack of systematic and regular monitoring of teachers' reporting progress. This is an area neglected by management in schools. There is no good planning for CPTD activities and programmes at school level. The school management do not allocate time for these activities and the school principals as the driving force in their schools, do not see to it that teachers participate or have the ability to participate in CPTD programmes. The fact that teachers are aware of the 6 years of free punitive measure that has been put in by SACE makes them even more reluctant to participate. This is contrary to the idea of implementing CPTD as a form of duty for teachers. One HOD at school said:

*'My main concern is to manage the subjects I am leading, not CPTD. It is not part of my job description. Each educator should manage his/her own CPTD activities. We all have our CPTD to manage. In fact, what is that?'*

It is evident that no one wants to take responsibility to mage CPTD activities in schools. As a result, it becomes a neglected programme in the system.

#### *7.1.5 Selective reporting*

Reporting by teachers is mostly concentrated around Type 1 activities and Types 2 and 3 are neglected. Most teachers engage in these activities on a daily basis. Most of these activities are not linked to their individual development needs as identified in their appraisal process. This shows that there is a gap between CPTD activities and IQMS activities in schools. This is another factor that leads teachers to a point where they do not value CPTD programmes.

#### *7.1.6 Lack of explicit relationship between CPTD and other existing developmental programmes*

CPTD considered a compliance tool than a professional development activity. Although CPTD is part of the code of conduct for educators. Even though teachers are aware of CPTD and know that it is important for their professional development, some of them still have attitude. One educator was asked;

*'What is that CPTD of value to my salary? We are interested in programmes that will benefit us financially. We need money to survive in life'.*

It is evident from the statement above that some teachers wish CPTD would benefit them like IQMS does.

**137**

*Challenges Faced by Educators in the Implementation of Continuing Professional Teacher…*

computer skills it is easy to forget the Username and Password.

Some teachers are technophobic and would not be encouraged by any system that is technologically driven, particularly those who are old in the system and had little exposure to technology. Lost or forgotten Username and Password is another challenge for such teachers. Some teachers fail access the CPTD electronic system because they do not have the correct username and password. Even when one has

This chapter focussed on the challenges that educators face in the implementation of Continuing Professional Teacher Development with the aim of suggesting the strategies for improvement. The study revealed that CPTD is necessary to guide educators' professional development, however there are factors that impede educators from implementing it properly, as identified in the themes above. In terms of the challenges identified in the discussion section, the following recommendations

• ICT literacy programme to be made available for teachers. Supporting the effective application of ITC skills may serve as a foundation for successful CPTD implementation in South Africa. The programme should also be made part of the curriculum for initial teacher training and be made compulsory for

• CPTD is limited by issues of time. A link should be established with teacher centres for teachers to access technological resources with ease. The need for warm bodies to support CPTD implementation cannot be underestimated here. Support officers

must be appointed at the teacher development centres to help with IT skills.

• CPTD should also be part of the curriculum at the initial teacher training programmes in tertiary institutions. There is a need for a module that focuses on CPTD for teacher education in South Africa as CPD participation is understood as a duty for teachers. This will assist in emphasising the value of professional development from the initial process of training and the need for

• Teachers who fall within the retirement bracket can be excluded from participation, particularly those who are left with 2 years to retire since the CPTD

• Advocacy workshops should not be a once off activity. It is important to run such training at least once every year with emphasis being put on the development role of CPTD and how it is linked to other programmes like IQMS. This will help teachers to value CPTD for what it is and not link it to monetary incentive. The emphasis on the developmental value of CPTD will motivate teachers to participate. It will also erase the view that teachers have about CPTD as a SACE thing. They will understand that they also have a responsibil-

This study was important in that it gave the educators a voice to raise their concerns about CPTD implementation. They also shared their experiences in the implementation of CPTD programmes and made valuable suggestions for

continuity throughout the teaching career.

system run in 3 years cycles.

ity for their individual development.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84836*

**7.2 Conclusion and recommendations**

*7.1.7 Lack of or poor ICT skills*

were suggested:

all students.

*Challenges Faced by Educators in the Implementation of Continuing Professional Teacher… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84836*

#### *7.1.7 Lack of or poor ICT skills*

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

*7.1.3 Poor planning by SACE*

A greater percentage of educators are technophobic and as a result do not participate. This is illustrated in the words of one principal above when he confessed

The CPTD Portal's capacity disadvantages the educators reporting processes. The electronic submission system of SACE also has its challenges and requires upgrading. Teachers have a challenge of accessing or even operating the CPTD system. Educators end up submitting hard copies of their forms, which creates another

There is lack of systematic and regular monitoring of teachers' reporting progress. This is an area neglected by management in schools. There is no good planning for CPTD activities and programmes at school level. The school management do not allocate time for these activities and the school principals as the driving force in their schools, do not see to it that teachers participate or have the ability to participate in CPTD programmes. The fact that teachers are aware of the 6 years of free punitive measure that has been put in by SACE makes them even more reluctant to participate. This is contrary to the idea of implementing CPTD as a form of duty for

*'My main concern is to manage the subjects I am leading, not CPTD. It is not part of my job description. Each educator should manage his/her own CPTD activities.* 

It is evident that no one wants to take responsibility to mage CPTD activities in

Reporting by teachers is mostly concentrated around Type 1 activities and Types 2 and 3 are neglected. Most teachers engage in these activities on a daily basis. Most of these activities are not linked to their individual development needs as identified in their appraisal process. This shows that there is a gap between CPTD activities and IQMS activities in schools. This is another factor that leads teachers to a point

*7.1.6 Lack of explicit relationship between CPTD and other existing developmental* 

ment, some of them still have attitude. One educator was asked;

*will benefit us financially. We need money to survive in life'.*

CPTD considered a compliance tool than a professional development activity. Although CPTD is part of the code of conduct for educators. Even though teachers are aware of CPTD and know that it is important for their professional develop-

*'What is that CPTD of value to my salary? We are interested in programmes that* 

It is evident from the statement above that some teachers wish CPTD would

that some of them cannot even use these gadgets properly.

problem of capturing for SACE and this, leads to resubmission.

*We all have our CPTD to manage. In fact, what is that?'*

schools. As a result, it becomes a neglected programme in the system.

*7.1.4 Lack of support by school management*

teachers. One HOD at school said:

where they do not value CPTD programmes.

*7.1.5 Selective reporting*

*programmes*

benefit them like IQMS does.

**136**

Some teachers are technophobic and would not be encouraged by any system that is technologically driven, particularly those who are old in the system and had little exposure to technology. Lost or forgotten Username and Password is another challenge for such teachers. Some teachers fail access the CPTD electronic system because they do not have the correct username and password. Even when one has computer skills it is easy to forget the Username and Password.

#### **7.2 Conclusion and recommendations**

This chapter focussed on the challenges that educators face in the implementation of Continuing Professional Teacher Development with the aim of suggesting the strategies for improvement. The study revealed that CPTD is necessary to guide educators' professional development, however there are factors that impede educators from implementing it properly, as identified in the themes above. In terms of the challenges identified in the discussion section, the following recommendations were suggested:


This study was important in that it gave the educators a voice to raise their concerns about CPTD implementation. They also shared their experiences in the implementation of CPTD programmes and made valuable suggestions for improvement. Teacher professional development is a progressive activity and must be prioritised by all who are involved. It is one form through which quality teaching and learning can be realised as educators improve on their knowledge and skills to keep up-to-date with the global trends.

### **Author details**

Gomba Georgina Kedibone Bernadine Department of ABET and Youth Development, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa

\*Address all correspondence to: gombagk@unisa.ac.za

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**139**

*Challenges Faced by Educators in the Implementation of Continuing Professional Teacher…*

pdfviewer?vid=7&sid=9966012b-46a6- 4292-baef-263c4ad79e24%40pdc-vsessmgr02 [Accessed: 29-January-2019]

[7] Allen M. What is Continuing Professional Development (CPD). Mice Academy. 2014. http://www. miceacademy.co.za/wp-content/ uploads/2012/09/CPD-Test-Demo.pdf

[Accessed: 07-December-2018]

11-December-2018]

CPD and sectoral interests:

[10] Kloosterman V. What is continuing professional development. CPD. 2017. https:// continuingprofessionaldevelopment. org/what-is-continuing-professional-

development/ [Accesses: 11-December-2018]

[11] Guldenhuys JL, Oosthuizen LC. Challenges influencing teachers' involvement in continuous professional

development: A south African perspective. Teaching and Teacher Education. 2015;**51**:203-212 http:// daneshyari.com/article/preview/373937. pdf [Accessed: 12-December-2018]

[12] Seezink, Poell RF. Continuing Professional Development needs of teachers in schools for competencebased vocational education: A case study from the Netherlands. Journal of European Industrial Training.

[8] Galloway S, editors. Continuing Professional Development: Looking Ahead. University of Oxford: SKOPE; 2000. http://www.skope.ox.ac. uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/ Monograph-21.pdf [Accessed:

[9] Murphy TRN, de Paor C. Teachers'

Opportunities for convergence and divergence. Teaching and Teacher Education. 2017;**66**:242-224 https:// app.dimensions.ai/details/publication/ pub.1085388717?and\_facet\_for=3567 [Accessed: 12-December-2018]

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84836*

[1] Department of Education.

[2] Gulston, K. The challenges experienced by educators in primary schools regarding continuous professional development [M ED thesis]. University of Pretoria. 2010. https://repository.up.ac.za/ bitstream/handle/2263/28302/

14-December-2018

National policy for teacher education and development in South Africa. Pretoria. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ images/0014/001491/149112e.pdf [Accessed: 28-November-2018]

dissertation.pdf;sequence=1 [Accessed:

[3] Mestry R, Hendrick I, Bisschoff T. Perceptions of teachers on the benefits of teacher development programmes in one province of South Africa. South African Journal of Education. 2009;**29**:475-490. file:///C:/ Users/gombagk/Downloads/47743-

59993-1-PB.pdf [Accessed: 28-November-2018]

[4] Pitsoe VJ, Maila WM. Towards constructivist teacher professional development. South African Journal of Social Sciences. 2012;**8**(3):318-324 https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/c0f4/9 8c211f190daa484c7696c3b7b5805fc7860. pdf [Accessed: 28-November-2018]

[5] Oxbridge Academy. Continuing Professional Development (CPD): What is it, and why does it matter? 2017. https://www.oxbridgeacademy. edu.za/blog/continuing-professionaldevelopment-cpd-matter/ [Accessed:

[6] Mukan N, Kravets S, Khamulyak N. The analysis of content and operational components of public school teachers' continuing professional development in Great Britain, Canada and the USA. Comparative Professional Pedagogy. 2016;**6**(12):26-32 http:// web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/

13-December-2018]

**References**

*Challenges Faced by Educators in the Implementation of Continuing Professional Teacher… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84836*

#### **References**

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

keep up-to-date with the global trends.

improvement. Teacher professional development is a progressive activity and must be prioritised by all who are involved. It is one form through which quality teaching and learning can be realised as educators improve on their knowledge and skills to

**138**

**Author details**

Pretoria, South Africa

provided the original work is properly cited.

\*Address all correspondence to: gombagk@unisa.ac.za

Gomba Georgina Kedibone Bernadine

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

Department of ABET and Youth Development, University of South Africa,

[1] Department of Education. National policy for teacher education and development in South Africa. Pretoria. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ images/0014/001491/149112e.pdf [Accessed: 28-November-2018]

[2] Gulston, K. The challenges experienced by educators in primary schools regarding continuous professional development [M ED thesis]. University of Pretoria. 2010. https://repository.up.ac.za/ bitstream/handle/2263/28302/ dissertation.pdf;sequence=1 [Accessed: 14-December-2018

[3] Mestry R, Hendrick I, Bisschoff T. Perceptions of teachers on the benefits of teacher development programmes in one province of South Africa. South African Journal of Education. 2009;**29**:475-490. file:///C:/ Users/gombagk/Downloads/47743- 59993-1-PB.pdf [Accessed: 28-November-2018]

[4] Pitsoe VJ, Maila WM. Towards constructivist teacher professional development. South African Journal of Social Sciences. 2012;**8**(3):318-324 https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/c0f4/9 8c211f190daa484c7696c3b7b5805fc7860. pdf [Accessed: 28-November-2018]

[5] Oxbridge Academy. Continuing Professional Development (CPD): What is it, and why does it matter? 2017. https://www.oxbridgeacademy. edu.za/blog/continuing-professionaldevelopment-cpd-matter/ [Accessed: 13-December-2018]

[6] Mukan N, Kravets S, Khamulyak N. The analysis of content and operational components of public school teachers' continuing professional development in Great Britain, Canada and the USA. Comparative Professional Pedagogy. 2016;**6**(12):26-32 http:// web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/

pdfviewer?vid=7&sid=9966012b-46a6- 4292-baef-263c4ad79e24%40pdc-vsessmgr02 [Accessed: 29-January-2019]

[7] Allen M. What is Continuing Professional Development (CPD). Mice Academy. 2014. http://www. miceacademy.co.za/wp-content/ uploads/2012/09/CPD-Test-Demo.pdf [Accessed: 07-December-2018]

[8] Galloway S, editors. Continuing Professional Development: Looking Ahead. University of Oxford: SKOPE; 2000. http://www.skope.ox.ac. uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/ Monograph-21.pdf [Accessed: 11-December-2018]

[9] Murphy TRN, de Paor C. Teachers' CPD and sectoral interests: Opportunities for convergence and divergence. Teaching and Teacher Education. 2017;**66**:242-224 https:// app.dimensions.ai/details/publication/ pub.1085388717?and\_facet\_for=3567 [Accessed: 12-December-2018]

[10] Kloosterman V. What is continuing professional development. CPD. 2017. https:// continuingprofessionaldevelopment. org/what-is-continuing-professionaldevelopment/ [Accesses: 11-December-2018]

[11] Guldenhuys JL, Oosthuizen LC. Challenges influencing teachers' involvement in continuous professional development: A south African perspective. Teaching and Teacher Education. 2015;**51**:203-212 http:// daneshyari.com/article/preview/373937. pdf [Accessed: 12-December-2018]

[12] Seezink, Poell RF. Continuing Professional Development needs of teachers in schools for competencebased vocational education: A case study from the Netherlands. Journal of European Industrial Training.

2009;**34**(5):455-474 https://www. emeraldinsight.com/doi/full/10.1108/0 3090591011049819?fullSc=1 [Accessed: 30-January-2019]

[13] Department of Education. National Policy Framework for Teacher Education and Development in South Africa. Government Gazette 29832. 2007. http://www.up2speed.co.za/ Legislation/The%20National%20 Policy%20Framework%20for%20 Teacher%20Education%20and%20 Development%20in%20South%20 Africa.pdf [Accessed: 30-January-2019]

[14] South African Council for Educators. About Professional Development and Research. n.d. https://www.sace.org.za/pages/aboutprofessional-development-and-research [Accessed: 28-September-2017]

[15] South African Council for Educators. Redefining the role and functions of the South African Council for Educators (SACE). 2011. sace.org. za/.../sace\_61547-2016-08-31-The%20 Role%20of%20the%20South%20Afri… [Accessed: 27-November-2018]

[16] Bridge. The importance of continued professional teacher development: News and Media. 2017. www.bridge.org.za/importancecontinued-professional-teacherdevelopment-cptd/ [Accessed: 27-September-2018]

[17] The South African Council for Educators. CPTD Management Handbook. Pretoria: South African Council for Educators; 2013. http:// sace.org.za/assets/documents/ uploads/sace\_30373-2016-08-31- CPTD%20Handbook.pdf [Accessed: 30-January-2019]

[18] Kaminski J. Diffusion of innovation theory: Theory in nursing informatics columns. Canadian Journal of Nursing Informatics. 2011;**6**(2):1-6. http:// cjni.net/journal/?p=1444 [Accessed: 13-December-2018]

[19] Braun V, Clarke V. Successful Qualitative Research—A Practical Guide for Beginners. London: SAGE Publications Ltd; 2013

[20] Saving-Baden M, Howell Major C. Qualitative Research—The Essential Guide to Theory and Practice. USA and Canada: Routledge; 2013

[21] De Vries S, Jansen EPWA, Va de Grift WJCM. Profiling teachers' continuing professional development and the relation with their beliefs about learning and teaching. Teaching and Teacher Education. 2013;**33**:78-89 https://ac.els-cdn. com/S0742051X13000280/1-s2.0- S0742051X13000280-main. pdf?\_tid=7e41d013-86a9-4f74-ab05- 915824fdc0b7&acdnat=1544435757\_ 92cbab73a851a2110d61bb0cba74c18c [Accessed: 12-December-2018]

**141**

**Chapter 10**

**Abstract**

quality education

**1. Introduction**

*Teboho Solomon Ngubane*

Culturally Relevant Teaching

**Keywords:** cultural relevant teaching, culture, curriculum, black people,

[2]. This was despite many school curriculum changes that took place from

developing and realising quality education in South Africa.

Curriculum 2005 (C2005) to the Revised National Curriculum Statement (RNCS), then to Outcomes Based Education (OBE) and lastly to the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) within 19 years in democracy [3]. According to Chisholm [4], "Inadequate recognition of the curriculum as the core business of the departments" is one of the challenges identified by the ministerial committee that evaluated the implementation of the curriculum. It indicates the existing gap between the relevant stakeholders (black people) and the curriculum when it comes to implementation. One of the conclusions that can be drawn from this setback is that the curriculum is not relevant in addressing needs of black people. It is obvious that teaching is also negatively affected because of the lack of cultural relevance. In addressing the need for policymakers including the curriculum agents to take into consideration the culture of black people that education is intending to develop, would bring to the fore the necessary positive change that should aid the process of

There is a continuous concerted effort of using education as one of the vehicles for change to a better life in the whole world. This has seen the whole world converging in 2015 once again to plan for a better future that should be realised around 2030. The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) was developed after the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 2030 was adopted by 193 countries [1]. Quality education is SDG number four and it is meant to 'Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all' [1]. South Africa as one of the SDGs' country, the government had already diagnosed that education for black people in South Africa is very poor and it must be improved

This chapter intends to highlight the importance of Relevant Teaching, hereinafter referred to as CRT within South African context in the twenty-first century. CRT will contribute towards achieving quality education. This chapter is conceptual by nature and a desktop literature was employed. CRT may have positive impact on the life of Africans because they have experienced poor education since the early 1900s after the Nationalist Party decided to develop a system of education that had a negative impact on the culture of African people as the backbone of their nation. In order to attempt addressing the culturally relevant teaching quest, this chapter discusses Bantu education, African Traditional Education, Western type of education, education as a foundation, ever changing needs, and curriculum as a core business for teaching.

## **Chapter 10** Culturally Relevant Teaching

*Teboho Solomon Ngubane*

### **Abstract**

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

2009;**34**(5):455-474 https://www. emeraldinsight.com/doi/full/10.1108/0 3090591011049819?fullSc=1 [Accessed: [19] Braun V, Clarke V. Successful Qualitative Research—A Practical Guide for Beginners. London: SAGE

[20] Saving-Baden M, Howell Major C. Qualitative Research—The Essential Guide to Theory and Practice. USA and

Publications Ltd; 2013

Canada: Routledge; 2013

[21] De Vries S, Jansen EPWA, Va de Grift WJCM. Profiling teachers' continuing professional development and the relation with their beliefs about learning and teaching. Teaching and Teacher Education. 2013;**33**:78-89 https://ac.els-cdn. com/S0742051X13000280/1-s2.0- S0742051X13000280-main.

pdf?\_tid=7e41d013-86a9-4f74-ab05- 915824fdc0b7&acdnat=1544435757\_ 92cbab73a851a2110d61bb0cba74c18c [Accessed: 12-December-2018]

[13] Department of Education.

[14] South African Council for Educators. About Professional Development and Research. n.d. https://www.sace.org.za/pages/aboutprofessional-development-and-research

[Accessed: 28-September-2017]

[15] South African Council for Educators. Redefining the role and functions of the South African Council for Educators (SACE). 2011. sace.org. za/.../sace\_61547-2016-08-31-The%20 Role%20of%20the%20South%20Afri…

[Accessed: 27-November-2018]

[16] Bridge. The importance of continued professional teacher development: News and Media. 2017. www.bridge.org.za/importancecontinued-professional-teacherdevelopment-cptd/ [Accessed:

[17] The South African Council for Educators. CPTD Management Handbook. Pretoria: South African Council for Educators; 2013. http:// sace.org.za/assets/documents/ uploads/sace\_30373-2016-08-31- CPTD%20Handbook.pdf [Accessed:

[18] Kaminski J. Diffusion of innovation theory: Theory in nursing informatics columns. Canadian Journal of Nursing Informatics. 2011;**6**(2):1-6. http:// cjni.net/journal/?p=1444 [Accessed:

27-September-2018]

30-January-2019]

13-December-2018]

National Policy Framework for Teacher Education and Development in South Africa. Government Gazette 29832. 2007. http://www.up2speed.co.za/ Legislation/The%20National%20 Policy%20Framework%20for%20 Teacher%20Education%20and%20 Development%20in%20South%20 Africa.pdf [Accessed: 30-January-2019]

30-January-2019]

**140**

This chapter intends to highlight the importance of Relevant Teaching, hereinafter referred to as CRT within South African context in the twenty-first century. CRT will contribute towards achieving quality education. This chapter is conceptual by nature and a desktop literature was employed. CRT may have positive impact on the life of Africans because they have experienced poor education since the early 1900s after the Nationalist Party decided to develop a system of education that had a negative impact on the culture of African people as the backbone of their nation. In order to attempt addressing the culturally relevant teaching quest, this chapter discusses Bantu education, African Traditional Education, Western type of education, education as a foundation, ever changing needs, and curriculum as a core business for teaching.

**Keywords:** cultural relevant teaching, culture, curriculum, black people, quality education

### **1. Introduction**

There is a continuous concerted effort of using education as one of the vehicles for change to a better life in the whole world. This has seen the whole world converging in 2015 once again to plan for a better future that should be realised around 2030. The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) was developed after the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 2030 was adopted by 193 countries [1]. Quality education is SDG number four and it is meant to 'Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all' [1]. South Africa as one of the SDGs' country, the government had already diagnosed that education for black people in South Africa is very poor and it must be improved [2]. This was despite many school curriculum changes that took place from Curriculum 2005 (C2005) to the Revised National Curriculum Statement (RNCS), then to Outcomes Based Education (OBE) and lastly to the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) within 19 years in democracy [3]. According to Chisholm [4], "Inadequate recognition of the curriculum as the core business of the departments" is one of the challenges identified by the ministerial committee that evaluated the implementation of the curriculum. It indicates the existing gap between the relevant stakeholders (black people) and the curriculum when it comes to implementation. One of the conclusions that can be drawn from this setback is that the curriculum is not relevant in addressing needs of black people. It is obvious that teaching is also negatively affected because of the lack of cultural relevance. In addressing the need for policymakers including the curriculum agents to take into consideration the culture of black people that education is intending to develop, would bring to the fore the necessary positive change that should aid the process of developing and realising quality education in South Africa.

#### **2. Literature review**

There was an effort from apartheid government in South Africa based on the quality of education that was given to black people in the early 1900. The effort intended that black people must be given poor education that will produce labourers instead of academics because that's what they thought was good enough for black people to remain under the control of white people. In 1945 addressing the South African parliament, Mr. M.D.C. de Wet stated what the apartheid white government meant by poor education for black people when he said the following, which must not be viewed in isolation or one-dimensional because it might be misleading as a good intention towards black peoples' education:

*"As has been correctly stated here, education is the key to the creation of proper relationship between European and Non-European in South Africa… Put Native education on a sound basis and half the racial questions are resolved… I say that there should be reform of the whole education system and it must be based on culture and background and whole life of the native himself in his tribe… This (present) policy is also a danger to Western civilisation"* [5]*.*

Within the same parliament, Mr. J.N. le Roux supported and clarified what Mr. M.D.C. de Wet meant in his initial address by saying:

*"We should not give the Natives an academic education, as some people are too prone to do. If we do this, we shall later be burdened with the number of academically trained Europeans and Non-Europeans, and who is going to do the manual labour in the country? … I am in thorough agreement that we should so conduct our schools that the Native who attends those schools will know to a greater extent that he must be a labourer in the country"* [5]*.*

Culture was at the centre of determining the type of education that blacks were to be given by the apartheid government for their socio-economic and political development. Bello and Idang defines culture as a way of life for the people as it includes everyday life activities like language, dress code etc. When the way of life is taken away or distorted somehow, people tend to lose who they are and where they come from. Instead they will be forced to adopt another way of living which will not represent who they are and their values. To put it into context, policies that had to regulate education, were not supposed to consider black peoples' way of life (culture) for development as academics but instead consider that blacks must be labourers in the country. This resulted in the development of Bantu Education Act of 1953 which was based on the distorted curriculum for blacks.

Distorted school curriculum and the teaching that lacks relevancy has negative effects as it breaks down the culture of black people and promotes the culture and dominance of white people [5]. The result is evident when "Far too many learners are stigmatised as failures, leaving school without literacy and numeracy capabilities, and heading for unemployment and bare survival in a society and global world that thrives on and rewards high-level education and skills, knowledge and innovation" [6]. After considerable efforts by the democratic government to change education, almost all relevant role players in the South African education are now in agreement of the direction to be taken in order to address the challenges identified at different levels. The main challenge is the intended quality education in an unequal education system [6]. In order for the education system to be equal, the culture of the people it is intended to develop must be taken into account when the curriculum is developed. This factor will contribute positively to influence the process of realising quality education.

**143**

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*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84181*

when developing the curriculum.

culture of black people in South Africa.

empire the world has ever seen or is likely to see again.

the answer is probably something of both.

**4. African traditional education**

type of education. Ngubane [12] states:

**3. Bantu education**

that:

This literature review points out that culture was intentionally not considered in the curriculum development thus poor education was given to the majority of learners in South Africa which are black. Negative effects were the results even after the democratic dispensation was realised in 1994. "However, all is not doom and gloom, since to a large extent the same policy expectations that were introduced by government after 1994 have been highly instrumental in the advancement of transformation…" within the education sector [7]. Policy makers in the South African education must take into account the way of life (culture) of the majority learners

This section briefly discusses the negative impact of Bantu education. The previous apartheid government developed bantu-education with the sole purpose of separating black people from their own culture so that their socio-economic and political needs may not be addressed accordingly. Moloi [8] posits that black people were colonised and dehumanised by white people under apartheid in South Africa. Effects of apartheid are still experienced even after the dawn of new South Africa is realised over two decades ago. Post-apartheid era remains in the dark era of predemocratic dispensation because of the visible ripple effects of tempering with the

The "dysfunction in many of the schools, post-1994, has continued despite government attempts to restore a culture of teaching and learning" [9]. Jenkins [10] quotation better describes the cultural effects in South African education by stating

Thus South Africa finds itself today still saddled with a brutalizing, antiintellectual educational system which is a distorted descendant of what was itself an aberration in the history of the development of Western education - a particular version of education which was developed to serve a small section of the British population during the short period that it had to provide the rulers of the largest

To what extent this educational system has produced South African society as we know it today, or has simply lasted because it serves the interests of those who are inclined this way for other historical, cultural and religious reasons, is debatable:

This section looks at ways that African culture should influence the curriculum for CRT to be achieved. A teaching process that takes into consideration the culture of learners must be applicable to any stage of their lives. "African traditional education is based on a philosophy of education, which emphasises learning by doing, respect for elders, lifelong education, training on the job, learning to live and living to learn" [11]. This definition puts forward the culture of education that originally existed in Africa and it was for Africans by Africans before white people colonised Africa. African Traditional Education (ATE) forms the basis of the relevant cultural teaching that is needed in the twenty-first century. A teaching process that takes into consideration the culture of learners it intends to develop at any stage of their lives. The culturally relevant teaching that was informed by lifelong learning prevailed in Africa despite the fact that it was and still is suppressed by the western

#### *Culturally Relevant Teaching DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84181*

This literature review points out that culture was intentionally not considered in the curriculum development thus poor education was given to the majority of learners in South Africa which are black. Negative effects were the results even after the democratic dispensation was realised in 1994. "However, all is not doom and gloom, since to a large extent the same policy expectations that were introduced by government after 1994 have been highly instrumental in the advancement of transformation…" within the education sector [7]. Policy makers in the South African education must take into account the way of life (culture) of the majority learners when developing the curriculum.

#### **3. Bantu education**

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

good intention towards black peoples' education:

There was an effort from apartheid government in South Africa based on the quality of education that was given to black people in the early 1900. The effort intended that black people must be given poor education that will produce labourers instead of academics because that's what they thought was good enough for black people to remain under the control of white people. In 1945 addressing the South African parliament, Mr. M.D.C. de Wet stated what the apartheid white government meant by poor education for black people when he said the following, which must not be viewed in isolation or one-dimensional because it might be misleading as a

*"As has been correctly stated here, education is the key to the creation of proper relationship between European and Non-European in South Africa… Put Native education on a sound basis and half the racial questions are resolved… I say that there should be reform of the whole education system and it must be based on culture and background and whole life of the native himself in his tribe… This* 

Within the same parliament, Mr. J.N. le Roux supported and clarified what

*"We should not give the Natives an academic education, as some people are too prone to do. If we do this, we shall later be burdened with the number of academically trained Europeans and Non-Europeans, and who is going to do the manual labour in the country? … I am in thorough agreement that we should so conduct our schools that the Native who attends those schools will know to a greater extent that* 

Culture was at the centre of determining the type of education that blacks were to be given by the apartheid government for their socio-economic and political development. Bello and Idang defines culture as a way of life for the people as it includes everyday life activities like language, dress code etc. When the way of life is taken away or distorted somehow, people tend to lose who they are and where they come from. Instead they will be forced to adopt another way of living which will not represent who they are and their values. To put it into context, policies that had to regulate education, were not supposed to consider black peoples' way of life (culture) for development as academics but instead consider that blacks must be labourers in the country. This resulted in the development of Bantu Education Act

Distorted school curriculum and the teaching that lacks relevancy has negative effects as it breaks down the culture of black people and promotes the culture and dominance of white people [5]. The result is evident when "Far too many learners are stigmatised as failures, leaving school without literacy and numeracy capabilities, and heading for unemployment and bare survival in a society and global world that thrives on and rewards high-level education and skills, knowledge and innovation" [6]. After considerable efforts by the democratic government to change education, almost all relevant role players in the South African education are now in agreement of the direction to be taken in order to address the challenges identified at different levels. The main challenge is the intended quality education in an unequal education system [6]. In order for the education system to be equal, the culture of the people it is intended to develop must be taken into account when the curriculum is developed. This factor will

*(present) policy is also a danger to Western civilisation"* [5]*.*

of 1953 which was based on the distorted curriculum for blacks.

contribute positively to influence the process of realising quality education.

Mr. M.D.C. de Wet meant in his initial address by saying:

*he must be a labourer in the country"* [5]*.*

**2. Literature review**

**142**

This section briefly discusses the negative impact of Bantu education. The previous apartheid government developed bantu-education with the sole purpose of separating black people from their own culture so that their socio-economic and political needs may not be addressed accordingly. Moloi [8] posits that black people were colonised and dehumanised by white people under apartheid in South Africa. Effects of apartheid are still experienced even after the dawn of new South Africa is realised over two decades ago. Post-apartheid era remains in the dark era of predemocratic dispensation because of the visible ripple effects of tempering with the culture of black people in South Africa.

The "dysfunction in many of the schools, post-1994, has continued despite government attempts to restore a culture of teaching and learning" [9]. Jenkins [10] quotation better describes the cultural effects in South African education by stating that:

Thus South Africa finds itself today still saddled with a brutalizing, antiintellectual educational system which is a distorted descendant of what was itself an aberration in the history of the development of Western education - a particular version of education which was developed to serve a small section of the British population during the short period that it had to provide the rulers of the largest empire the world has ever seen or is likely to see again.

To what extent this educational system has produced South African society as we know it today, or has simply lasted because it serves the interests of those who are inclined this way for other historical, cultural and religious reasons, is debatable: the answer is probably something of both.

#### **4. African traditional education**

This section looks at ways that African culture should influence the curriculum for CRT to be achieved. A teaching process that takes into consideration the culture of learners must be applicable to any stage of their lives. "African traditional education is based on a philosophy of education, which emphasises learning by doing, respect for elders, lifelong education, training on the job, learning to live and living to learn" [11]. This definition puts forward the culture of education that originally existed in Africa and it was for Africans by Africans before white people colonised Africa. African Traditional Education (ATE) forms the basis of the relevant cultural teaching that is needed in the twenty-first century. A teaching process that takes into consideration the culture of learners it intends to develop at any stage of their lives. The culturally relevant teaching that was informed by lifelong learning prevailed in Africa despite the fact that it was and still is suppressed by the western type of education. Ngubane [12] states:

*"The western approach presently in use…employ both western and African teaching approaches in teaching…but the western approach is dominant".*

#### **5. Western type of education**

There are some good elements of western type of education and this section addresses some of them and their weaknesses. Western type of education will include prior learning and respect to a certain extent because in a western culture, one is able to call an elderly person by name, whiles in an African culture that is not acceptable but instead, it is seen as a form of disrespect. Having school buildings, assessment processes are some of the positive features of western education that should be used in the twenty-first century teaching and learning processes. All in all, the good that is from the western type of education like the assessment should be fused with the good from the Africa Traditional Education like elderly respect to meet the identified need of a culturally relevant teaching in the twenty-first century. Contrary to the good elements, Locke [13] argues that western education is informed by the idea that we are "…all born infants, weak and helpless, without knowledge or understanding (empty slates)". To further elaborate on this point, Scheurman [14] indicates that in a western type of education, the teacher (a) has all the knowledge and (b) is responsible for transmitting that knowledge to the learners. Basically the western education does not recognise learners who did not attend formal education as knowledgeable and skilled.

#### **6. Culturally relevant teaching (CRT)**

This section highlights the importance of CRT in the twenty-first century by discussing why teaching environment is relevant and how teacher training impacts culturally relevant teaching.

#### **6.1 Relevant teaching and learning environment**

Creating conducive teaching and learning for CRT to be achieved, is discussed in this section. Conducive teaching environment is one of the important contributing factors in delivering an effective classroom lesson. In their "Classroom context for Creativity", Beghetto and Kaufman [15] posit that "…many of the features of optimal learning environments are quite subtle…" and require teachers to pay attention on them in order to create the necessary teaching and learning environment. Several factors come into play in creating a conducive teaching and learning environment. These may include school culture, lesson plan activities, learners' participation in the lesson, classroom setup, lesson presentation, teaching aids and classroom management. The seven factors that have a positive impact on teaching and learning environment are explained as follows because "classroom context matters" [15]:


**145**

**7.1 Formal**

*Culturally Relevant Teaching*

possible.

specific outcomes.

**7. Education as a foundation**

foundation for development.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84181*

discursive manner like in a circular shape;

c.*Learners' participation in the lesson:* Are learners allowed to make comments and

relevant as effective as possible for learners to better understand what is taught;

f. *Teaching aids:* Are they addressing the lesson content and assisting learners so

g.*Classroom management:* Is the teacher managing the classroom as effective as required by facilitating the lesson and allowing learner participation as much as

The majority of the above factors are factors addressing classroom management. Eisenman, Edwards and Cushman [16] posit that classroom management does not receive the necessary attention it deserves in teacher training and it is a general problem in education. It became a real surprise when teachers learn that their training is addressing only a theoretical part of their classroom management [16]. Automatically, this meant, trained teachers will find it difficult to apply this skill practically in the classroom environment. It is now quite clear that practical application of classroom management skill is more important than before. Especially in the twenty-first century where there is diverse teaching and learning environment that teachers are expected to effectively teach in and assist learners to achieve the set

Understanding why education is a foundation, would bring forth the importance of CRT in South African education. Education is "the process of teaching or learning in a school, or the knowledge that you get from this" [17]. Human development based on knowledge is key for a holistic development in the twenty-first century because knowledge evolves and demands continuous development. Human beings require some form of education in order to live a meaningful and sustainable life. Formal, informal or non-formal education may have negative or positive impact on human life depending on its policies and curriculum amongst others. Therefore, education is the foundation for human life as it determines the kind of life a person might live in future. "Education is the only bridge that leads people to their better futures. In addition, "… it cannot be separated from human's life" [18]. Different types of education have an important role they are playing in human life, one way or another. Thus we will now turn our attention to the specific role the formal, informal and non-formal education types of education are playing in human life as the

A type of education that is formal in nature and it is administered in an institution within a specified period. It involves teachers, learners and an institution. Teachers have to teach, learners to learn and the institution to manage and provide

d.*Classroom setup:* Is the classroom furniture setup in an inclusive and more

e.*Lesson presentation:* Is the teacher presenting the lesson that is culturally

ask questions during the lesson for better understanding;

that they acquire the necessary skills and knowledge;

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

**5. Western type of education**

tion as knowledgeable and skilled.

culturally relevant teaching.

**6. Culturally relevant teaching (CRT)**

**6.1 Relevant teaching and learning environment**

*"The western approach presently in use…employ both western and African teaching* 

There are some good elements of western type of education and this section addresses some of them and their weaknesses. Western type of education will include prior learning and respect to a certain extent because in a western culture, one is able to call an elderly person by name, whiles in an African culture that is not acceptable but instead, it is seen as a form of disrespect. Having school buildings, assessment processes are some of the positive features of western education that should be used in the twenty-first century teaching and learning processes. All in all, the good that is from the western type of education like the assessment should be fused with the good from the Africa Traditional Education like elderly respect to meet the identified need of a culturally relevant teaching in the twenty-first century. Contrary to the good elements, Locke [13] argues that western education is informed by the idea that we are "…all born infants, weak and helpless, without knowledge or understanding (empty slates)". To further elaborate on this point, Scheurman [14] indicates that in a western type of education, the teacher (a) has all the knowledge and (b) is responsible for transmitting that knowledge to the learners. Basically the western education does not recognise learners who did not attend formal educa-

This section highlights the importance of CRT in the twenty-first century by discussing why teaching environment is relevant and how teacher training impacts

Creating conducive teaching and learning for CRT to be achieved, is discussed in this section. Conducive teaching environment is one of the important contributing factors in delivering an effective classroom lesson. In their "Classroom context for Creativity", Beghetto and Kaufman [15] posit that "…many of the features of optimal learning environments are quite subtle…" and require teachers to pay attention on them in order to create the necessary teaching and learning environment. Several factors come into play in creating a conducive teaching and learning environment. These may include school culture, lesson plan activities, learners' participation in the lesson, classroom setup, lesson presentation, teaching aids and classroom management. The seven factors that have a positive impact on teaching and learning environment are explained as follows because "classroom context

a.*School culture:* It is based on the culture of teaching and learning within the school premises on whether teachers teach and the learners learn as required;

b.*Lesson plan activities***:** Is the lesson plan include activities that will allow learners to participate during the lesson whiles taking into account their culture;

*approaches in teaching…but the western approach is dominant".*

**144**

matters" [15]:


The majority of the above factors are factors addressing classroom management. Eisenman, Edwards and Cushman [16] posit that classroom management does not receive the necessary attention it deserves in teacher training and it is a general problem in education. It became a real surprise when teachers learn that their training is addressing only a theoretical part of their classroom management [16]. Automatically, this meant, trained teachers will find it difficult to apply this skill practically in the classroom environment. It is now quite clear that practical application of classroom management skill is more important than before. Especially in the twenty-first century where there is diverse teaching and learning environment that teachers are expected to effectively teach in and assist learners to achieve the set specific outcomes.

#### **7. Education as a foundation**

Understanding why education is a foundation, would bring forth the importance of CRT in South African education. Education is "the process of teaching or learning in a school, or the knowledge that you get from this" [17]. Human development based on knowledge is key for a holistic development in the twenty-first century because knowledge evolves and demands continuous development. Human beings require some form of education in order to live a meaningful and sustainable life. Formal, informal or non-formal education may have negative or positive impact on human life depending on its policies and curriculum amongst others. Therefore, education is the foundation for human life as it determines the kind of life a person might live in future. "Education is the only bridge that leads people to their better futures. In addition, "… it cannot be separated from human's life" [18]. Different types of education have an important role they are playing in human life, one way or another. Thus we will now turn our attention to the specific role the formal, informal and non-formal education types of education are playing in human life as the foundation for development.

#### **7.1 Formal**

A type of education that is formal in nature and it is administered in an institution within a specified period. It involves teachers, learners and an institution. Teachers have to teach, learners to learn and the institution to manage and provide the necessary equipment and tools for teaching and learning. Not all learners are inclined to learn formally based on their individual manner of acquiring and processing knowledge. Dib [19] argues that.

The setting-up of a formal education system does not consider the students' standards, values and attitudes that are relevant to the education system which, generally, is not tested or assessed at the level of student acceptance, as well as for efficacy and efficiency.

Acquiring skills and knowledge through this type of education is important to learners who find the formal environment suitable.

#### **7.2 Informal**

Learners learn under informal social activities and there are no formal teachers. Infact, everyone is a teacher to teach when possible through interactions. Learners learn from each other during the informal social interactions between themselves and between other people. There is no need for a formal institution like a school or university. Instead, any environment conducive to teaching and learning maybe used. Tudor [20] points out that informal education "…is not deliberately organized to ensure student's learning. The learner often does so unintentionally". It may include reading magazines, watching movies, reading newspapers, theatre projects amongst others. This type of education is most suitable for the majority of learners and it is employed to everyday activities.

#### **7.3 Non-formal education**

Tudor [20] states that non-formal education "…is intentional, the person attending these forms of education makes it for own reasons, and programs are organized for learning, coming to complement, support or as a source of valorisation of the learning experiences formally acquired". This is a teaching and learning process that normally takes place outside of the normal school, university or formal institution. An example will include a community gospel choir, theatre project, sports, etc. Based on the community set up in most South African sub-urban, urban and rural areas, non-formal education plays a critical role because this is where many community members get to learn and acquire the necessary basic skills and knowledge that will be used in future to change life for the better. Usually there is no joining fee or registration fee required for this type of education. When the joining fee or registration fee is required, it is usually minimal and accessible. This is where community members will learn, acquire, apply and develop their basic skills.

#### **8. Ever-changing needs**

South Africa has been an official global member after the first democratic election in 1994. This meant that South Africa is now competing on a global standard and should strive to meet these global standards through social, political and economic activities. South Africa is classified as one of the developing countries of the world based on its socio-economic and political activities. Fast forward to 2015, South Africa was part of the world countries that agreed and signed for 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) as a plan for a better life around 2030 [1]. The SDGs came after the Millennium Developmental Goals (MDGs) which ended at the end of 2016 [21]. This is because of the ever-changing global needs. Since there is a constant and continuous change of global needs, human development in terms of education must also change in order to meet these ever-changing needs.

**147**

*Culturally Relevant Teaching*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84181*

riculum agents in their classrooms.

education in South African education [12].

and manifestations acquired through life".

**9. Curriculum as core business for education**

norms thus distinguishing a people from their neighbours.

country's political, social and economic needs.

inclusive if it is informed by the experiences of black people.

All members of the globe should have a healthy competition in order to meet their

and approaches that are culturally relevant in the twenty-first century. In order for this need to be realised, curriculum development must be addressed because it directly influences the classroom everyday teaching and learning. South African education has gone through several curriculum changes because of the curriculum that is not culturally relevant to have a positive impact on everyday teaching and learning that is culturally relevant. The school curriculum was changed from Curriculum 2005 (C2005) to the Revised National Curriculum Statement (RNCS), then to Outcomes Based Education (OBE) and lastly to the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) within 24 years in democracy [3]. Luckett [22] posits that the curriculum must be based on social justice, which will only be

There is an increasing need to continuously develop teaching strategies, methods

Since culture is not stagnant but evolves, curriculum should also be aligned to the evolution of culture in order to address the needs of the people. There are two core principles that guide black peoples' culture in South Africa, namely human dignity and respect. Culturally relevant teaching should include these principles which can be incorporated into everyday teaching and learning by teachers as cur-

Therefore, a teaching strategy that will be informed by respect and human dignity is important in influencing a positive change towards the most needed quality

Curriculum is the heart of any educational system and it based on culture of people it aims to develop in order to address their everyday societal needs. Idang [23] defines culture as "language, dressing, music, work, arts, religion, dancing, social norms, taboos and values" of people within a specific community. On the other hand, for Bello [24] it is the totality of the way of life evolved by a people in their attempts to meet the challenge of living in their environment, which gives order and meaning to their social, political, economic, aesthetic and religious

Therefore, culture is a way of life for the people based on their socio-economic and political activities that are influenced by their language, religion, values and the environment they are living in. The school curriculum should incorporate the culture of the people it is intending to develop in order to address their socio-economic and political needs. It is also important to realise that the effective implementation of the curriculum largely depends on the teachers as curriculum agents [25]. Yin, Lee and Wang [26] emphasise this point by indicating that teachers play an important role in the curriculum delivery. On the other hand, Skosana and Monyai [27] posit that those teachers should propel the curriculum implementation as much as possible. In order for teachers to play an effective meaningful role in the implementation of the curriculum, they need to feel equipped [28]. If culture becomes the backbone of the school curriculum, it will inform the everyday teaching activities of the teacher in the classroom. According to Bȃlc [29] culture is "thinking, feeling

In addition, Barnouw [30] defines culture as "…a whole complex of knowledge,

beliefs, art, legislation, morals, customs, and capacities and skills acquired by a person by identifying him as a member of a particular society". Thus culture encompasses a way of life that is influenced by the environment that people live in

#### *Culturally Relevant Teaching DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84181*

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

efficacy and efficiency.

**7.2 Informal**

processing knowledge. Dib [19] argues that.

and it is employed to everyday activities.

**7.3 Non-formal education**

**8. Ever-changing needs**

learners who find the formal environment suitable.

the necessary equipment and tools for teaching and learning. Not all learners are inclined to learn formally based on their individual manner of acquiring and

The setting-up of a formal education system does not consider the students' standards, values and attitudes that are relevant to the education system which, generally, is not tested or assessed at the level of student acceptance, as well as for

Acquiring skills and knowledge through this type of education is important to

Learners learn under informal social activities and there are no formal teachers. Infact, everyone is a teacher to teach when possible through interactions. Learners learn from each other during the informal social interactions between themselves and between other people. There is no need for a formal institution like a school or university. Instead, any environment conducive to teaching and learning maybe used. Tudor [20] points out that informal education "…is not deliberately organized to ensure student's learning. The learner often does so unintentionally". It may include reading magazines, watching movies, reading newspapers, theatre projects amongst others. This type of education is most suitable for the majority of learners

Tudor [20] states that non-formal education "…is intentional, the person attending these forms of education makes it for own reasons, and programs are organized for learning, coming to complement, support or as a source of valorisation of the learning experiences formally acquired". This is a teaching and learning process that normally takes place outside of the normal school, university or formal institution. An example will include a community gospel choir, theatre project, sports, etc. Based on the community set up in most South African sub-urban, urban and rural areas, non-formal education plays a critical role because this is where many community members get to learn and acquire the necessary basic skills and knowledge that will be used in future to change life for the better. Usually there is no joining fee or registration fee required for this type of education. When the joining fee or registration fee is required, it is usually minimal and accessible. This is where community

members will learn, acquire, apply and develop their basic skills.

South Africa has been an official global member after the first democratic election in 1994. This meant that South Africa is now competing on a global standard and should strive to meet these global standards through social, political and economic activities. South Africa is classified as one of the developing countries of the world based on its socio-economic and political activities. Fast forward to 2015, South Africa was part of the world countries that agreed and signed for 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) as a plan for a better life around 2030 [1]. The SDGs came after the Millennium Developmental Goals (MDGs) which ended at the end of 2016 [21]. This is because of the ever-changing global needs. Since there is a constant and continuous change of global needs, human development in terms of education must also change in order to meet these ever-changing needs.

**146**

All members of the globe should have a healthy competition in order to meet their country's political, social and economic needs.

There is an increasing need to continuously develop teaching strategies, methods and approaches that are culturally relevant in the twenty-first century. In order for this need to be realised, curriculum development must be addressed because it directly influences the classroom everyday teaching and learning. South African education has gone through several curriculum changes because of the curriculum that is not culturally relevant to have a positive impact on everyday teaching and learning that is culturally relevant. The school curriculum was changed from Curriculum 2005 (C2005) to the Revised National Curriculum Statement (RNCS), then to Outcomes Based Education (OBE) and lastly to the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) within 24 years in democracy [3]. Luckett [22] posits that the curriculum must be based on social justice, which will only be inclusive if it is informed by the experiences of black people.

Since culture is not stagnant but evolves, curriculum should also be aligned to the evolution of culture in order to address the needs of the people. There are two core principles that guide black peoples' culture in South Africa, namely human dignity and respect. Culturally relevant teaching should include these principles which can be incorporated into everyday teaching and learning by teachers as curriculum agents in their classrooms.

Therefore, a teaching strategy that will be informed by respect and human dignity is important in influencing a positive change towards the most needed quality education in South African education [12].

#### **9. Curriculum as core business for education**

Curriculum is the heart of any educational system and it based on culture of people it aims to develop in order to address their everyday societal needs. Idang [23] defines culture as "language, dressing, music, work, arts, religion, dancing, social norms, taboos and values" of people within a specific community. On the other hand, for Bello [24] it is the totality of the way of life evolved by a people in their attempts to meet the challenge of living in their environment, which gives order and meaning to their social, political, economic, aesthetic and religious norms thus distinguishing a people from their neighbours.

Therefore, culture is a way of life for the people based on their socio-economic and political activities that are influenced by their language, religion, values and the environment they are living in. The school curriculum should incorporate the culture of the people it is intending to develop in order to address their socio-economic and political needs. It is also important to realise that the effective implementation of the curriculum largely depends on the teachers as curriculum agents [25]. Yin, Lee and Wang [26] emphasise this point by indicating that teachers play an important role in the curriculum delivery. On the other hand, Skosana and Monyai [27] posit that those teachers should propel the curriculum implementation as much as possible. In order for teachers to play an effective meaningful role in the implementation of the curriculum, they need to feel equipped [28]. If culture becomes the backbone of the school curriculum, it will inform the everyday teaching activities of the teacher in the classroom. According to Bȃlc [29] culture is "thinking, feeling and manifestations acquired through life".

In addition, Barnouw [30] defines culture as "…a whole complex of knowledge, beliefs, art, legislation, morals, customs, and capacities and skills acquired by a person by identifying him as a member of a particular society". Thus culture encompasses a way of life that is influenced by the environment that people live in

and it provides an identity for different communities. Clearly, for decades the South African education curriculum was not based on black peoples' culture, or failed to take their culture into consideration – that kind of education did not address their needs, because it was not informed by their way of life. Any curriculum that does not include people's culture will fail to address the everyday life challenges they face. Current shortfalls in the curriculum do not make provision for the classroom challenges teachers experience – they need a relevant curriculum to be developed by policymakers, before it is implemented as part of their teacher training [31].

This chapter is advocating for a culturally relevant teaching that should be informed by the culture of the people it intends to develop in the twenty-first century. Curriculum is taking a centre stage in this regard because it is the vehicle to deliver the classroom lesson content. Lord Macaulays' [32] address to the British parliament clearly indicates the attack that caused the damage to black people, specifically through culture as a lifeline for education. This is done by not considering the culture of black people that education is attempting to develop for a better life [32]:

*"I have travelled across the length and breadth of India and I have not seen any one person who is a beggar, who is a thief such wealth I have seen in this country. Such high moral values, people of such caliber, that I do not think that we would ever conquer this country. Unless we break the very backbone of this nation, which is her spiritual and cultural heritage and therefore, I propose that we replace her old and ancient education system, her culture, for if the Africans think that all that is foreign and English is good and greater than their own, they will lose their selfesteem, their native culture and they will become what we want them, a truly dominated nation".*

Culture is the backbone of any nation and the educational curriculum must be based on it for effective culturally relevant teaching to be realised.

#### **10. Conclusion**

The literature suggest that the curriculum for the South African education was distorted by not considering the black peoples' culture as its backbone. The following points were discussed in this chapter and they assisted the researcher to make relevant conclusions on CRT: (a) Bantu education; (b) curriculum as a core business for teaching; (c) African Traditional Education; (d) Western type of education; (e) the ever changing needs; and (f) relevant adult teaching and learning. The Curriculum did not and still does not take into consideration the culture of black people. Thus the curriculum, teaching methods including teaching and learning activities are not relevant to the majority of learners in South African education. The present school curriculum is not relevant in addressing the needs of the majority of learners which is negatively affecting the everyday teaching and learning based on its lack to consider black peoples' culture. South African education would realise CRT should policymakers and the curriculum agents take into account the culture of black people in order for education to holistically develop them. This will be one of the contributing factors in positively influencing the process of realising quality education in South Africa as SDG number four.

**149**

**Author details**

South Africa

Teboho Solomon Ngubane

provided the original work is properly cited.

\*Address all correspondence to: ngubat@unisa.ac.za

*Culturally Relevant Teaching*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84181*

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

Department of ABET and Youth Development, University of South Africa,

*Culturally Relevant Teaching DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84181*

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

life [32]:

*dominated nation".*

**10. Conclusion**

and it provides an identity for different communities. Clearly, for decades the South African education curriculum was not based on black peoples' culture, or failed to take their culture into consideration – that kind of education did not address their needs, because it was not informed by their way of life. Any curriculum that does not include people's culture will fail to address the everyday life challenges they face. Current shortfalls in the curriculum do not make provision for the classroom challenges teachers experience – they need a relevant curriculum to be developed by

policymakers, before it is implemented as part of their teacher training [31]. This chapter is advocating for a culturally relevant teaching that should be informed by the culture of the people it intends to develop in the twenty-first century. Curriculum is taking a centre stage in this regard because it is the vehicle to deliver the classroom lesson content. Lord Macaulays' [32] address to the British parliament clearly indicates the attack that caused the damage to black people, specifically through culture as a lifeline for education. This is done by not considering the culture of black people that education is attempting to develop for a better

*"I have travelled across the length and breadth of India and I have not seen any one person who is a beggar, who is a thief such wealth I have seen in this country. Such high moral values, people of such caliber, that I do not think that we would ever conquer this country. Unless we break the very backbone of this nation, which is her spiritual and cultural heritage and therefore, I propose that we replace her old and ancient education system, her culture, for if the Africans think that all that is foreign and English is good and greater than their own, they will lose their selfesteem, their native culture and they will become what we want them, a truly* 

Culture is the backbone of any nation and the educational curriculum must be

The literature suggest that the curriculum for the South African education was distorted by not considering the black peoples' culture as its backbone. The following points were discussed in this chapter and they assisted the researcher to make relevant conclusions on CRT: (a) Bantu education; (b) curriculum as a core business for teaching; (c) African Traditional Education; (d) Western type of education; (e) the ever changing needs; and (f) relevant adult teaching and learning. The Curriculum did not and still does not take into consideration the culture of black people. Thus the curriculum, teaching methods including teaching and learning activities are not relevant to the majority of learners in South African education. The present school curriculum is not relevant in addressing the needs of the majority of learners which is negatively affecting the everyday teaching and learning based on its lack to consider black peoples' culture. South African education would realise CRT should policymakers and the curriculum agents take into account the culture of black people in order for education to holistically develop them. This will be one of the contributing factors in positively influencing the process of realising

based on it for effective culturally relevant teaching to be realised.

quality education in South Africa as SDG number four.

**148**

### **Author details**

Teboho Solomon Ngubane Department of ABET and Youth Development, University of South Africa, South Africa

\*Address all correspondence to: ngubat@unisa.ac.za

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

#### **References**

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[2] Republic of South Africa (RSA). National Development Plan (NDP). Pretoria: Government Printers; 2015

[3] Molapo MR. How Educators Implement Curriculum Changes. South Africa: Department of Education Management and Policy Studies. University of Pretoria; 2016

[4] Chisholm L. The politics of curriculum review and revision in South Africa. In: A Paper Presented at an Oxford International Conference on Education and Development, 9-11 September at the Session on Culture, Context and the Quality of Education; Oxford. 2003

[5] Rakometsi MS. The Transformation of Black School Education in South Africa, 1950-1994: A Historical Perspective. Bloemfontein, South Africa: Department of History. University of the Free State; 2008

[6] Chisholm L. The challenge of South African schooling: Dimensions, targets and initiatives. 2011 Transformation Audit: From Inequality to Inclusive Growth. 2011

[7] Hay D, Monnapula-Mapesela M. South African Education: Before and After 1994. 2017. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/313598148 [Accessed: 3-01-2019]

[8] Moloi KC. An African narrative: The journey of indigenous social research in South Africa. In: Chilisa B, Cram BF, Mertens DM, editors. Indigenous Pathways into Social Research: Voices of a New Generation. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press; 2013. pp. 11-40

[9] Grant C, Jasson A, Lawrence G. Resilient KwaZulu-Natal schools: An ethic of care. Southern African Review of Education. 2010;**16**(2):81-99

[10] Jenkins E. Culture and counterculture in South African schools. In: Conference of the Association of University English Teachers of Southern Africa. 1987

[11] Adeyemi MB, Adeyinka AA. The principles and content of African traditional education. Educational Philosophy and Theory. 2003;**35**(4):425-440

[12] Ngubane T. African Social Constructivism: An Adult Teaching Approach in Gauteng District 6. Pretoria. South Africa: University of South Africa; 2016

[13] Locke J. Two Treaties of Government. New York: Cambridge University Press; 1960

[14] Scheurman G. From Behaviourist to Constructivist [Online]. 1998. Available on: http://www.socialstudies. org/sites/default/files/publications/ se/6201/620101.html [Accessed: 22-11-2018]

[15] Beghetto RA, Kaufman JC. Classroom Contexts for Creativity. Storrs, CT, USA: Department of Educational Psychology, Neag School of Education, University of Connecticut; 2014

[16] Eisenman G, Edwards S, Cushman CA. Bringing reality to classroom management in teacher education. Truman Pierce Institute College of Education. Professional Educator. 2015;**39**(1):1-13

[17] Cambridge Dictionary. Available from: https://dictionary.cambridge.org/ dictionary/english/education [Accessed: 21-11-2018]

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[28] Park M, Sung Y-K. Teachers' perceptions of the recent curriculum reforms and their implementation: What can we learn from the case of Korea elementary teacher? Asia Pacific Journal of Education. 2013;**33**(1):15-33

[29] Bȃlc S. The Concept of Culture in Educational Management. Romania: Research Association for Interdisciplinary Studies. Bucharest Baptist Theological Institute; 2017

[30] Barnouw V. Culture and Personality. Homewood, Ill: Dorset Press; 1963

[31] Monyane T, Selesho JM. Challenges regarding the implementation of the revised National Curriculum Statement.

[32] Macaulay TB. Parliament Speech. British Parliament. 1835. Available from: https://thewire.in/history/macaulaysspeech-never-delivered [Accessed:

Anthologist. 2012;**14**(1):81-85

8-11-2018]

2013;**2**(9):90-96

[18] Johan R, Harlan J. Education nowadays. International Journal of Educational. Science and Research (IJESR). ISSN (P): 2249-6947; ISSN (E):

[19] Dib CZ. Formal, Non-Formal and Informal Education: Concepts/ Applicability. Brazil: Institute of Physics. University of São Paulo; 1988

2249-8052. 2014;**4**(5):51-56

[20] Tudor SL. Formal—Non-

[21] United Nations. Millennium Developmental Goals (MDGs). New York: United Nations; 2015

47 [Accessed: 20-11-2018]

2015. pp. 97-111

2012;**14**(2):99-106

[23] Idang GE. African Culture and Values. Vol. 16. Number 2. South Africa: University of South Africa. Unisa Press;

[24] Bello S. Culture and Decision Making in Nigeria. Lagos: National Council for Arts and Culture; 1991

[25] Yin H, Lee JCK, Wang W. Dilemmas of leading national reform in a global era: A Chinese perspective. Educational Management Administration and Leadership. 2014;**42**(2):293-311

[26] Maphosa C, Mutopa S. Teachers' awareness of their role in planning and implementing school-based

[27] Skosana PS, Monyai RB. The teacher as a catalytic agent in the implementation of the curriculum.

curriculum innovation. Anthropologist.

[22] Luckett K. Curriculum contestation in a post-colonial context: A view from the South, teaching in higher education [Online]. 2016. Available from: http:// dx.doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2016.11555

formal—Informal in education. In: 5th International Conference EDU-WORLD 2012—Education Facing Contemporary World. University of Piteúti, Str. Târgul din Vale nr. 1, Piteúti, Romania. 2012

*Culturally Relevant Teaching DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84181*

[18] Johan R, Harlan J. Education nowadays. International Journal of Educational. Science and Research (IJESR). ISSN (P): 2249-6947; ISSN (E): 2249-8052. 2014;**4**(5):51-56

[19] Dib CZ. Formal, Non-Formal and Informal Education: Concepts/ Applicability. Brazil: Institute of Physics. University of São Paulo; 1988

[20] Tudor SL. Formal—Nonformal—Informal in education. In: 5th International Conference EDU-WORLD 2012—Education Facing Contemporary World. University of Piteúti, Str. Târgul din Vale nr. 1, Piteúti, Romania. 2012

[21] United Nations. Millennium Developmental Goals (MDGs). New York: United Nations; 2015

[22] Luckett K. Curriculum contestation in a post-colonial context: A view from the South, teaching in higher education [Online]. 2016. Available from: http:// dx.doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2016.11555 47 [Accessed: 20-11-2018]

[23] Idang GE. African Culture and Values. Vol. 16. Number 2. South Africa: University of South Africa. Unisa Press; 2015. pp. 97-111

[24] Bello S. Culture and Decision Making in Nigeria. Lagos: National Council for Arts and Culture; 1991

[25] Yin H, Lee JCK, Wang W. Dilemmas of leading national reform in a global era: A Chinese perspective. Educational Management Administration and Leadership. 2014;**42**(2):293-311

[26] Maphosa C, Mutopa S. Teachers' awareness of their role in planning and implementing school-based curriculum innovation. Anthropologist. 2012;**14**(2):99-106

[27] Skosana PS, Monyai RB. The teacher as a catalytic agent in the implementation of the curriculum. International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Invention. 2013;**2**(9):90-96

[28] Park M, Sung Y-K. Teachers' perceptions of the recent curriculum reforms and their implementation: What can we learn from the case of Korea elementary teacher? Asia Pacific Journal of Education. 2013;**33**(1):15-33

[29] Bȃlc S. The Concept of Culture in Educational Management. Romania: Research Association for Interdisciplinary Studies. Bucharest Baptist Theological Institute; 2017

[30] Barnouw V. Culture and Personality. Homewood, Ill: Dorset Press; 1963

[31] Monyane T, Selesho JM. Challenges regarding the implementation of the revised National Curriculum Statement. Anthologist. 2012;**14**(1):81-85

[32] Macaulay TB. Parliament Speech. British Parliament. 1835. Available from: https://thewire.in/history/macaulaysspeech-never-delivered [Accessed: 8-11-2018]

**150**

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

[1] United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). Sustainable Development Goals. New York: UNDP; [9] Grant C, Jasson A, Lawrence G. Resilient KwaZulu-Natal schools: An ethic of care. Southern African Review

[10] Jenkins E. Culture and counterculture in South African schools. In: Conference of the Association of University English Teachers of Southern

of Education. 2010;**16**(2):81-99

[11] Adeyemi MB, Adeyinka AA. The principles and content of African traditional education. Educational Philosophy and Theory.

[12] Ngubane T. African Social Constructivism: An Adult Teaching Approach in Gauteng District 6. Pretoria. South Africa: University of

[13] Locke J. Two Treaties of

University Press; 1960

22-11-2018]

Connecticut; 2014

2015;**39**(1):1-13

21-11-2018]

Government. New York: Cambridge

[14] Scheurman G. From Behaviourist to Constructivist [Online]. 1998. Available on: http://www.socialstudies. org/sites/default/files/publications/ se/6201/620101.html [Accessed:

[15] Beghetto RA, Kaufman JC. Classroom Contexts for Creativity. Storrs, CT, USA: Department of Educational Psychology, Neag School of Education, University of

[16] Eisenman G, Edwards S, Cushman CA. Bringing reality to classroom management in teacher education. Truman Pierce Institute College of Education. Professional Educator.

[17] Cambridge Dictionary. Available from: https://dictionary.cambridge.org/ dictionary/english/education [Accessed:

2003;**35**(4):425-440

South Africa; 2016

Africa. 1987

[2] Republic of South Africa (RSA). National Development Plan (NDP). Pretoria: Government Printers; 2015

[3] Molapo MR. How Educators

[4] Chisholm L. The politics of curriculum review and revision in South Africa. In: A Paper Presented at an Oxford International Conference on Education and Development, 9-11 September at the Session on Culture, Context and the Quality of Education;

Oxford. 2003

Growth. 2011

3-01-2019]

Implement Curriculum Changes. South Africa: Department of Education Management and Policy Studies. University of Pretoria; 2016

[5] Rakometsi MS. The Transformation of Black School Education in South Africa, 1950-1994: A Historical Perspective. Bloemfontein, South Africa: Department of History. University of the Free State; 2008

[6] Chisholm L. The challenge of South African schooling: Dimensions, targets and initiatives. 2011 Transformation Audit: From Inequality to Inclusive

[7] Hay D, Monnapula-Mapesela M. South African Education: Before and After 1994. 2017. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/313598148 [Accessed:

[8] Moloi KC. An African narrative: The journey of indigenous social research in South Africa. In: Chilisa B, Cram BF, Mertens DM, editors. Indigenous Pathways into Social Research: Voices of a New Generation. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press; 2013. pp. 11-40

2016

**References**

**153**

**Chapter 11**

**Abstract**

*Florah Moleko Teane*

not addressing teachers' needs.

**1. Introduction**

development, teachers, teaching and learning

Professional Development as a

Panacea for Lively Classrooms in

South Africa: Experiences of Life

Sciences Teachers in the Bojanala

This chapter focuses on how the professional development of teachers influences the teaching and learning process in schools. In the chapter, the experiences of Bojanala East District (North West Province) Life Sciences teachers with regard to the professional development support they received from the Department of Education and Training are explored. Subsequent to 1994, South African Life Sciences teachers were subjected to a plethora of educational policy reforms, all of which affected the content of and the teaching approach to Life Sciences as a subject. In all these reforms, the Department of Basic Education organised professional development workshops as an in-service teacher training (ITT) to empower teachers in respect of the new policies. The study sheds light on whether or not the training (according to teachers) enhanced the teaching and learning processes in the classrooms. A qualitative research approach was used in the study and a purposeful sampling technique was employed to select participants. The researcher used one-on-one interviews and a single focus group to collect data. Drawing on the findings of this study and on support uncovered in the literature, indications are that the in-service training programmes left teachers incompetent in terms of dealing with both the new approach and the new content due to the programmes

**Keywords:** classroom management, in-service training, life sciences, professional

One of the causes of disruptive behaviours in South African schools is that these schools might be failing in their task as set out in the policy documents [1]. In a Life Sciences classroom, one of the causes of such behaviours could be the disparity between the content dictated by the science curriculum and questions that preoccupy students [2]. Of equal importance is how teachers themselves implement such a curriculum, because the way in which teachers understand and make sense of a curriculum affects enactment [3]. Thus, for the teaching and learning environment

District (North West Province)

#### **Chapter 11**

Professional Development as a Panacea for Lively Classrooms in South Africa: Experiences of Life Sciences Teachers in the Bojanala District (North West Province)

*Florah Moleko Teane*

### **Abstract**

This chapter focuses on how the professional development of teachers influences the teaching and learning process in schools. In the chapter, the experiences of Bojanala East District (North West Province) Life Sciences teachers with regard to the professional development support they received from the Department of Education and Training are explored. Subsequent to 1994, South African Life Sciences teachers were subjected to a plethora of educational policy reforms, all of which affected the content of and the teaching approach to Life Sciences as a subject. In all these reforms, the Department of Basic Education organised professional development workshops as an in-service teacher training (ITT) to empower teachers in respect of the new policies. The study sheds light on whether or not the training (according to teachers) enhanced the teaching and learning processes in the classrooms. A qualitative research approach was used in the study and a purposeful sampling technique was employed to select participants. The researcher used one-on-one interviews and a single focus group to collect data. Drawing on the findings of this study and on support uncovered in the literature, indications are that the in-service training programmes left teachers incompetent in terms of dealing with both the new approach and the new content due to the programmes not addressing teachers' needs.

**Keywords:** classroom management, in-service training, life sciences, professional development, teachers, teaching and learning

#### **1. Introduction**

One of the causes of disruptive behaviours in South African schools is that these schools might be failing in their task as set out in the policy documents [1]. In a Life Sciences classroom, one of the causes of such behaviours could be the disparity between the content dictated by the science curriculum and questions that preoccupy students [2]. Of equal importance is how teachers themselves implement such a curriculum, because the way in which teachers understand and make sense of a curriculum affects enactment [3]. Thus, for the teaching and learning environment to cater for the changing needs of a new cohort of learners, teachers are required to have specialised knowledge and skills [4] in order to impart knowledge to learners. In the South African context, a plethora of policies was issued after 1994, one after another, in an attempt to deal with the legacies left by the apartheid regime. The Life Sciences subject, in particular, fell under four consecutive policies, namely the Interim Core syllabus (ICS) in 1996, the National Curriculum Statement (NCS) in 2006, the New Content Framework (NCF) in 2009, and the Curriculum Assessment and Policy Statement (CAPS) in 2012. A top-down approach was adopted in the development of such curriculum policies and, in some instances, teacher formations were not included in the decision-making bodies dealing with the new curriculum policies [5]. The absence of teachers' voices from the educational reforms noted here disconnected teachers from everyday reality and made them the consumers of theories and approaches – this rather than allowing them to become autonomous beings able to reflect on their own teaching beliefs and practices. Thorough teacher training was, therefore, necessary to enable teachers to apply knowledge and lead activities in the classroom effectively [6]. Returning specifically to the topic of this chapter, the majority of teachers in the Bojanala District lacked the necessary know-how to fulfil their task. The above statement is in line with the assertion made by [7, 8] that, when teachers use instructional materials based on reform-oriented ideas that they are not familiar with, they can end up paying attention to superficial aspects rather than to core ideas.

The study focuses on the use of professional development in the form of ITT to capacitate teachers to enhance professional competency, which, in turn, should lead to improved learner performance. During the currency of each of the four South African educational policies named above, teachers attended a three-day workshop at which they received training in the new curriculum policy. Since many educational reforms were issued within a short period, teachers were forever being faced with the challenge of having to deal with new approaches, methodologies, and content, a state of affairs that was bound to cause them stress. For an example, a move from a content-based curriculum to an outcomes-based curriculum policy represented, according to [9], a move to the most ambitious curriculum policy since the installation of the Government of National Unity. With the implementation of an outcomes-based curriculum, no content was specified and every teacher thus taught what he/she deemed necessary to attain the desired outcomes. The study by [9] in KwaZulu-Natal indicated that different teachers taught different things in the same grade. In order to reduce confusion and to improve implementation, the Department of Basic Education planned workshops to empower teachers in respect of all the new policies. Subject advisors were the only people that presented such teacher training, which lasted for only 3 days regardless of whether the full scope was covered or not. These subject advisers now serving as trainers) they received only a three-day workshop by way of training—exactly as the teachers did. This short training period meant that the trainers had gaps in their knowledge and that these gaps were transferred to the trainees and then on to the learners [10]. Indicates that even experienced educators have incomplete and fragmented knowledge of the content they teach, signalling that they too need ITT.

Sufficient ITT is necessary if learner performance is to be improved. This is illustrated in the study conducted by [11], which showed that professionalism – the effective use of "know-how", and "know-what" according to situational requirements [12] – was lacking in teachers because they were without certain skills necessary to meet the challenges of a rapidly changing cohorts of learners. It is thus shown that a successful teaching and learning environment requires job-embedded professional development [13] which addresses the needs, concerns, and interests of teachers.

**155**

learners.

*Professional Development as a Panacea for Lively Classrooms in South Africa: Experiences…*

The paper explores teachers' views on the role of professional development in enhancing the teaching and learning process. Hein's Constructivist Learning Theory [14] therefore underpins it because this is a theory associated with pedagogic approaches that promote active learning. Hein's theory runs counter to the traditional methods of teaching and learning whereby curriculum designers and teachers, as implementers of the curriculum, dictate their pedagogic views. He propagates the idea of a teacher as a facilitator of learning who provides an environment where learners freely carry out their own mental actions. In other words, teachers must provide learners with the opportunity to construct their own world. Teachers are therefore responsible for planning learning activities and methods that engage learners' minds. Professional development programmes must address teachers' needs, such as by guiding them in planning the learning activities and empowering them in respect of different teaching methods to cater for individual learner needs. One of the methods suggested by Hein for learning is the so-called "learning by doing" – that is, hands-on activities that enable learners to be active rather than passively accepting knowledge

According to Hein, our learning is a social activity; it is intimately associated with our connection with other human beings. Social interaction with other people promotes meaningful learning, what [15] call collaborative elaboration. Social interaction can be enhanced when ITT allows teachers to discuss issues among themselves and teachers themselves can use the same technique by grouping learn-

To enhance the process of teaching and learning, knowledge should be discovered as an integrated whole. Instructors are therefore required to plan learning activities by first introducing basic ideas concerning the topic or subject and then, later, revisiting and building upon them. According to Hein, it is not possible to assimilate new knowledge without having some structure developed from previous knowledge to build upon. Any new information introduced, either by curriculum designers or teachers during their teaching, must be connected to the previous information because learning should be discovered as an integrated whole [16]. Ref. [14] indicated the influence of learners' background knowledge in the teaching and learning situation by declaring that learning is contextual. Thus, every learner must be treated as an individual and any effort to teach must be connected to the state of the learner. Due to the differences between the unique cohorts of learners they are faced with yearly, teachers are expected to adapt their teaching methods and approach each time to suit a specific group of

Hein also indicates that learning is not instantaneous. It takes time to learn, so in order for one to master the activities to be learned, one needs to revisit the activities concerned repeatedly, to think about them and to apply them. Therefore, a continuous professional development programme instead of a once-off activity is far more likely to make mastery of a new policy possible. In the same way, teachers must find methods to enhance learners' mastery of new content, again because this is a

This theory has profound implications for making South African classrooms lively because it unpacks strategies intended to enhance the teaching and learning process. What is key in education is to see learners as the centre of teaching and learning process and teachers as facilitators of learning. For teachers to be the best facilitators, professional development programmes need to address their specific

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83471*

ers and allowing free discussion to take place.

process that requires a measure of time.

needs, not merely deal with general matters.

**2. Theoretical framework**

given to them.

*Professional Development as a Panacea for Lively Classrooms in South Africa: Experiences… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83471*

#### **2. Theoretical framework**

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

aspects rather than to core ideas.

to cater for the changing needs of a new cohort of learners, teachers are required to have specialised knowledge and skills [4] in order to impart knowledge to learners. In the South African context, a plethora of policies was issued after 1994, one after another, in an attempt to deal with the legacies left by the apartheid regime. The Life Sciences subject, in particular, fell under four consecutive policies, namely the Interim Core syllabus (ICS) in 1996, the National Curriculum Statement (NCS) in 2006, the New Content Framework (NCF) in 2009, and the Curriculum Assessment and Policy Statement (CAPS) in 2012. A top-down approach was adopted in the development of such curriculum policies and, in some instances, teacher formations were not included in the decision-making bodies dealing with the new curriculum policies [5]. The absence of teachers' voices from the educational reforms noted here disconnected teachers from everyday reality and made them the consumers of theories and approaches – this rather than allowing them to become autonomous beings able to reflect on their own teaching beliefs and practices. Thorough teacher training was, therefore, necessary to enable teachers to apply knowledge and lead activities in the classroom effectively [6]. Returning specifically to the topic of this chapter, the majority of teachers in the Bojanala District lacked the necessary know-how to fulfil their task. The above statement is in line with the assertion made by [7, 8] that, when teachers use instructional materials based on reform-oriented ideas that they are not familiar with, they can end up paying attention to superficial

The study focuses on the use of professional development in the form of ITT to capacitate teachers to enhance professional competency, which, in turn, should lead to improved learner performance. During the currency of each of the four South African educational policies named above, teachers attended a three-day workshop at which they received training in the new curriculum policy. Since many educational reforms were issued within a short period, teachers were forever being faced with the challenge of having to deal with new approaches, methodologies, and content, a state of affairs that was bound to cause them stress. For an example, a move from a content-based curriculum to an outcomes-based curriculum policy represented, according to [9], a move to the most ambitious curriculum policy since the installation of the Government of National Unity. With the implementation of an outcomes-based curriculum, no content was specified and every teacher thus taught what he/she deemed necessary to attain the desired outcomes. The study by [9] in KwaZulu-Natal indicated that different teachers taught different things in the same grade. In order to reduce confusion and to improve implementation, the Department of Basic Education planned workshops to empower teachers in respect of all the new policies. Subject advisors were the only people that presented such teacher training, which lasted for only 3 days regardless of whether the full scope was covered or not. These subject advisers now serving as trainers) they received only a three-day workshop by way of training—exactly as the teachers did. This short training period meant that the trainers had gaps in their knowledge and that these gaps were transferred to the trainees and then on to the learners [10]. Indicates that even experienced educators have incomplete and fragmented knowl-

edge of the content they teach, signalling that they too need ITT.

Sufficient ITT is necessary if learner performance is to be improved. This is illustrated in the study conducted by [11], which showed that professionalism – the effective use of "know-how", and "know-what" according to situational requirements [12] – was lacking in teachers because they were without certain skills necessary to meet the challenges of a rapidly changing cohorts of learners. It is thus shown that a successful teaching and learning environment requires job-embedded professional development [13] which addresses the needs, concerns, and interests of

**154**

teachers.

The paper explores teachers' views on the role of professional development in enhancing the teaching and learning process. Hein's Constructivist Learning Theory [14] therefore underpins it because this is a theory associated with pedagogic approaches that promote active learning. Hein's theory runs counter to the traditional methods of teaching and learning whereby curriculum designers and teachers, as implementers of the curriculum, dictate their pedagogic views. He propagates the idea of a teacher as a facilitator of learning who provides an environment where learners freely carry out their own mental actions. In other words, teachers must provide learners with the opportunity to construct their own world. Teachers are therefore responsible for planning learning activities and methods that engage learners' minds. Professional development programmes must address teachers' needs, such as by guiding them in planning the learning activities and empowering them in respect of different teaching methods to cater for individual learner needs. One of the methods suggested by Hein for learning is the so-called "learning by doing" – that is, hands-on activities that enable learners to be active rather than passively accepting knowledge given to them.

According to Hein, our learning is a social activity; it is intimately associated with our connection with other human beings. Social interaction with other people promotes meaningful learning, what [15] call collaborative elaboration. Social interaction can be enhanced when ITT allows teachers to discuss issues among themselves and teachers themselves can use the same technique by grouping learners and allowing free discussion to take place.

To enhance the process of teaching and learning, knowledge should be discovered as an integrated whole. Instructors are therefore required to plan learning activities by first introducing basic ideas concerning the topic or subject and then, later, revisiting and building upon them. According to Hein, it is not possible to assimilate new knowledge without having some structure developed from previous knowledge to build upon. Any new information introduced, either by curriculum designers or teachers during their teaching, must be connected to the previous information because learning should be discovered as an integrated whole [16]. Ref. [14] indicated the influence of learners' background knowledge in the teaching and learning situation by declaring that learning is contextual. Thus, every learner must be treated as an individual and any effort to teach must be connected to the state of the learner. Due to the differences between the unique cohorts of learners they are faced with yearly, teachers are expected to adapt their teaching methods and approach each time to suit a specific group of learners.

Hein also indicates that learning is not instantaneous. It takes time to learn, so in order for one to master the activities to be learned, one needs to revisit the activities concerned repeatedly, to think about them and to apply them. Therefore, a continuous professional development programme instead of a once-off activity is far more likely to make mastery of a new policy possible. In the same way, teachers must find methods to enhance learners' mastery of new content, again because this is a process that requires a measure of time.

This theory has profound implications for making South African classrooms lively because it unpacks strategies intended to enhance the teaching and learning process. What is key in education is to see learners as the centre of teaching and learning process and teachers as facilitators of learning. For teachers to be the best facilitators, professional development programmes need to address their specific needs, not merely deal with general matters.

#### **3. Literature review**

#### **3.1 In-service teacher training and teachers' development and growth**

ITT is supplementary training for teachers who are already in service [17]. Such teacher training is necessary because of educational reforms that are informed by changes in the world, as well as by the presence of different cohorts of learners, some of whom have special needs. Teachers are faced with challenges in implementing such reforms because, most of the time, they lack the knowledge and skills [18] necessary to deal with the new approaches and content required. These educational reforms warrant additional teacher training and the improved quality of instruction that follows. Professional development in the form of ITT may help teachers to deal with these changes by enhancing their professional competence and professional satisfaction [17]. The importance of professional development is widely documented in literature, as is the fact that such professional development is needed not only when a new policy is introduced – rather, it must be a continuous activity that improves and increases teachers' knowledge of the subjects they teach [18–20]. When teachers' knowledge is increased, this translates into improved learner performance [18].

Professional development activities come in the form of a number of interrelated activities such as workshops, local and national conferences, college courses, and interventions offered by special institutes. Traditional professional development programmes operated for fewer days than the current ones [21] and were criticised for not increasing teacher-reported growth in knowledge or skills, and for not bringing about changes in teaching [21]. According to these authors, because of the inappropriate duration of the professional development programmes offered to teachers, the challenges raised by the introduced reforms were not met and the programmes were ineffective because such professional development programmes focused only on teaching techniques without emphasising the content. Effective professional development activities are those that are sustained, ongoing and intensive [22]. In Riverside, Washington, for example, staff development focused on a 10-year effort to overhaul the elementary science curriculum and the district teachers attended 30-hour classes at a local university [21]. Elsewhere in the USA, professional development programmes designed included having teachers working with experts as mentors at schools and teachers attending development classes while in service [22]. Longer ITTs tend to have more content focus, more active learning activities and more coherence [21].

#### **3.2 Professional development activities that enhance learner performance**

Traditional professional development programmes dictate what teachers need to do, irrespective of the different working environments that they face. Teachers thus experience challenges in applying what they learn during ITT [17]. Professional development programmes must, therefore, provide opportunities for teachers' intellectual and professional growth [23]. Unlike traditional in-service training that is considered to be general [17] and taught in one-shot ITT interventions [24], recent literature advocates for moving away from training that is highly theoretical towards training in which teachers are actively involved [17].

Research provided evidence that active participation by teachers is an essential component of high-quality professional development [19, 21, 25]. According to [26], collaborative continuing professional development leads to greater confidence among teachers, greater commitment to changing practice, increased willingness to try new things, and an enhanced knowledge practice. Collective

**157**

**4.1 Sample**

*Professional Development as a Panacea for Lively Classrooms in South Africa: Experiences…*

participation enables teachers to discuss concepts and problems emanating from the training and contributes to a shared culture [21] as part of which teachers may plan lessons together. Effective ITT must focus on deepening teachers' content knowledge by improving and increasing their subject knowledge. In addition to empowering teachers on content, organisers of ITT must include in their plan instructional methods that will enhance the teaching and learning process. Instructional methods such as direct observation of teaching by experts or the use of online videos of lessons taught by expert teachers [27] are normally referred to as coaching and modelling. These methods have been shown to have made significantly more changes in teachers' way of imparting knowledge [28] than have other

ITT programmes that put learners at the centre yield good results. Collaborative

This study is based on the interpretivism and constructivism research philosophy which, according to [29], are multiple realities or truths based on an investigator's construction of reality. This study is interpretive because it is guided by a set of beliefs and feelings about the world and how it should be understood and studied [30]. The researcher sought information about the experiences of Life Sciences teachers in respect of the support they received from the Department of Education through professional development. Through the provision of a set of complex interpretive practices (using more than one methodological practice), the researcher set out to construct knowledge through lived experience and through the researcher's interaction with teachers [30]. In this research, a qualitative research design was employed, focusing on participants' perspectives and experiences, and utilised tacit knowledge, intuitive and felt knowledge [31]. Since the aim of the study was to discern how Life Sciences teachers experienced ITT, a case study became the best approach for this research because its main aim is to provide an in-depth description

The population of the study was comprised of Life Sciences teachers (about 300) in the Bojanala District in the Northwest Province. Most of the schools in the district are in rural areas and, of the 96 schools having Life Sciences as one of their subjects, only about 35 are former model C schools with facilities to provide a conducive teaching and learning environment. In this study, the researcher used a purposeful sampling method to select 33 Life Sciences teachers. Ref. [33] states that "the logic and power of purposeful sampling lies in selecting information-rich

discussions that connect teachers with learners require much time for inquiry, reflection, and experimentation [21]. Thus, effective ITT interventions are those that are prolonged, continuous and intensive because. According to [24], teachers forget 90% of what is taught in a once-off ITT programme. Subject advisors, therefore, bear a responsibility to provide continuous support to teachers at schools in order to enable them to master each new policy. Each teacher's ability to master a newly implemented reform depends also on the provision of resources by school leadership, and this calls for the proper funding of ITT programmes. Since most ITT programmes are top-down initiatives, the role that teachers play in making the reforms successful is underestimated. Policy decisions that place teachers at the heart of any innovation [24] will inform well-planned ITT because teachers know

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83471*

methods.

their learners' needs.

**4. Methodology**

of a small number of cases [32].

*Professional Development as a Panacea for Lively Classrooms in South Africa: Experiences… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83471*

participation enables teachers to discuss concepts and problems emanating from the training and contributes to a shared culture [21] as part of which teachers may plan lessons together. Effective ITT must focus on deepening teachers' content knowledge by improving and increasing their subject knowledge. In addition to empowering teachers on content, organisers of ITT must include in their plan instructional methods that will enhance the teaching and learning process. Instructional methods such as direct observation of teaching by experts or the use of online videos of lessons taught by expert teachers [27] are normally referred to as coaching and modelling. These methods have been shown to have made significantly more changes in teachers' way of imparting knowledge [28] than have other methods.

ITT programmes that put learners at the centre yield good results. Collaborative discussions that connect teachers with learners require much time for inquiry, reflection, and experimentation [21]. Thus, effective ITT interventions are those that are prolonged, continuous and intensive because. According to [24], teachers forget 90% of what is taught in a once-off ITT programme. Subject advisors, therefore, bear a responsibility to provide continuous support to teachers at schools in order to enable them to master each new policy. Each teacher's ability to master a newly implemented reform depends also on the provision of resources by school leadership, and this calls for the proper funding of ITT programmes. Since most ITT programmes are top-down initiatives, the role that teachers play in making the reforms successful is underestimated. Policy decisions that place teachers at the heart of any innovation [24] will inform well-planned ITT because teachers know their learners' needs.

#### **4. Methodology**

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

**3.1 In-service teacher training and teachers' development and growth**

ITT is supplementary training for teachers who are already in service [17]. Such teacher training is necessary because of educational reforms that are informed by changes in the world, as well as by the presence of different cohorts of learners, some of whom have special needs. Teachers are faced with challenges in implementing such reforms because, most of the time, they lack the knowledge and skills [18] necessary to deal with the new approaches and content required. These educational reforms warrant additional teacher training and the improved quality of instruction that follows. Professional development in the form of ITT may help teachers to deal with these changes by enhancing their professional competence and professional satisfaction [17]. The importance of professional development is widely documented in literature, as is the fact that such professional development is needed not only when a new policy is introduced – rather, it must be a continuous activity that improves and increases teachers' knowledge of the subjects they teach [18–20]. When teachers' knowledge is increased, this translates into improved learner

Professional development activities come in the form of a number of interrelated activities such as workshops, local and national conferences, college courses, and interventions offered by special institutes. Traditional professional development programmes operated for fewer days than the current ones [21] and were criticised for not increasing teacher-reported growth in knowledge or skills, and for not bringing about changes in teaching [21]. According to these authors, because of the inappropriate duration of the professional development programmes offered to teachers, the challenges raised by the introduced reforms were not met and the programmes were ineffective because such professional development programmes focused only on teaching techniques without emphasising the content. Effective professional development activities are those that are sustained, ongoing and intensive [22]. In Riverside, Washington, for example, staff development focused on a 10-year effort to overhaul the elementary science curriculum and the district teachers attended 30-hour classes at a local university [21]. Elsewhere in the USA, professional development programmes designed included having teachers working with experts as mentors at schools and teachers attending development classes while in service [22]. Longer ITTs tend to have more content focus, more active

**3.2 Professional development activities that enhance learner performance**

towards training in which teachers are actively involved [17].

Traditional professional development programmes dictate what teachers need to do, irrespective of the different working environments that they face. Teachers thus experience challenges in applying what they learn during ITT [17]. Professional development programmes must, therefore, provide opportunities for teachers' intellectual and professional growth [23]. Unlike traditional in-service training that is considered to be general [17] and taught in one-shot ITT interventions [24], recent literature advocates for moving away from training that is highly theoretical

Research provided evidence that active participation by teachers is an essential

component of high-quality professional development [19, 21, 25]. According to [26], collaborative continuing professional development leads to greater confidence among teachers, greater commitment to changing practice, increased willingness to try new things, and an enhanced knowledge practice. Collective

**3. Literature review**

performance [18].

learning activities and more coherence [21].

**156**

This study is based on the interpretivism and constructivism research philosophy which, according to [29], are multiple realities or truths based on an investigator's construction of reality. This study is interpretive because it is guided by a set of beliefs and feelings about the world and how it should be understood and studied [30]. The researcher sought information about the experiences of Life Sciences teachers in respect of the support they received from the Department of Education through professional development. Through the provision of a set of complex interpretive practices (using more than one methodological practice), the researcher set out to construct knowledge through lived experience and through the researcher's interaction with teachers [30]. In this research, a qualitative research design was employed, focusing on participants' perspectives and experiences, and utilised tacit knowledge, intuitive and felt knowledge [31]. Since the aim of the study was to discern how Life Sciences teachers experienced ITT, a case study became the best approach for this research because its main aim is to provide an in-depth description of a small number of cases [32].

#### **4.1 Sample**

The population of the study was comprised of Life Sciences teachers (about 300) in the Bojanala District in the Northwest Province. Most of the schools in the district are in rural areas and, of the 96 schools having Life Sciences as one of their subjects, only about 35 are former model C schools with facilities to provide a conducive teaching and learning environment. In this study, the researcher used a purposeful sampling method to select 33 Life Sciences teachers. Ref. [33] states that "the logic and power of purposeful sampling lies in selecting information-rich cases for in-depth studying". Only teachers who experienced the aforementioned policy changes participated in the study. Of the 33 participants, 19 were females and 14 were males because only participants who were willing to partake in the study were used. Owing to the fact that the majority of the participants were teachers who taught in rural schools, of the 33 participants, only one was white and one was Indian. All the participants held a diploma in teaching with Life Sciences as their major subject. Eighteen of the participants held a bachelor's degree while only two held an honours degree.

The researcher applied the ethical clearance process of informed consent, as well as ensuring privacy and confidentiality. Participants were informed about the nature and consequences of the research and their confidentiality was assured as the primary safeguard against unwanted exposure [30]. All participants signed a consent form, but they were also made aware that they had the right to withdraw from the study at any given point.

#### **4.2 Data collection strategies**

Two focus groups and 20 one-to-one interviews were employed to collect data. A semi-structured interview strategy was used in the face-to-face, one-on-one interviews and in the two focus groups because this technique allows the researcher to ask probing questions to explore in more detail what participants share [34, 35]. The interview questionnaire developed consisted of a list of open-ended questions that included follow-ups. The two focus groups consisted of six and seven members respectively.

#### **4.3 Data analysis**

The researcher engaged in thematic analysis of data using the Saldana method of qualitative analysis. Firstly, data were broken down into codes. Saldaña [36] describes coding as the "critical link" between data collection and their explanation of the meaning. Coding was thus done through the identification of patterns which demonstrated habits, salience, and importance in people's daily lives. Data were then categorised by grouping, reorganising and linking the codes in order to consolidate meaning. Finally, themes emerged from such categories and were used to discuss the findings of this research.

#### **4.4 Research questions**

The aim of the research is to discuss experiences of Life Sciences teachers regarding professional development activities that enhance learner participation in classrooms. The research question was thus:

*What are the experiences of the Bojanala District Life Sciences teachers regarding the role played by professional development Programmes in enhancing the teaching and learning process?*

#### **4.5 Sub-questions**


**159**

*Professional Development as a Panacea for Lively Classrooms in South Africa: Experiences…*

**5.1 Life sciences professional support forum (PSF) meetings and teacher** 

All participants declared that they attended workshops and meetings called Professional Support Forums (PSF). During the PSFs, which took place bi-monthly, Life Sciences subject advisors determined issues to be discussed. Due to the number of issues that must be tackled in such meetings, there is often no room for an "any other business" (AOB) agenda item that would allow teachers to raise additional matters. Even though the PSF's provide a good platform for discussion of challenges an individual teacher faces, teachers are unable to do so because subject advisors

Participant A said: *we normally receive a circular from the district office inviting us for a meeting (PSF). Very often, we are denied the opportunity to add some crucial issues that affect the teaching and learning process in the agenda, e.g. my school has no laboratory and library so it is impossible for me to perform Life -Sciences experiments.*

The PSF's were used for various purposes – for example, they were used to find out how far individual teachers' were in their work schedules and in respect of the pacesetter for Life Sciences in different grades (Grade 10–12). They were also used to report on learners' performance. In such cases, a subject advisor would use a data projector to display the quarterly analysis of Life Sciences results in Grade 10–12. From there, subject advisors would request teachers to come up with intervention mechanisms and it would be these mechanisms, that the subject advisors would then use as a yardstick against which to measure individual teacher's performance during later school visits. Participant B commented that, during the PSF's: *Subject advisors allow teachers to come up with ways to improve the implementation of policy and learner performance. During their normal routine of a school visit, subject advisors use those interventions to* 

Once per quarter, PSF's were used for moderation of term tasks, namely a practical task and term test where teachers would bring along five learner portfolios for moderation. During the moderation, subject advisors would check whether marking had been done correctly and whether teachers had administered all term tasks. Participant C said: *teachers themselves do the moderation and actually, no quality moderation is done. Most of the time, another teacher using a green pen makes a tick next to a red pen –so no quality work is done and teachers are not developed in this regard.*

Apart from the PSFs, ITT was provided in the form of workshops, though teachers declared that this did not happen frequently. Unlike the PSFs, which took place bi-monthly according to participants, only one or two workshops, were held annually. Only workshops that were used for empowerment in respect of a new reform took place over 3 days, while most other workshops were planned for 1 day, in this respect, just like the PSF's. Participants indicated that these workshops seldom met teachers' needs, because even though they were called content-gap workshops,

Participant D said: *my subject advisor repeats one topic year in year out. There are new topics like evolution that we wish to be empowered on, but to no avail. It will be more beneficial to teachers when subject advisors inquire from them, which topics are problematic. Life sciences have new topics, which are new to me, I received no training in such topics during my college years. How I wish that our workshops can empower us on* 

subject advisors decided which content to empower teachers on.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83471*

always have much to share with the teachers.

*measure teacher implementation of policy.*

**5.2 Teacher workshops as ITT**

*such topics, for example, evolution.*

**5. Findings**

**development**

• What are teachers' requirements as far as ITT is concerned?

*Professional Development as a Panacea for Lively Classrooms in South Africa: Experiences… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83471*

#### **5. Findings**

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

held an honours degree.

from the study at any given point.

to discuss the findings of this research.

classrooms. The research question was thus:

**4.4 Research questions**

*learning process?*

**4.5 Sub-questions**

teachers?

**4.2 Data collection strategies**

respectively.

**4.3 Data analysis**

cases for in-depth studying". Only teachers who experienced the aforementioned policy changes participated in the study. Of the 33 participants, 19 were females and 14 were males because only participants who were willing to partake in the study were used. Owing to the fact that the majority of the participants were teachers who taught in rural schools, of the 33 participants, only one was white and one was Indian. All the participants held a diploma in teaching with Life Sciences as their major subject. Eighteen of the participants held a bachelor's degree while only two

The researcher applied the ethical clearance process of informed consent, as well as ensuring privacy and confidentiality. Participants were informed about the nature and consequences of the research and their confidentiality was assured as the primary safeguard against unwanted exposure [30]. All participants signed a consent form, but they were also made aware that they had the right to withdraw

Two focus groups and 20 one-to-one interviews were employed to collect data. A semi-structured interview strategy was used in the face-to-face, one-on-one interviews and in the two focus groups because this technique allows the researcher to ask probing questions to explore in more detail what participants share [34, 35]. The interview questionnaire developed consisted of a list of open-ended questions that included follow-ups. The two focus groups consisted of six and seven members

The researcher engaged in thematic analysis of data using the Saldana method of qualitative analysis. Firstly, data were broken down into codes. Saldaña [36] describes coding as the "critical link" between data collection and their explanation of the meaning. Coding was thus done through the identification of patterns which demonstrated habits, salience, and importance in people's daily lives. Data were then categorised by grouping, reorganising and linking the codes in order to consolidate meaning. Finally, themes emerged from such categories and were used

The aim of the research is to discuss experiences of Life Sciences teachers regarding professional development activities that enhance learner participation in

*What are the experiences of the Bojanala District Life Sciences teachers regarding the role played by professional development Programmes in enhancing the teaching and* 

• Which ITT programmes did the Department of Education provide to empower

• How did these programmes contribute towards making the classrooms lively?

• What are teachers' requirements as far as ITT is concerned?

**158**

#### **5.1 Life sciences professional support forum (PSF) meetings and teacher development**

All participants declared that they attended workshops and meetings called Professional Support Forums (PSF). During the PSFs, which took place bi-monthly, Life Sciences subject advisors determined issues to be discussed. Due to the number of issues that must be tackled in such meetings, there is often no room for an "any other business" (AOB) agenda item that would allow teachers to raise additional matters. Even though the PSF's provide a good platform for discussion of challenges an individual teacher faces, teachers are unable to do so because subject advisors always have much to share with the teachers.

Participant A said: *we normally receive a circular from the district office inviting us for a meeting (PSF). Very often, we are denied the opportunity to add some crucial issues that affect the teaching and learning process in the agenda, e.g. my school has no laboratory and library so it is impossible for me to perform Life -Sciences experiments.*

The PSF's were used for various purposes – for example, they were used to find out how far individual teachers' were in their work schedules and in respect of the pacesetter for Life Sciences in different grades (Grade 10–12). They were also used to report on learners' performance. In such cases, a subject advisor would use a data projector to display the quarterly analysis of Life Sciences results in Grade 10–12. From there, subject advisors would request teachers to come up with intervention mechanisms and it would be these mechanisms, that the subject advisors would then use as a yardstick against which to measure individual teacher's performance during later school visits.

Participant B commented that, during the PSF's: *Subject advisors allow teachers to come up with ways to improve the implementation of policy and learner performance. During their normal routine of a school visit, subject advisors use those interventions to measure teacher implementation of policy.*

Once per quarter, PSF's were used for moderation of term tasks, namely a practical task and term test where teachers would bring along five learner portfolios for moderation. During the moderation, subject advisors would check whether marking had been done correctly and whether teachers had administered all term tasks.

Participant C said: *teachers themselves do the moderation and actually, no quality moderation is done. Most of the time, another teacher using a green pen makes a tick next to a red pen –so no quality work is done and teachers are not developed in this regard.*

#### **5.2 Teacher workshops as ITT**

Apart from the PSFs, ITT was provided in the form of workshops, though teachers declared that this did not happen frequently. Unlike the PSFs, which took place bi-monthly according to participants, only one or two workshops, were held annually. Only workshops that were used for empowerment in respect of a new reform took place over 3 days, while most other workshops were planned for 1 day, in this respect, just like the PSF's. Participants indicated that these workshops seldom met teachers' needs, because even though they were called content-gap workshops, subject advisors decided which content to empower teachers on.

Participant D said: *my subject advisor repeats one topic year in year out. There are new topics like evolution that we wish to be empowered on, but to no avail. It will be more beneficial to teachers when subject advisors inquire from them, which topics are problematic. Life sciences have new topics, which are new to me, I received no training in such topics during my college years. How I wish that our workshops can empower us on such topics, for example, evolution.*

Participants also indicated that the content-gap workshops became a one-man show because only the subject advisor was actively involved in imparting the information while teachers were a passive recipient of knowledge.

Participant E commented: *attending these content-gap workshops is as good as reading the textbook itself because there is nothing new, that the facilitator adds to the information in the book. Even after the workshop, I still do not understand the topic discussed, so even when the facilitator asks for questions, I am unable to ask questions because I did not understand anything.*

Participants indicated that the Advanced Certificate in Education (ACE) course that the Department of Education had introduced to help Life Sciences teachers in dealing with policy changes did not scratch the surface because the facilitators were concerned only with teaching methodology. The policy changes discussed above came with the introduction of new content, some of which teachers had not been trained on during their teacher training courses – for example, evolution. Most of the educators registered for the ACE course with the hope that it would empower them on such topics, but this hope proved to be in vain.

Participant F said: *the ACE course was predominantly about teaching methodology, not content. In schools without resources, it was impossible to apply such methods. What was worse is that the facilitators were Afrikaans speaking people who sometimes struggled to get proper English words to explain Life Sciences concepts.*

#### **5.3 The contribution of professional development programmes to learner performance**

Participants declared that most of the activities taking place during the ITT were not benefitting them or the learners. Some of the participants indicated that they liked the workshops because they used them as opportunities to interact with other teachers during lunchtime.

One participant (F) said: *during lunchtime, we share some good practices and after practicing them, my learners' performance improved. I have realised that teachers have the know-how and they can advise one another.*

According to the participants, the content-gap workshops left teachers unassisted in as far as the new content was concerned because it appeared that the subject advisors themselves lacked sufficient knowledge about what the new policies entailed. Teachers thus took the same fragmented information to the learners, leading to learner passivity during lessons.

Participant G said: *when subject advisors call us for a workshop to empower us on a new policy, they give us many handouts from their own workshops. When we ask questions about the new policy, they usually say they are also trying to get to grips with the new policy and that we must read the handouts.*

Participants also indicated that they experienced challenges with providing a conducive teaching and learning environment because the ITT did not prepare them adequately.

Participant H said: *I struggle to prepare and impart knowledge to learners because I have content-gaps and lack a good approach to teach new topics. My students are always passive and they do not seem to understand.*

#### **6. Discussion**

The findings of this research provided evidence that the South African Department of Basic Education (DBE) used PSF's and content-gap workshops to enhance professional competence [17] in teachers during the four policy changes

**161**

teachers are not fully empowered.

*Professional Development as a Panacea for Lively Classrooms in South Africa: Experiences…*

indicated earlier on. However, these ITT programmes had some shortcomings because they did not address the teachers' needs as envisaged. One reason for the failure of such programmes to address teachers' needs in the South African context was teachers' exclusion from a discussion on some of the innovations introduced in the curriculum [5]. Apart from giving teachers ownership of the innovations, allowing teachers to add their voices during curriculum innovations will inform well-planned ITT because, as posited by [24], teachers know their learners' needs. The exclusion of teachers from discussions about policy innovations left them incapacitated and thus affected their daily teaching and learning processes because they lacked the knowledge and skills [18] to deal with a changing cohort of learners. Since a top-down approach was used to bring about changes in curricula [9], with politicians taking unilateral decisions on what to include and how to do it, such innovations left teachers with fragmented knowledge which professional development programmes also failed to address. When teachers have such fragmented knowledge, they lack the confidence [24] that is needed to make learners active and involved [3]. Lack of understanding of the new knowledge and prescripts of introduced policies led to teachers doing things the way they understood them and not the way they were designed to be done [9]. Thus, teacher confusion was transferred to the learners who responded by being passive during the teaching and

The duration of ITT contributed to creating teacher knowledge gaps in teachers. Participants alleged that, in respect of each of the policy changes, they had received once-off, three-day content-gap workshops. Unlike in most western countries where teacher training period is prolonged, and hence involves more content focus [21], participants declared that, after the ITT, they remained "empty" in as far as the new content and skills were concerned. This attests to what [24] said about teacher professional development, namely that teachers forget 90% of what is taught in a once-off ITT programme. For South African Life Sciences teachers to master the skills and knowledge of the new policies, they needed more than one content-gap workshop. According to [14], in constructivist learning theory it takes time to master a particular activity or knowledge. Participants indicated that, because of lack of sufficient time, they were denied the opportunity for collaborative elaboration [15] where they would have been able to share good practices – something that these teachers said was most beneficial to them. If teachers had been afforded the opportunity to share information in instances where they lacked certain resources (as was said by one participant), they could have been advised on how to improvise. Justice was not done to the new policies because participants indicated that the trainers (subject advisors) followed the traditional methods of delivering professional development, focussing more on theory and generic information [17]. In such ITT programmes, teachers became passive recipients of knowledge because the programmes did not allow them to have social interaction among themselves – something which [17] posited would make them active and able to master the new policy. Participants also indicated that the theory imparted to teachers did not include a discussion of new topics, such as evolution, which did not form part of their teacher training. This made teachers struggle to teach topics that were new to them. One participant also indicated that his subject advisor covered the same particular topic every time when there was a workshop. This sheds light on the fact that the subject advisors themselves have knowledge gaps. According to [14], teachers will, therefore, face a challenge as regards the planning of learning activities and methods able to engage learners' minds because such

Participants reported observing knowledge gaps in the facilitators of the ACE certificate course which was meant to empower educators on the Life Sciences

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83471*

learning process.

#### *Professional Development as a Panacea for Lively Classrooms in South Africa: Experiences… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83471*

indicated earlier on. However, these ITT programmes had some shortcomings because they did not address the teachers' needs as envisaged. One reason for the failure of such programmes to address teachers' needs in the South African context was teachers' exclusion from a discussion on some of the innovations introduced in the curriculum [5]. Apart from giving teachers ownership of the innovations, allowing teachers to add their voices during curriculum innovations will inform well-planned ITT because, as posited by [24], teachers know their learners' needs. The exclusion of teachers from discussions about policy innovations left them incapacitated and thus affected their daily teaching and learning processes because they lacked the knowledge and skills [18] to deal with a changing cohort of learners. Since a top-down approach was used to bring about changes in curricula [9], with politicians taking unilateral decisions on what to include and how to do it, such innovations left teachers with fragmented knowledge which professional development programmes also failed to address. When teachers have such fragmented knowledge, they lack the confidence [24] that is needed to make learners active and involved [3]. Lack of understanding of the new knowledge and prescripts of introduced policies led to teachers doing things the way they understood them and not the way they were designed to be done [9]. Thus, teacher confusion was transferred to the learners who responded by being passive during the teaching and learning process.

The duration of ITT contributed to creating teacher knowledge gaps in teachers. Participants alleged that, in respect of each of the policy changes, they had received once-off, three-day content-gap workshops. Unlike in most western countries where teacher training period is prolonged, and hence involves more content focus [21], participants declared that, after the ITT, they remained "empty" in as far as the new content and skills were concerned. This attests to what [24] said about teacher professional development, namely that teachers forget 90% of what is taught in a once-off ITT programme. For South African Life Sciences teachers to master the skills and knowledge of the new policies, they needed more than one content-gap workshop. According to [14], in constructivist learning theory it takes time to master a particular activity or knowledge. Participants indicated that, because of lack of sufficient time, they were denied the opportunity for collaborative elaboration [15] where they would have been able to share good practices – something that these teachers said was most beneficial to them. If teachers had been afforded the opportunity to share information in instances where they lacked certain resources (as was said by one participant), they could have been advised on how to improvise. Justice was not done to the new policies because participants indicated that the trainers (subject advisors) followed the traditional methods of delivering professional development, focussing more on theory and generic information [17]. In such ITT programmes, teachers became passive recipients of knowledge because the programmes did not allow them to have social interaction among themselves – something which [17] posited would make them active and able to master the new policy. Participants also indicated that the theory imparted to teachers did not include a discussion of new topics, such as evolution, which did not form part of their teacher training. This made teachers struggle to teach topics that were new to them. One participant also indicated that his subject advisor covered the same particular topic every time when there was a workshop. This sheds light on the fact that the subject advisors themselves have knowledge gaps. According to [14], teachers will, therefore, face a challenge as regards the planning of learning activities and methods able to engage learners' minds because such teachers are not fully empowered.

Participants reported observing knowledge gaps in the facilitators of the ACE certificate course which was meant to empower educators on the Life Sciences

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

*because I did not understand anything.*

**performance**

teachers during lunchtime.

them adequately.

**6. Discussion**

*the know-how and they can advise one another.*

leading to learner passivity during lessons.

*new policy and that we must read the handouts.*

*passive and they do not seem to understand.*

Participants also indicated that the content-gap workshops became a one-man

Participant E commented: *attending these content-gap workshops is as good as reading the textbook itself because there is nothing new, that the facilitator adds to the information in the book. Even after the workshop, I still do not understand the topic discussed, so even when the facilitator asks for questions, I am unable to ask questions* 

Participants indicated that the Advanced Certificate in Education (ACE) course that the Department of Education had introduced to help Life Sciences teachers in dealing with policy changes did not scratch the surface because the facilitators were concerned only with teaching methodology. The policy changes discussed above came with the introduction of new content, some of which teachers had not been trained on during their teacher training courses – for example, evolution. Most of the educators registered for the ACE course with the hope that it would empower

Participant F said: *the ACE course was predominantly about teaching methodology, not content. In schools without resources, it was impossible to apply such methods. What was worse is that the facilitators were Afrikaans speaking people who sometimes* 

Participants declared that most of the activities taking place during the ITT were not benefitting them or the learners. Some of the participants indicated that they liked the workshops because they used them as opportunities to interact with other

One participant (F) said: *during lunchtime, we share some good practices and after practicing them, my learners' performance improved. I have realised that teachers have* 

According to the participants, the content-gap workshops left teachers unassisted in as far as the new content was concerned because it appeared that the subject advisors themselves lacked sufficient knowledge about what the new policies entailed. Teachers thus took the same fragmented information to the learners,

Participant G said: *when subject advisors call us for a workshop to empower us on a new policy, they give us many handouts from their own workshops. When we ask questions about the new policy, they usually say they are also trying to get to grips with the* 

Participants also indicated that they experienced challenges with providing a conducive teaching and learning environment because the ITT did not prepare

Participant H said: *I struggle to prepare and impart knowledge to learners because I have content-gaps and lack a good approach to teach new topics. My students are always* 

The findings of this research provided evidence that the South African Department of Basic Education (DBE) used PSF's and content-gap workshops to enhance professional competence [17] in teachers during the four policy changes

**5.3 The contribution of professional development programmes to learner** 

show because only the subject advisor was actively involved in imparting the

information while teachers were a passive recipient of knowledge.

them on such topics, but this hope proved to be in vain.

*struggled to get proper English words to explain Life Sciences concepts.*

**160**

content. To the teachers' dismay, the facilitators taught methodology only and were also not fluent in speaking the English language. This returns our attention to the earlier notion that teachers need to be part of all innovations so that they can determine the ITT activities that will be beneficial to them and to the learners. The ACE certificate course which served as a professional development intervention did not solve the content-gap problem because it did not so much as scratch the surface in as far as equipping teachers with the "know-how" and "know what" [12] was concerned. Teaching methodology without aligning it with a particular topic where, for example, teachers are allowed to develop lesson plans and do demonstration lessons or observe lessons, became a futile exercise. However, when teachers work as a collective to develop lesson plans and activities, they are more able to create a conducive teaching and learning environment.

The Life Sciences classrooms referred to in this study were thus not lively because teachers lacked the skills and knowledge to deal with learners of different cognitive levels and backgrounds. Learning was not contextual [14] in the sense that there was no individual attention, and this led to poor learner performance.

#### **7. Recommendations**

Based on the experience gained during this study, the following recommendations to education stakeholders are suggested:


#### **8. Conclusion**

The study has sheds light on the shortcomings of the professional development programmes provided by the South African Department of Basic Education. From the findings, it appeared that the in-service training of teachers, which focused on, equipping them with the necessary knowledge and skills to deal with a plethora of educational reforms, did not address teachers' needs. Even after interventions by the Department of Basic Education, teachers had gaps in their content knowledge which prevented them from creating a conducive teaching and learning environment. Lack of content knowledge prevented teachers from designing activities or tasks that would be learner-centred and thus would allow learners to be actively involved in their classes. Learners were thus passive, and this led to poor performance.

**163**

**Author details**

Florah Moleko Teane

provided the original work is properly cited.

University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa

\*Address all correspondence to: teanef@unisa.ac.za

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

*Professional Development as a Panacea for Lively Classrooms in South Africa: Experiences…*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83471*

*Professional Development as a Panacea for Lively Classrooms in South Africa: Experiences… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83471*

#### **Author details**

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

conducive teaching and learning environment.

tions to education stakeholders are suggested:

they know the needs of learners.

workshop activities and material.

gaps and relevant teaching methods.

**7. Recommendations**

content. To the teachers' dismay, the facilitators taught methodology only and were also not fluent in speaking the English language. This returns our attention to the earlier notion that teachers need to be part of all innovations so that they can determine the ITT activities that will be beneficial to them and to the learners. The ACE certificate course which served as a professional development intervention did not solve the content-gap problem because it did not so much as scratch the surface in as far as equipping teachers with the "know-how" and "know what" [12] was concerned. Teaching methodology without aligning it with a particular topic where, for example, teachers are allowed to develop lesson plans and do demonstration lessons or observe lessons, became a futile exercise. However, when teachers work as a collective to develop lesson plans and activities, they are more able to create a

The Life Sciences classrooms referred to in this study were thus not lively because teachers lacked the skills and knowledge to deal with learners of different cognitive levels and backgrounds. Learning was not contextual [14] in the sense that

Based on the experience gained during this study, the following recommenda-

• Teachers should play a pivotal role in determining policy innovations because

• ITT programmes should not be a once-off activity, but a continuous process, which would allow teachers to gain additional insight into the new policies.

• Teachers should be the ones who decide on their own training needs and how they must be trained. Subject advisors must collaborate with teachers to select

• The professional development of teachers must focus on addressing content

• During such training, teachers must be actively involved in designing lesson plans and must engage in demonstration lessons to empower one another.

The study has sheds light on the shortcomings of the professional development programmes provided by the South African Department of Basic Education. From the findings, it appeared that the in-service training of teachers, which focused on, equipping them with the necessary knowledge and skills to deal with a plethora of educational reforms, did not address teachers' needs. Even after interventions by the Department of Basic Education, teachers had gaps in their content knowledge which prevented them from creating a conducive teaching and learning environment. Lack of content knowledge prevented teachers from designing activities or tasks that would be learner-centred and thus would allow learners to be actively involved in their classes. Learners were thus passive, and this led to poor

there was no individual attention, and this led to poor learner performance.

**162**

performance.

**8. Conclusion**

Florah Moleko Teane University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa

\*Address all correspondence to: teanef@unisa.ac.za

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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[9] Jansen JD. Curriculum reform in South Africa: A critical analysis of outcomes-based education. Cambridge Journal of Education. 1998;**28**(3):321-331

[10] Arzi HJ, White RT. Change in teachers' knowledge of subject matter: A 17-year longitudinal study. Science Education. 2008;**92**(2):221-251

[11] De Villiers R. Student teachers' views: What is an interesting life sciences curriculum? South African Journal of Education. 2011;**31**(4):535-548

[12] Christof EE. Reflective ability as a core competence of future teachers. In: BCES Conference Proceedings. Vol. 12. 2014. pp. 114-120

[13] Hunzicker J. Effective professional development for teachers: A checklist. Professional Development in Education. 2011;**37**(2):177-179

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[16] McMahon M. Social constructivism and the world wide web—A paradigm for learning. In: ASCILITE Conference; Perth, Australia, Vol. 327. 1997

[17] Dhakal S. Appositeness of teacher training for in-service EFL teachers in real teaching context. Journal of NELTA. 2015;**21**(1-2):121-127

[18] Desimone LM. A primer on effective professional development. Phi Delta Kappa. 2011;**92**(6):68-71

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[28] Saxe GB, Gearhart M. Enhancing

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[29] Kipo DD. Mixed research methods: Reflections on social public policy. Asian

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[33] Patton MQ. Qualitative Evaluation

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[22] Darling-Hammond L. Teaching as a profession: Lessons in teacher preparation and professional development. Phi Delta Kappa.

[23] NAP [The National Academies Press]. Standards for professional development for teachers of science. Retrieved January 5, 2008 from: http:// www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/

[24] Uysal HH. Evaluation of an in-service training program for primary-school language teachers in Turkey. Australian Journal of Teacher

[25] Borko H, Jacobs J, Koellner K. Contemporary approaches to teacher professional development. In: Peterson PL, Baker E, Mc Gaw B, editors. Third International Encyclopedia of Education. Vol. 7. 2010. pp. 548-556

[26] Cordingley P, Bell M, Thomason S, Firth A. The impact of collaborative continuing professional development

(CPD) on classroom teaching and learning. In: Review: How Do Collaborative and Sustained CPD and Sustained but Not Collaborative CPD Affect Teaching and Learning. 2005

Education. 2012;**37**(7):n7

Leadership. 2000;**57**(8):28-33

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nses/4.html

development affects student

professional development focusing on pedagogical content knowledge. Educational Researcher.

2012;**41**(1):26-28

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[19] Van Driel JH, Berry A. Teacher professional development focusing on pedagogical content knowledge. Educational Researcher. 2012;**41**(1):26-28

[20] Yoon KS, Duncan T, Lee SW, Scarloss B, Shapley KL. Reviewing the evidence on how teacher professional development affects student achievement. Issues & Answers. REL 2007-No. 033. Regional Educational Laboratory Southwest (NJ1); 2007 Oct

[21] Birman BF, Desimone L, Porter AC, Garet MS. Designing professional development that works. Educational Leadership. 2000;**57**(8):28-33

[22] Darling-Hammond L. Teaching as a profession: Lessons in teacher preparation and professional development. Phi Delta Kappa. 2005;**87**(3):237-240

[23] NAP [The National Academies Press]. Standards for professional development for teachers of science. Retrieved January 5, 2008 from: http:// www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/ nses/4.html

[24] Uysal HH. Evaluation of an in-service training program for primary-school language teachers in Turkey. Australian Journal of Teacher Education. 2012;**37**(7):n7

[25] Borko H, Jacobs J, Koellner K. Contemporary approaches to teacher professional development. In: Peterson PL, Baker E, Mc Gaw B, editors. Third International Encyclopedia of Education. Vol. 7. 2010. pp. 548-556

[26] Cordingley P, Bell M, Thomason S, Firth A. The impact of collaborative continuing professional development (CPD) on classroom teaching and learning. In: Review: How Do Collaborative and Sustained CPD and Sustained but Not Collaborative CPD Affect Teaching and Learning. 2005

[27] Bausmith JM, Barry C. Revisiting professional learning communities to increase college readiness: The importance of pedagogical content knowledge. Educational Researcher. 2011;**40**(4):175-178

[28] Saxe GB, Gearhart M. Enhancing students' understanding of mathematics: A study of three contrasting approaches to professional support. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education. 2001;**4**(1):55-79

[29] Kipo DD. Mixed research methods: Reflections on social public policy. Asian Social Science. 2013;**9**(17):259

[30] Denzin NK, Lincoln YS. The Landscape of Qualitative Research. Sage; 2013

[31] Creswell JN. Research Design. Qualitative and Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approach. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks: Sage; 2009

[32] Mouton J. How to Succeed in your master's and Doctoral Studies: A South African Guide and Resource Book. Pretoria: Van Schaik; 2003

[33] Patton MQ. Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods. SAGE Publications, Inc; 1990

[34] Jensen E, Laurie C. Doing Real Research: A Practical Guide to Social Research. Sage; 2016

[35] Hoets H. Focus group questionnaire fundamentals-basic questions. Retrieved 19 October 2016, from: http:// www.focus grouptips.com/focus group questionnaire.html; 2012

[36] Saldaña J. The Coding Manual for Qualitative Researchers. Sage; 2016

**164**

Canada; 2004

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

[1] Jacobs LY, De Wet NC. Essential Values for Global Citizenship: How Do South African Learners Fare? Education's Role in Preparing Globally Competent Citizens. 2014. pp. 59-66

[9] Jansen JD. Curriculum reform in South Africa: A critical analysis of outcomes-based education. Cambridge Journal of Education.

[10] Arzi HJ, White RT. Change in teachers' knowledge of subject matter: A 17-year longitudinal study. Science Education. 2008;**92**(2):221-251

[11] De Villiers R. Student teachers' views: What is an interesting life sciences curriculum? South African Journal of Education.

[12] Christof EE. Reflective ability as a core competence of future teachers. In: BCES Conference Proceedings. Vol. 12.

[13] Hunzicker J. Effective professional development for teachers: A checklist. Professional Development in Education.

[14] Hein G. Constructivist learning theory. CECA (International Committee of Museum Educators) Conference; 15-22 October 1991; Jerusalem, Israel.

[15] Van Meter P, Stevens RJ. The role of theory in the study of peer collaboration. The Journal of Experimental Education.

Perth, Australia, Vol. 327. 1997

Kappa. 2011;**92**(6):68-71

[16] McMahon M. Social constructivism and the world wide web—A paradigm for learning. In: ASCILITE Conference;

[17] Dhakal S. Appositeness of teacher training for in-service EFL teachers in real teaching context. Journal of NELTA. 2015;**21**(1-2):121-127

[18] Desimone LM. A primer on effective professional development. Phi Delta

1998;**28**(3):321-331

2011;**31**(4):535-548

2014. pp. 114-120

2011;**37**(2):177-179

Google Scholar. 1991

2000;**69**(1):113-127

[2] Hagay G, Baram-Tsabari A. A shadow curriculum: Incorporating students' interests into the formal biology curriculum. Research in Science Education. 2011;**41**(5):

[3] McNeil KL, Gonzalez-Howard M, Katsh-Singer R, Price JF, Loper S. Teachers beliefs and practices around argumentation during a curriculum enactment. In: A Paper to be Presented at the Annual Meeting of the National Association for Research in Science

Teaching, Puerto Rico. 2013

2010;**3**(1):77-100

University Press; 2009

[4] Kilic A. Learner-centered micro teaching in teacher education. International Journal of Instruction.

[5] Hoadley U, Jansen JD. Curriculum: Organizing Knowledge for the Classroom. Southern Africa: Oxford

[6] Gökçe E. Gelişmiş sınıf oğretmeni uygulamaları yetiştirme ulkelerde. Eğitimde Yansımalar: VII Çağdaş Eğitim Elektrik Oğretmen Yetiştirme Ulusal Sempozyumu Müjde. Cumhuriyet Üniversitesi, Sivas; 2003. pp. 68-80

[7] Brown MW. Toward a theory of curriculum design and use. In: Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association. Montreal,

[8] Zohar A. Science teacher education and professional development in argumentation. In: Argumentation in Science Education. Dordrecht: Springer; 2007. pp. 245-268

611-634

**References**

**167**

**Chapter 12**

**Abstract**

teaching research groups.

quality education

**1. Introduction**

The Changing Landscape of

Education in China

*Dora Ho, Mo Wang and Pan He*

Leadership in Early Childhood

This chapter aims to offer a theoretical discussion on the changing landscape of leadership and explores the emerging practice of teacher leadership in ECE in China. In 2010, the central government of China introduced several waves of policies relating to teacher professional development to improve and promote the quality of ECE. The global discourses mainly developed in the West have indicated that school leadership plays an important role in promoting teachers' professional development and the quality of education. These discourses have influenced the agenda for educational reform in China as reflected in the recent strategies formulated for the development of school leadership in ECE. Historically, ECE teachers have been viewed as babysitters rather than as educators, and preschool principals have been considered policy implementers and school managers rather than school leaders of innovation and change. This chapter discusses the changing landscape of school leadership in China's ECE and how it is influenced by a hierarchical culture. It is argued that the practices of school leadership have been largely centralised in the hands of preschool principals, alongside of which there has been an emergence of teacher leadership co-exercised with principalship in home-school networks and

**Keywords:** China, early childhood education, education policy, leadership,

Research on the relationship between the quality of early childhood education (ECE) and child outcomes has shown that government policy and management have been important influencing factors [1]. Government support is necessary to ensure high-quality education for young children [2, 3]. The positive impacts arising from government support for better student outcomes include the acquisition of pre-literacy skills [4], improved socio-emotionality [5], academic performance, language skills and classroom behaviour [3]. High-quality ECE has also been proven to benefit the family and society as a whole. In terms of family development, high-quality ECE can raise female employment rates. It can also promote positive parenthood and relieve mothers' stress. In terms of social capital development, the results of the Perry Preschool Project indicated that the rate of return on investment for ECE is 1:7.16 by the time a child reaches 27 years of age [6]. With growing

#### **Chapter 12**

## The Changing Landscape of Leadership in Early Childhood Education in China

*Dora Ho, Mo Wang and Pan He*

#### **Abstract**

This chapter aims to offer a theoretical discussion on the changing landscape of leadership and explores the emerging practice of teacher leadership in ECE in China. In 2010, the central government of China introduced several waves of policies relating to teacher professional development to improve and promote the quality of ECE. The global discourses mainly developed in the West have indicated that school leadership plays an important role in promoting teachers' professional development and the quality of education. These discourses have influenced the agenda for educational reform in China as reflected in the recent strategies formulated for the development of school leadership in ECE. Historically, ECE teachers have been viewed as babysitters rather than as educators, and preschool principals have been considered policy implementers and school managers rather than school leaders of innovation and change. This chapter discusses the changing landscape of school leadership in China's ECE and how it is influenced by a hierarchical culture. It is argued that the practices of school leadership have been largely centralised in the hands of preschool principals, alongside of which there has been an emergence of teacher leadership co-exercised with principalship in home-school networks and teaching research groups.

**Keywords:** China, early childhood education, education policy, leadership, quality education

#### **1. Introduction**

Research on the relationship between the quality of early childhood education (ECE) and child outcomes has shown that government policy and management have been important influencing factors [1]. Government support is necessary to ensure high-quality education for young children [2, 3]. The positive impacts arising from government support for better student outcomes include the acquisition of pre-literacy skills [4], improved socio-emotionality [5], academic performance, language skills and classroom behaviour [3]. High-quality ECE has also been proven to benefit the family and society as a whole. In terms of family development, high-quality ECE can raise female employment rates. It can also promote positive parenthood and relieve mothers' stress. In terms of social capital development, the results of the Perry Preschool Project indicated that the rate of return on investment for ECE is 1:7.16 by the time a child reaches 27 years of age [6]. With growing

awareness of ECE's importance, the Chinese central government has focused on its development in the past decade [7]. The year 2010 is considered the 'New Spring Time' of ECE. The State Council issued two policy documents: *Compendium for China's Mid- and Long-Term Education Development (2010–2020)* and *State Council's Several Suggestions Regarding Developing ECE*, both addressing ECE as the foundation of basic education. In these two documents, the central government set out its plans to achieve universal ECE by 2020. As a result, there has been a rapid increase in the number of students enrolled in ECE. In 2009, 51% of children of preschool age were enrolled in ECE. This increased to 80% in 2017. As a result of concern over the rapidly growing number of pre-schoolers, researchers have urged the central government to pay attention to the impact of the implementation of universal ECE on the overall quality of ECE [8, 9]. Since 2010, most local governments have initiated comprehensive reforms for ECE by establishing political authorities, increasing financial input, and supporting teacher training programmes [10]. Among these reforms, the teacher professional development policy has been widely considered to be the key factor in promoting the quality of ECE [11]. Under the policy, teachers are regarded as catalysts for educational reform [12] and the guardians of sustainable development in schools [13]. In particular, the notion of teacher leadership in promoting teachers' professional development has received considerable attention [14–19]. However, under the influence of a hierarchical culture in China, ECE leadership is largely centralised in the hands of preschool principals. There have thus been questions about how teachers can take on leadership roles in school change and development as advocated by the central government. This chapter aims to offer a theoretical discussion on the changing landscape of leadership and explores the emerging practice of teacher leadership in ECE in China.

#### **2. Early childhood education in China**

Since the late 1970s, China has engaged in an open-door policy to reform its economic system. The central government has regarded education as a force driving China to prosper, enhancing its national strength. As a result, ECE has been one of the priorities of the reform agenda. ECE in China broadly refers to the care and education of children from birth to 6 years old [20]. Preschool refers to ECE institutions that are run by different service providers. There are two main types of preschool: government and non-government organisations. In terms of school governance, all preschools in China are macro-controlled by the central government and micro-regulated by the local government of each province.

#### **2.1 The governance of ECE**

In 1978, the central government established the Department of ECE and Special Education in the General Education Division [21], signifying the beginning of the comprehensive reform of ECE. In 1979, the State Council established the 'Leading Children's Caring Work Team ECE', consisting of teams from 13 departments, including the Ministry of Education (MOE), Ministry of Health, Ministry of Labour and Social Security and the Federation of Trade Unions [22]. Local governments, including provincial governments, city governments and the governments of the autonomous regions, followed the policy of the central government and set up ECE departments to govern and lead local preschools. In the same year, the MOE (1979) published *Urban Preschool Work Regulations* to guide local governments' work on ECE. In 1985, a policy document, *Decision of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on the Reform of Education System* was issued [23]. In the

**169**

**Figure 1.**

*work together on curriculum innovation and pedagogy.*

*The Changing Landscape of Leadership in Early Childhood Education in China*

document, the central government stated that authority and power had been given to local governments to regulate ECE in their own provinces and it gave autonomy to preschool principals for school-based management and innovation. To decentralise school governance, the central government issued a series of policy documents to provide guidance for ECE institutions. These policy documents covered areas such as the distribution of autonomy to principals, the development agendas for ECE, improvement of teachers' professional development and financial subsidies to

Since 1989, the management system of Chinese preschools has fallen under the domain of the *Preschool Director's Responsibility* [24]*.* Under this system, preschool principals are responsible for handling all vital concerns and decisions, such as the school's mission, training schemes and teacher employment; teachers rarely take on leadership roles. In China, the organisational structure of a preschool is generally hierarchical [25]. Liu described the typical organisational structure in China [26]

In general, the principal has the central administrative and managerial power to operate the preschool. The principal is the legal representative of the preschool and the chief administrative officer, empowered by law to exercise decisionmaking, administrative command, human resource management and financial management [27]. Since 1989, the principal's responsibilities have changed from passively managing the preschool to actively directing it. Preschools have shifted from being externally controlled by the central and local governments to being internally controlled by the principal. Autonomy has been given to the principals for school-based management, and they are also accountable for the quality of the service provision. As a result, there has been a quest by principals to learn how to exercise their power and authority to lead daily operations within a

*The typical organisational structure of a preschool in China (Liu, 2015; [26]). (\* A teaching research group (TRG) is a type of a professional learning community in a preschool that provides a platform for teachers to* 

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84799*

preschools and children.

(see **Figure 1**).

decentralised system.

#### *The Changing Landscape of Leadership in Early Childhood Education in China DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84799*

document, the central government stated that authority and power had been given to local governments to regulate ECE in their own provinces and it gave autonomy to preschool principals for school-based management and innovation. To decentralise school governance, the central government issued a series of policy documents to provide guidance for ECE institutions. These policy documents covered areas such as the distribution of autonomy to principals, the development agendas for ECE, improvement of teachers' professional development and financial subsidies to preschools and children.

Since 1989, the management system of Chinese preschools has fallen under the domain of the *Preschool Director's Responsibility* [24]*.* Under this system, preschool principals are responsible for handling all vital concerns and decisions, such as the school's mission, training schemes and teacher employment; teachers rarely take on leadership roles. In China, the organisational structure of a preschool is generally hierarchical [25]. Liu described the typical organisational structure in China [26] (see **Figure 1**).

In general, the principal has the central administrative and managerial power to operate the preschool. The principal is the legal representative of the preschool and the chief administrative officer, empowered by law to exercise decisionmaking, administrative command, human resource management and financial management [27]. Since 1989, the principal's responsibilities have changed from passively managing the preschool to actively directing it. Preschools have shifted from being externally controlled by the central and local governments to being internally controlled by the principal. Autonomy has been given to the principals for school-based management, and they are also accountable for the quality of the service provision. As a result, there has been a quest by principals to learn how to exercise their power and authority to lead daily operations within a decentralised system.

#### **Figure 1.**

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

awareness of ECE's importance, the Chinese central government has focused on its development in the past decade [7]. The year 2010 is considered the 'New Spring Time' of ECE. The State Council issued two policy documents: *Compendium for China's Mid- and Long-Term Education Development (2010–2020)* and *State Council's Several Suggestions Regarding Developing ECE*, both addressing ECE as the foundation of basic education. In these two documents, the central government set out its plans to achieve universal ECE by 2020. As a result, there has been a rapid increase in the number of students enrolled in ECE. In 2009, 51% of children of preschool age were enrolled in ECE. This increased to 80% in 2017. As a result of concern over the rapidly growing number of pre-schoolers, researchers have urged the central government to pay attention to the impact of the implementation of universal ECE on the overall quality of ECE [8, 9]. Since 2010, most local governments have initiated comprehensive reforms for ECE by establishing political authorities, increasing financial input, and supporting teacher training programmes [10]. Among these reforms, the teacher professional development policy has been widely considered to be the key factor in promoting the quality of ECE [11]. Under the policy, teachers are regarded as catalysts for educational reform [12] and the guardians of sustainable development in schools [13]. In particular, the notion of teacher leadership in promoting teachers' professional development has received considerable attention [14–19]. However, under the influence of a hierarchical culture in China, ECE leadership is largely centralised in the hands of preschool principals. There have thus been questions about how teachers can take on leadership roles in school change and development as advocated by the central government. This chapter aims to offer a theoretical discussion on the changing landscape of leadership and explores the

emerging practice of teacher leadership in ECE in China.

and micro-regulated by the local government of each province.

Since the late 1970s, China has engaged in an open-door policy to reform its economic system. The central government has regarded education as a force driving China to prosper, enhancing its national strength. As a result, ECE has been one of the priorities of the reform agenda. ECE in China broadly refers to the care and education of children from birth to 6 years old [20]. Preschool refers to ECE institutions that are run by different service providers. There are two main types of preschool: government and non-government organisations. In terms of school governance, all preschools in China are macro-controlled by the central government

In 1978, the central government established the Department of ECE and Special Education in the General Education Division [21], signifying the beginning of the comprehensive reform of ECE. In 1979, the State Council established the 'Leading Children's Caring Work Team ECE', consisting of teams from 13 departments, including the Ministry of Education (MOE), Ministry of Health, Ministry of Labour and Social Security and the Federation of Trade Unions [22]. Local governments, including provincial governments, city governments and the governments of the autonomous regions, followed the policy of the central government and set up ECE departments to govern and lead local preschools. In the same year, the MOE (1979) published *Urban Preschool Work Regulations* to guide local governments' work on ECE. In 1985, a policy document, *Decision of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on the Reform of Education System* was issued [23]. In the

**2. Early childhood education in China**

**2.1 The governance of ECE**

**168**

*The typical organisational structure of a preschool in China (Liu, 2015; [26]). (\* A teaching research group (TRG) is a type of a professional learning community in a preschool that provides a platform for teachers to work together on curriculum innovation and pedagogy.*

#### **2.2 Teacher professional development policy**

Before 1976, only one institution offered teacher education programmes: Nanjing Normal College (renamed Nanjing Normal University). In 1978, the MOE published the *Opinions on Strengthening and Developing Teacher Education* to require teacher education colleges and universities to establish ECE departments and increase their student intake. In 1980, the MOE issued two policy documents, the *Opinions on Operating Secondary Normal Education* and the *Teaching Plans of Early Childhood Normal Education.* These reiterated the importance of professional education for preschool teachers. As a result, the number of teacher education institutions providing preschool teacher education programmes increased from 1 in 1978 to 21 in 1980. In 1982, the State Council presented the *Government Work Report* to the National People's Congress (NPC), highlighting the importance of ECE development as the top priority. Improving the quality of preschool teacher education programmes offered by those institutions was identified as a strategy for developing ECE. In 1988, the MOE issued the *Opinions on the Further Development of Programmes of Preschool Teachers in Vocational Secondary Schools.* In this document, the government highlighted the importance of teacher education and professional development and stipulated the eligibility requirements for offering preschool teacher training programmes, the specifications for programme structure and content and student enrolment. In 1995, the MOE issued the *Teaching Project for Three-year Programme of Secondary Preschool Teacher Normal Education*. In this document, the government provided the objectives and curriculum models for preschool teacher education. The next year, the MOE (1996) issued *Some Opinions on the Reform and Development of Teacher Education* [28]. In 2003, the State Council issued *Guides of the Reform and Development of Early Childhood Education.* In the latter two documents, the central government stated that preschool teacher education needed to be reformed and suggested that preschool teachers should receive both formal and informal teacher education.

Since 2010, teacher education policies have focused on improving teachers' professional development. Through teacher education, teachers have been equipped with professional knowledge, skills and attitude [29], which has contributed to improving the quality of ECE [30, 31]. There have been three types of training programme: short-term concentrated training, job-transfer training and backbone teacher1 exchange off-job training. By 2013, a total of 310,000 preschool teachers had participated in these programmes. To further enhance teacher professional development and the quality of ECE, two policy documents, *Preschool Teachers' Professional Standards* (PTPS) and the *Guide for 3–6-Year-Old Children's Learning and Development* (GCLD) were issued by the MOE in 2012. The PTPS highlighted three basic concepts: child-focused teacher ethics, the ability for heavy learning and lifelong learning. There were also three frames of essential content: professional, philosophical and ethical; professional knowledge; and professional competencies. The GCLD aimed to provide preschool teachers with a better understanding of the basic characteristics and milestones of child development. Conforming to the regulations of *The Guidance of ECE (trial version)* issued in 2001, the GCLD divided the content of ECE into five subject areas: health, science, society, language and art. In addition, it provided 87 guidelines on good child-rearing practices for preschool teachers and parents to reference. The GCLD was influenced by Western theories, namely child-centredness, learning through play, school self-evaluation and school-based management. However, these Western theories would have to be

**171**

year [41].

*The Changing Landscape of Leadership in Early Childhood Education in China*

critically reviewed before they could be successfully adapted to the preschools in

Sustaining ECE in China is dependent on effective management systems, sufficient financial inputs and the quantity and quality of professionally trained teachers [36]. However, there have been issues with the management systems of local governments, including ill-defined functions and responsibilities, mismatched personnel allocation and insufficient financial inputs [37]. In addition, the weak professional identity and the low social status of teachers negatively influence the

Another issue is China's shortage of preschool teachers, which is a major challenge to ECE development. **Figure 2** shows that the number of teachers increased from 1,315,634 in 2011 to 2,432,138 in 2017, and the teacher-child ratio gradually improved from 1:26 to 1:19 (**Figure 3**). Nonetheless, a severe shortage of preschool teachers is predicted over the next few years. According to the *Compendium for China's Mid- and Long-Term Education Development (2010–2020)*, there will be a 75% increase in the number of preschool-aged children by 2020. An additional 155,200 preschool teachers will be required by then [39]. The new challenge is tied to the *Two-child Policy,* implemented in 2016. Couples are now permitted to have more children and are expected to do so. It is projected that such population growth will have an impact on ECE development. For example, the shortage of ECE teachers is predicted to reach 2.4 million by 2020 [40]. There are several reasons for this, including teachers' low wages, low social status and job insecurity [13]. In the past, this has led to a high attrition rate and wastage among preschool teachers in China. For example, in Beijing, one out of three teachers in private preschools resigns each

Similarly influenced by Western ideologies on teachers as change agents, developing teacher leadership has recently been recognised as one of the key reform initiatives needed to improve educational quality. In this regard, the MOE issued two policy documents in 2012: *Preschool Teachers' Professional Standards* and *Preschool Job Directive Rules*. The former highlighted four basic concepts for preschool teachers: a morality-first standard, a child-focused approach, an emphasis on teacher competence and the pursuit of lifelong learning. There were also three frames of essential content: professional philosophy and ethics, professional knowledge and professional competencies. The latter addressed the roles of preschool teachers in seven domains: (a) establishing a learning environment, (b) organising and caring for children, (c) support and guidance during play activities, (d) planning and implementation of education activities, (e) evaluation and motivation, (f) communication and collaboration and (g) reflection and development. The *Preschool Job Directive Rules* issued in 2016 highlighted the roles of preschool teachers as follows: (a) providing and implementing an education work plan, (b) establishing the learning environment, (c) guiding and cooperating with childcare workers, (d) keeping in touch with parents, (e) participating in vocational study and research activities on care and education and (f) evaluating the outcomes of child care and education. The reform initiatives have revealed that although preschool teachers in China have been expected to take on various leadership roles, they have remained confined to classroom teaching. Research has also shown that teachers who assume that leadership roles have a higher level of professionalism are willing to take on roles in promoting curriculum innovation, student learning and organisational development [35]. Therefore, it is imperative that preschool principals empower teachers to

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84799*

take on leadership roles outside the classroom.

development of the ECE teaching force in China [38].

**2.3 The ECE teaching force**

China [32–34].

<sup>1</sup> The term 'backbone teachers' refers to those teachers whose performance in teaching and peer professional support is considered excellent in the eyes of other teaching staff.

*The Changing Landscape of Leadership in Early Childhood Education in China DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84799*

critically reviewed before they could be successfully adapted to the preschools in China [32–34].

Similarly influenced by Western ideologies on teachers as change agents, developing teacher leadership has recently been recognised as one of the key reform initiatives needed to improve educational quality. In this regard, the MOE issued two policy documents in 2012: *Preschool Teachers' Professional Standards* and *Preschool Job Directive Rules*. The former highlighted four basic concepts for preschool teachers: a morality-first standard, a child-focused approach, an emphasis on teacher competence and the pursuit of lifelong learning. There were also three frames of essential content: professional philosophy and ethics, professional knowledge and professional competencies. The latter addressed the roles of preschool teachers in seven domains: (a) establishing a learning environment, (b) organising and caring for children, (c) support and guidance during play activities, (d) planning and implementation of education activities, (e) evaluation and motivation, (f) communication and collaboration and (g) reflection and development. The *Preschool Job Directive Rules* issued in 2016 highlighted the roles of preschool teachers as follows: (a) providing and implementing an education work plan, (b) establishing the learning environment, (c) guiding and cooperating with childcare workers, (d) keeping in touch with parents, (e) participating in vocational study and research activities on care and education and (f) evaluating the outcomes of child care and education.

The reform initiatives have revealed that although preschool teachers in China have been expected to take on various leadership roles, they have remained confined to classroom teaching. Research has also shown that teachers who assume that leadership roles have a higher level of professionalism are willing to take on roles in promoting curriculum innovation, student learning and organisational development [35]. Therefore, it is imperative that preschool principals empower teachers to take on leadership roles outside the classroom.

#### **2.3 The ECE teaching force**

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

**2.2 Teacher professional development policy**

both formal and informal teacher education.

Before 1976, only one institution offered teacher education programmes: Nanjing Normal College (renamed Nanjing Normal University). In 1978, the MOE published the *Opinions on Strengthening and Developing Teacher Education* to require teacher education colleges and universities to establish ECE departments and increase their student intake. In 1980, the MOE issued two policy documents, the *Opinions on Operating Secondary Normal Education* and the *Teaching Plans of Early Childhood Normal Education.* These reiterated the importance of professional education for preschool teachers. As a result, the number of teacher education institutions providing preschool teacher education programmes increased from 1 in 1978 to 21 in 1980. In 1982, the State Council presented the *Government Work Report* to the National People's Congress (NPC), highlighting the importance of ECE development as the top priority. Improving the quality of preschool teacher education programmes offered by those institutions was identified as a strategy for developing ECE. In 1988, the MOE issued the *Opinions on the Further Development of Programmes of Preschool Teachers in Vocational Secondary Schools.* In this document, the government highlighted the importance of teacher education and professional development and stipulated the eligibility requirements for offering preschool teacher training programmes, the specifications for programme structure and content and student enrolment. In 1995, the MOE issued the *Teaching Project for Three-year Programme of Secondary Preschool Teacher Normal Education*. In this document, the government provided the objectives and curriculum models for preschool teacher education. The next year, the MOE (1996) issued *Some Opinions on the Reform and Development of Teacher Education* [28]. In 2003, the State Council issued *Guides of the Reform and Development of Early Childhood Education.* In the latter two documents, the central government stated that preschool teacher education needed to be reformed and suggested that preschool teachers should receive

Since 2010, teacher education policies have focused on improving teachers' professional development. Through teacher education, teachers have been equipped with professional knowledge, skills and attitude [29], which has contributed to improving the quality of ECE [30, 31]. There have been three types of training programme: short-term concentrated training, job-transfer training and backbone

had participated in these programmes. To further enhance teacher professional development and the quality of ECE, two policy documents, *Preschool Teachers' Professional Standards* (PTPS) and the *Guide for 3–6-Year-Old Children's Learning and Development* (GCLD) were issued by the MOE in 2012. The PTPS highlighted three basic concepts: child-focused teacher ethics, the ability for heavy learning and lifelong learning. There were also three frames of essential content: professional, philosophical and ethical; professional knowledge; and professional competencies. The GCLD aimed to provide preschool teachers with a better understanding of the basic characteristics and milestones of child development. Conforming to the regulations of *The Guidance of ECE (trial version)* issued in 2001, the GCLD divided the content of ECE into five subject areas: health, science, society, language and art. In addition, it provided 87 guidelines on good child-rearing practices for preschool teachers and parents to reference. The GCLD was influenced by Western theories, namely child-centredness, learning through play, school self-evaluation and school-based management. However, these Western theories would have to be

<sup>1</sup> The term 'backbone teachers' refers to those teachers whose performance in teaching and peer profes-

sional support is considered excellent in the eyes of other teaching staff.

exchange off-job training. By 2013, a total of 310,000 preschool teachers

**170**

teacher1

Sustaining ECE in China is dependent on effective management systems, sufficient financial inputs and the quantity and quality of professionally trained teachers [36]. However, there have been issues with the management systems of local governments, including ill-defined functions and responsibilities, mismatched personnel allocation and insufficient financial inputs [37]. In addition, the weak professional identity and the low social status of teachers negatively influence the development of the ECE teaching force in China [38].

Another issue is China's shortage of preschool teachers, which is a major challenge to ECE development. **Figure 2** shows that the number of teachers increased from 1,315,634 in 2011 to 2,432,138 in 2017, and the teacher-child ratio gradually improved from 1:26 to 1:19 (**Figure 3**). Nonetheless, a severe shortage of preschool teachers is predicted over the next few years. According to the *Compendium for China's Mid- and Long-Term Education Development (2010–2020)*, there will be a 75% increase in the number of preschool-aged children by 2020. An additional 155,200 preschool teachers will be required by then [39]. The new challenge is tied to the *Two-child Policy,* implemented in 2016. Couples are now permitted to have more children and are expected to do so. It is projected that such population growth will have an impact on ECE development. For example, the shortage of ECE teachers is predicted to reach 2.4 million by 2020 [40]. There are several reasons for this, including teachers' low wages, low social status and job insecurity [13]. In the past, this has led to a high attrition rate and wastage among preschool teachers in China. For example, in Beijing, one out of three teachers in private preschools resigns each year [41].

#### **Figure 2.**

*Number of teachers and student enrolment in 2011–2017.*

#### **Figure 3.**

Due to low professional entry qualifications, preschool teachers' professional status has not been well recognised in China [42]. As shown in **Figure 4**, the rate of educational attainment (for example, an Associate degree or above) gradually increased from 2011 to 2017, but in 2017, only 21% of preschool teachers had obtained an undergraduate degree or above. This may lead to preschool teachers' poor self-image and low level of professionalism [42, 43]. Indeed, teachers in Chinese preschools often consider teaching and taking care of children as their sole function. This perception is rooted in the belief that preschool teachers in China are followers who do not take responsibility for anything other than teaching and caring inside the classroom. However, several previous studies have indicated that teachers play a key role as change agents for school development and improvement [32, 44]. Teachers with a strong professional identity perceive themselves to be effective leaders and active participants in decision-making, and *vice versa* [43]. Freidson stated that professionalism enables teachers to cultivate a sense of self-direction, independence and

**173**

**3. Chinese culture**

**Figure 4.**

*The Changing Landscape of Leadership in Early Childhood Education in China*

autonomy [45]. It is therefore important for the public to openly recognise preschool teachers' professionalism. This is one of the ways teachers could be influenced to

Fan described culture as 'the collection of values, beliefs, behaviours, customs and attitudes that distinguish a society' ([46] p3). Societal culture is a complex and multidimensional concept. It has also been viewed as an important factor influenc-

China is a developing country with 5000 years of history and the largest population in the world. With its long historical development, it is axiomatic that school leadership practices would be affected by Chinese culture. There have been numerous studies on school leadership in the Chinese cultural context. For example, Bush and Qian generalised four types of Chinese culture, representing the different stages of history: traditional culture, socialist culture, enterprise culture and patriarchal culture [48]. Traditional culture is rooted in the pervasive influence of Confucianism for over 2500 years. In the school context, traditional culture is often associated with centralised authority, collectivism and harmony. Socialist culture has become influential since the Chinese Civil War in 1945–1949. This type of culture has politicised the centralised power and authority of school principals in decision-making. Enterprise culture has promoted the importance of marketization in education system since the implementation of Open Door Policy for transforming China's economy since the late 1970s. Patriarchal culture has influenced how people in Chinese societies understand, perceive and enact the role of men and women in school leadership. In addition, Hofstede identified four dimensions of cultural values: power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism versus collectivism and masculinity versus femininity [49]. Some have suggested that Hofstede's work on individualism versus collectivism and power

assume leadership roles in school development and improvement.

ing leadership practices and how leadership is conceptualised [47].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84799*

*Educational attainment of ECE teachers in 2011–2017.*

*The Changing Landscape of Leadership in Early Childhood Education in China DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84799*

**Figure 4.**

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

**172**

**Figure 2.**

**Figure 3.**

*Preschool teacher-child ratio in 2011–2017.*

*Number of teachers and student enrolment in 2011–2017.*

Due to low professional entry qualifications, preschool teachers' professional status has not been well recognised in China [42]. As shown in **Figure 4**, the rate of educational attainment (for example, an Associate degree or above) gradually increased from 2011 to 2017, but in 2017, only 21% of preschool teachers had obtained an undergraduate degree or above. This may lead to preschool teachers' poor self-image and low level of professionalism [42, 43]. Indeed, teachers in Chinese preschools often consider teaching and taking care of children as their sole function. This perception is rooted in the belief that preschool teachers in China are followers who do not take responsibility for anything other than teaching and caring inside the classroom. However, several previous studies have indicated that teachers play a key role as change agents for school development and improvement [32, 44]. Teachers with a strong professional identity perceive themselves to be effective leaders and active participants in decision-making, and *vice versa* [43]. Freidson stated that professionalism enables teachers to cultivate a sense of self-direction, independence and

*Educational attainment of ECE teachers in 2011–2017.*

autonomy [45]. It is therefore important for the public to openly recognise preschool teachers' professionalism. This is one of the ways teachers could be influenced to assume leadership roles in school development and improvement.

#### **3. Chinese culture**

Fan described culture as 'the collection of values, beliefs, behaviours, customs and attitudes that distinguish a society' ([46] p3). Societal culture is a complex and multidimensional concept. It has also been viewed as an important factor influencing leadership practices and how leadership is conceptualised [47].

China is a developing country with 5000 years of history and the largest population in the world. With its long historical development, it is axiomatic that school leadership practices would be affected by Chinese culture. There have been numerous studies on school leadership in the Chinese cultural context. For example, Bush and Qian generalised four types of Chinese culture, representing the different stages of history: traditional culture, socialist culture, enterprise culture and patriarchal culture [48]. Traditional culture is rooted in the pervasive influence of Confucianism for over 2500 years. In the school context, traditional culture is often associated with centralised authority, collectivism and harmony. Socialist culture has become influential since the Chinese Civil War in 1945–1949. This type of culture has politicised the centralised power and authority of school principals in decision-making. Enterprise culture has promoted the importance of marketization in education system since the implementation of Open Door Policy for transforming China's economy since the late 1970s. Patriarchal culture has influenced how people in Chinese societies understand, perceive and enact the role of men and women in school leadership. In addition, Hofstede identified four dimensions of cultural values: power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism versus collectivism and masculinity versus femininity [49]. Some have suggested that Hofstede's work on individualism versus collectivism and power

distance would have been better defined in terms of loyal involvement and utilitarian involvement, representing varying orientations towards the continuity of group membership, just as conservatism and egalitarian commitment represent different orientations towards the obligations of social relationships [50]. Schwartz undertook detailed work on cultural values, defining six types: conservatism, intellectual and affective autonomy, harmony, egalitarian commitment, mastery and hierarchy [51]. In addition to the dimensions of cultural values mentioned above, Confucianism has commonly been relied on to describe leadership cultures in the Chinese context [32, 52]. Cultural values in China are highly complex. These cultural values are deeply embedded in leadership practices. A plethora of research has focused on school leadership in China. From this, three mainstream Chinese cultural systems have been captured: Confucianism, collectivism and Chinese communism [52]. A study conducted by Ho has found that the leadership practices and collegiality are shaped by the presence of collective, harmonious relationships under the influence of Confucianism [43]. Fu and Tsui depict that 'hard working, devoted, action-oriented, determined, servicing, abide by principles, collectivistic, corruption resistant, democratic, optimistic, relying on followers, self-sacrificing, value driven, and visionary' are unique characteristics of leadership in the Chinese context ([53] p442). These characteristics are perceived as compatible with the communist ideologies. Research on how the moral integrity of school principals is influenced by the Chinese communism has been a focus of educational leadership since the late 1990s [54, 55].

Cultural contexts shape the ways in which leaders enact leadership practices [56]. That is, leadership concepts and behaviours that appear similar can be interpreted differently due to their different socio-cultural contexts [57]. The interpretation of leadership concepts and behaviours in the Chinese context has been influenced by the Chinese culture. Hence, there is a need to understand the practices of school leadership through the lens of the Chinese cultural system rather than solely through Western theoretical perspectives [48].

Since the 1990s, scholars working in the school leadership field have argued that when applying the theories and practices of school leadership across cultures, special attention should be paid to socio-cultural contexts (e.g., [58–60]). Culture influences the thinking and behaviour of various school stakeholders, including students, teachers, principals, administrators, parents and policy makers [59]. However, the recent literature (e.g., [61–63]) has indicated that the cultural factors have not yet been adequately addressed by relevant studies on school leadership [64]. Indeed, school leadership studies conducted in Asia, including China, have been criticised for being full of 'cultural borrowing' [63].

Because leadership is a value-laden concept [65, 66] influenced by social, political, cultural and economic contexts [33, 48], when looking at Chinese schools, it is important to understand the influence of Chinese culture on leadership concepts and behaviours through the lens of cultural values. Numerous studies have attempted to identify the influence of Chinese culture on leadership concepts and practices (e.g., [52, 59]). This must now be extended to include the Chinese educational stakeholders in ECE and how the Chinese culture influences their interpretations of leadership concepts and behaviours.

#### **4. The changing landscape of school leadership**

As previously mentioned, since 1989, the management system of preschools in China has fallen under the domain of the *Preschool Director's Responsibility* [24]. Within this domain, preschool principals are responsible for handling all vital concerns and decisions. However, ECE in China has been changing rapidly due to a

**175**

*The Changing Landscape of Leadership in Early Childhood Education in China*

number of factors, such as the introduction of universal ECE, changed government policy, increasing student enrolment rates, improved standards regarding teacher qualifications and professional development. In this changing context, the practice of school leadership has been evolving. It has been argued that teacher leadership is a key factor in the success of school change [67, 68]. Teacher leadership in ECE has been emerging in the context of educational reform [69]. Teacher leadership has a close relationship with teachers' professional development [16, 17, 19, 70]. It also leads to higher levels of job satisfaction and teacher retention [71], promotes continuing professional development [72, 73] and drives teachers to exciting endeavours [74]. Hulin and Judge noted that teachers who engage in leading roles have better job satisfaction [75]. This is beneficial to their psychological well-being. Research has found that teachers with greater job satisfaction are more willing to participate in school decision-making [76]. Given that teacher leadership is critical to teachers' job satisfaction and teacher retention, it is important to explore the practices of ECE teacher leadership in China. In this way, a sustainable and highquality teaching force can be promoted and built. Recent studies on school development have focused on the relationship between teacher leadership and continuing professional development. It has been found that continuing professional development could build a teacher's capacity to lead his or her colleagues to change [19, 77]. This implies that it is important to build teachers' leadership capacity. Through such a process, teachers can develop self-direction, independence and autonomy. To formulate a theoretical framework that can be used in the foreground of research into school leadership in ECE in China, we conceptualise three types of leadership

Staff-management has been identified as a key component of school leadership [78]. In ECE in China, it has mainly been the province of preschool principals. They seldom involve their subordinates in staff management. In other words, the exercise of power and authority is largely centralised in the hands of preschool principals

Under centralised leadership, principals have absolute power and authority over staff management; it is a top-down management approach [79, 80]. This type of leadership practice has been commonly accepted by the subordinates in Chinese preschools who have agreed that 'only the principal has the final say' [69]. In Confucian society, the sovereign-subject relationship required followers to obey their leaders' orders. Based on that tradition, preschool principals in China today are responsible for handling all vital decisions. Teachers rarely assume leadership roles at the organisational level. In this situation, it is common for teachers to perceive themselves as followers and hold passive attitudes towards decision-making in

In preschool organisational structures, the parent-school committee and party branch are parallel to the principals. By establishing a party branch, the Communist Party ensures its policies are implemented and political education is provided to the faculties and students [81]. Normally, there are two vice principals. One is the leader of the teaching research group (TRG). The other oversees logistics and is the secretary of the party branch [82]. Modelled after the Soviet Union in the 1950s, all schools in China began to establish TRGs as a formal functional group within the organisational structure. The responsibility of the TRGs is to coordinate teachers

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84799*

practices: centralised, co-existing and decentralised.

staff management, hesitating to take on leading roles [80].

**4.1 Centralised leadership**

and in a form of single leadership.

**4.2 Co-existing leadership**

*The Changing Landscape of Leadership in Early Childhood Education in China DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84799*

number of factors, such as the introduction of universal ECE, changed government policy, increasing student enrolment rates, improved standards regarding teacher qualifications and professional development. In this changing context, the practice of school leadership has been evolving. It has been argued that teacher leadership is a key factor in the success of school change [67, 68]. Teacher leadership in ECE has been emerging in the context of educational reform [69]. Teacher leadership has a close relationship with teachers' professional development [16, 17, 19, 70]. It also leads to higher levels of job satisfaction and teacher retention [71], promotes continuing professional development [72, 73] and drives teachers to exciting endeavours [74]. Hulin and Judge noted that teachers who engage in leading roles have better job satisfaction [75]. This is beneficial to their psychological well-being. Research has found that teachers with greater job satisfaction are more willing to participate in school decision-making [76]. Given that teacher leadership is critical to teachers' job satisfaction and teacher retention, it is important to explore the practices of ECE teacher leadership in China. In this way, a sustainable and highquality teaching force can be promoted and built. Recent studies on school development have focused on the relationship between teacher leadership and continuing professional development. It has been found that continuing professional development could build a teacher's capacity to lead his or her colleagues to change [19, 77]. This implies that it is important to build teachers' leadership capacity. Through such a process, teachers can develop self-direction, independence and autonomy. To formulate a theoretical framework that can be used in the foreground of research into school leadership in ECE in China, we conceptualise three types of leadership practices: centralised, co-existing and decentralised.

#### **4.1 Centralised leadership**

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

tional leadership since the late 1990s [54, 55].

than solely through Western theoretical perspectives [48].

been criticised for being full of 'cultural borrowing' [63].

tions of leadership concepts and behaviours.

**4. The changing landscape of school leadership**

distance would have been better defined in terms of loyal involvement and utilitarian involvement, representing varying orientations towards the continuity of group membership, just as conservatism and egalitarian commitment represent different orientations towards the obligations of social relationships [50]. Schwartz undertook detailed work on cultural values, defining six types: conservatism, intellectual and affective autonomy, harmony, egalitarian commitment, mastery and hierarchy [51]. In addition to the dimensions of cultural values mentioned above, Confucianism has commonly been relied on to describe leadership cultures in the Chinese context [32, 52]. Cultural values in China are highly complex. These cultural values are deeply embedded in leadership practices. A plethora of research has focused on school leadership in China. From this, three mainstream Chinese cultural systems have been captured: Confucianism, collectivism and Chinese communism [52]. A study conducted by Ho has found that the leadership practices and collegiality are shaped by the presence of collective, harmonious relationships under the influence of Confucianism [43]. Fu and Tsui depict that 'hard working, devoted, action-oriented, determined, servicing, abide by principles, collectivistic, corruption resistant, democratic, optimistic, relying on followers, self-sacrificing, value driven, and visionary' are unique characteristics of leadership in the Chinese context ([53] p442). These characteristics are perceived as compatible with the communist ideologies. Research on how the moral integrity of school principals is influenced by the Chinese communism has been a focus of educa-

Cultural contexts shape the ways in which leaders enact leadership practices [56]. That is, leadership concepts and behaviours that appear similar can be interpreted differently due to their different socio-cultural contexts [57]. The interpretation of leadership concepts and behaviours in the Chinese context has been influenced by the Chinese culture. Hence, there is a need to understand the practices of school leadership through the lens of the Chinese cultural system rather

Since the 1990s, scholars working in the school leadership field have argued that when applying the theories and practices of school leadership across cultures, special attention should be paid to socio-cultural contexts (e.g., [58–60]). Culture influences the thinking and behaviour of various school stakeholders, including students, teachers, principals, administrators, parents and policy makers [59]. However, the recent literature (e.g., [61–63]) has indicated that the cultural factors have not yet been adequately addressed by relevant studies on school leadership [64]. Indeed, school leadership studies conducted in Asia, including China, have

Because leadership is a value-laden concept [65, 66] influenced by social, political, cultural and economic contexts [33, 48], when looking at Chinese schools, it is important to understand the influence of Chinese culture on leadership concepts and behaviours through the lens of cultural values. Numerous studies have attempted to identify the influence of Chinese culture on leadership concepts and practices (e.g., [52, 59]). This must now be extended to include the Chinese educational stakeholders in ECE and how the Chinese culture influences their interpreta-

As previously mentioned, since 1989, the management system of preschools in China has fallen under the domain of the *Preschool Director's Responsibility* [24]. Within this domain, preschool principals are responsible for handling all vital concerns and decisions. However, ECE in China has been changing rapidly due to a

**174**

Staff-management has been identified as a key component of school leadership [78]. In ECE in China, it has mainly been the province of preschool principals. They seldom involve their subordinates in staff management. In other words, the exercise of power and authority is largely centralised in the hands of preschool principals and in a form of single leadership.

Under centralised leadership, principals have absolute power and authority over staff management; it is a top-down management approach [79, 80]. This type of leadership practice has been commonly accepted by the subordinates in Chinese preschools who have agreed that 'only the principal has the final say' [69]. In Confucian society, the sovereign-subject relationship required followers to obey their leaders' orders. Based on that tradition, preschool principals in China today are responsible for handling all vital decisions. Teachers rarely assume leadership roles at the organisational level. In this situation, it is common for teachers to perceive themselves as followers and hold passive attitudes towards decision-making in staff management, hesitating to take on leading roles [80].

#### **4.2 Co-existing leadership**

In preschool organisational structures, the parent-school committee and party branch are parallel to the principals. By establishing a party branch, the Communist Party ensures its policies are implemented and political education is provided to the faculties and students [81]. Normally, there are two vice principals. One is the leader of the teaching research group (TRG). The other oversees logistics and is the secretary of the party branch [82]. Modelled after the Soviet Union in the 1950s, all schools in China began to establish TRGs as a formal functional group within the organisational structure. The responsibility of the TRGs is to coordinate teachers

so they can implement the educational policies stipulated by local governments, work together on the curriculum and pedagogical innovations and participate in professional development and exchange [83]. Although the central government has defined TRGs as teacher professional learning communities instead of administrative organisations [84], TRGs not only work on teacher professional development and teaching issues, but also address teachers' affairs beyond teaching and learning. For example, they prepare teachers for job promotions, help resolve their personal problems and endeavour to improve their interpersonal skills [85]. To this extent, TRGs partly share the administrative tasks of teacher management [86, 87]. Due to their dual role in leading curriculum development and teacher management, TRGs are able to promote collaborative work among teachers and encourage them to learn from each other, nurturing a democratic, positive, harmonious and open-minded subculture within the group. TRGs harmoniously enact collegiality within the hierarchical and bureaucratic system and provide a countervailing influence to the power of the principals [88].

In ECE, the leaders of TRGs are generally regarded as formal leaders in curriculum development [86]. The roles of TRG leaders in China's preschools vary, depending on their positions within the organisational structure and their responsibilities. A number of studies on TRGS have revealed that their leaders play a key role in facilitating communications between senior leaders and classroom teachers [89–91]. Because they work closely with principals, they are regarded as principals' think tanks and assistants [90]. The leaders of TRGs play multiple roles in school management and leadership. Niu and Liu claimed that TRG leaders act as consultants to principals in school decisions [91]. Further, TRG leaders work as experts on the curriculum, pedagogy and educational research. They are both the coordinators of staff interpersonal relationships and external liaisons. They are managers of school administration and the internal trainers for staff professional development [92]. Shi and Xie found that the roles of TRG leaders had been changing from information conveyers to professional experts, from managers to leaders of learning and research and from teachers to self-reflective practitioners and researchers [93].

Recently, there has been a shift in attention from focusing on the personal traits and characteristics of TRG leaders to emphasising TRG leadership practices. For example, Gu argued that effective TRG leaders should have a sense of risk-taking, an awareness of teamwork and collaboration, an innovative mind-set and a strong commitment and dedication to education quality [94]. Bai asserted that a capable TRG leader is innovative and academically knowledgeable, good at organisational coordination and communication skills and embraced the spirit of teamwork [95]. Wang and Xin concluded that the characteristics of an effective TRG leader can be categorised into three areas [96]:


A study conducted by Guo showed that TRG leaders are good at teaching, communication and self-management. However, they are weak in curriculum planning,

**177**

*The Changing Landscape of Leadership in Early Childhood Education in China*

sional development and empowerment opportunities for TRG leaders.

scientific research and coordination [85]. The reason for this is the lack of profes-

In the notion of teacher leadership, the teacher acts as the leader, influencing others to produce better educational practices and student outcomes [97, 98]. In ECE, parents are the key stakeholders. The involvement of parents in home-school committees can be understood as a vehicle for promoting teacher leadership because teachers have to work closely with parents for children's learning and development [99, 100]. As Greenlee argued, teachers are the school personnel who work most closely with parents day-to-day [101]. Teachers are willing to take on a leading role when working with parents for home-school collaboration in order to promote the

In China's ECE, the home-school committee is a common form of home-school collaboration. Within the network, the teacher leaders share their professional knowledge and child-rearing methods with parents. In turn, parental involvement plays a key role in school development [102]. Indeed, teacher leaders are expected to assume leadership roles to improve parental involvement [103]. It has been argued that compared with school principals, who are more concerned with administrative duties, classroom teachers have more opportunities to work with parents on the

A study conducted in China indicated that classroom teachers are given the autonomy to engage in home-school committees, which is recognised as one type of teacher leadership practice [104]. This result reflects the introduction of two national policies, the *Preschool Teachers' Professional Standard* and *Preschool Job Directive Rules*, which have encouraged teachers to become involved in home-school committees and have emphasised that communication with parents is one of the teachers' leadership roles. In this regard, teacher leadership has emerged within

This chapter aims to offer a theoretical discussion on the changing landscape of leadership and explores the emerging practice of teacher leadership in ECE in China. Since 2010, the Chinese central government has introduced several waves of policies related to teachers' professional development, aimed at improving and promoting the quality of ECE. The global discourses mainly developed in the West have shown that school leadership plays an important role in promoting both teacher professional development and educational quality. These global discourses have influenced the reform agenda of the Chinese central government as reflected in the recent strategies formulated to develop school leadership in ECE. Against this background, the ECE teaching force has been recognised as the key to school improvement and development. Historically, ECE teachers have been viewed as babysitters rather than educators, and principals have been recognised as policy implementers and school managers rather than school leaders of innovation and change. As a result, preschool leadership has been placed as one of the top priorities

As previously discussed, school leadership practices in China's ECE have been influenced by the Chinese hierarchical culture and the management system of *Preschool Director's Responsibility*. To a certain extent, the changing ECE context has indicated that leadership practices are gradually transforming from centralised

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84799*

holistic development of young children.

development of preschool children.

China's ECE.

**5. Concluding remarks**

in the reform agenda of ECE.

**4.3 Decentralised leadership**

scientific research and coordination [85]. The reason for this is the lack of professional development and empowerment opportunities for TRG leaders.

#### **4.3 Decentralised leadership**

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

power of the principals [88].

categorised into three areas [96]:

leaders in professional development.

promotion.

and functions.

so they can implement the educational policies stipulated by local governments, work together on the curriculum and pedagogical innovations and participate in professional development and exchange [83]. Although the central government has defined TRGs as teacher professional learning communities instead of administrative organisations [84], TRGs not only work on teacher professional development and teaching issues, but also address teachers' affairs beyond teaching and learning. For example, they prepare teachers for job promotions, help resolve their personal problems and endeavour to improve their interpersonal skills [85]. To this extent, TRGs partly share the administrative tasks of teacher management [86, 87]. Due to their dual role in leading curriculum development and teacher management, TRGs are able to promote collaborative work among teachers and encourage them to learn from each other, nurturing a democratic, positive, harmonious and open-minded subculture within the group. TRGs harmoniously enact collegiality within the hierarchical and bureaucratic system and provide a countervailing influence to the

In ECE, the leaders of TRGs are generally regarded as formal leaders in curriculum development [86]. The roles of TRG leaders in China's preschools vary, depending on their positions within the organisational structure and their responsibilities. A number of studies on TRGS have revealed that their leaders play a key role in facilitating communications between senior leaders and classroom teachers [89–91]. Because they work closely with principals, they are regarded as principals' think tanks and assistants [90]. The leaders of TRGs play multiple roles in school management and leadership. Niu and Liu claimed that TRG leaders act as consultants to principals in school decisions [91]. Further, TRG leaders work as experts on the curriculum, pedagogy and educational research. They are both the coordinators of staff interpersonal relationships and external liaisons. They are managers of school administration and the internal trainers for staff professional development [92]. Shi and Xie found that the roles of TRG leaders had been changing from information conveyers to professional experts, from managers to leaders of learning and research and from teachers to self-reflective practitioners and researchers [93].

Recently, there has been a shift in attention from focusing on the personal traits and characteristics of TRG leaders to emphasising TRG leadership practices. For example, Gu argued that effective TRG leaders should have a sense of risk-taking, an awareness of teamwork and collaboration, an innovative mind-set and a strong commitment and dedication to education quality [94]. Bai asserted that a capable TRG leader is innovative and academically knowledgeable, good at organisational coordination and communication skills and embraced the spirit of teamwork [95]. Wang and Xin concluded that the characteristics of an effective TRG leader can be

1.Having high moral standards: clearly know the responsibilities, seek truth from the facts, have integrity in politics; dare to take responsibility, adhere to principles and persist to the bottom line of moral standards; sensibly treat the

2.Being professional in work: able to lead teaching and research work and be

3.Having a clear role identity of a TRG leader and being able to carry out its role

A study conducted by Guo showed that TRG leaders are good at teaching, communication and self-management. However, they are weak in curriculum planning,

**176**

In the notion of teacher leadership, the teacher acts as the leader, influencing others to produce better educational practices and student outcomes [97, 98]. In ECE, parents are the key stakeholders. The involvement of parents in home-school committees can be understood as a vehicle for promoting teacher leadership because teachers have to work closely with parents for children's learning and development [99, 100]. As Greenlee argued, teachers are the school personnel who work most closely with parents day-to-day [101]. Teachers are willing to take on a leading role when working with parents for home-school collaboration in order to promote the holistic development of young children.

In China's ECE, the home-school committee is a common form of home-school collaboration. Within the network, the teacher leaders share their professional knowledge and child-rearing methods with parents. In turn, parental involvement plays a key role in school development [102]. Indeed, teacher leaders are expected to assume leadership roles to improve parental involvement [103]. It has been argued that compared with school principals, who are more concerned with administrative duties, classroom teachers have more opportunities to work with parents on the development of preschool children.

A study conducted in China indicated that classroom teachers are given the autonomy to engage in home-school committees, which is recognised as one type of teacher leadership practice [104]. This result reflects the introduction of two national policies, the *Preschool Teachers' Professional Standard* and *Preschool Job Directive Rules*, which have encouraged teachers to become involved in home-school committees and have emphasised that communication with parents is one of the teachers' leadership roles. In this regard, teacher leadership has emerged within China's ECE.

### **5. Concluding remarks**

This chapter aims to offer a theoretical discussion on the changing landscape of leadership and explores the emerging practice of teacher leadership in ECE in China. Since 2010, the Chinese central government has introduced several waves of policies related to teachers' professional development, aimed at improving and promoting the quality of ECE. The global discourses mainly developed in the West have shown that school leadership plays an important role in promoting both teacher professional development and educational quality. These global discourses have influenced the reform agenda of the Chinese central government as reflected in the recent strategies formulated to develop school leadership in ECE. Against this background, the ECE teaching force has been recognised as the key to school improvement and development. Historically, ECE teachers have been viewed as babysitters rather than educators, and principals have been recognised as policy implementers and school managers rather than school leaders of innovation and change. As a result, preschool leadership has been placed as one of the top priorities in the reform agenda of ECE.

As previously discussed, school leadership practices in China's ECE have been influenced by the Chinese hierarchical culture and the management system of *Preschool Director's Responsibility*. To a certain extent, the changing ECE context has indicated that leadership practices are gradually transforming from centralised to decentralised. In a Chinese hierarchical culture, there are questions about the extent to which principals can delegate power and authority to teachers. It has been argued that preschool principals take control of staff management and rarely distribute power and authority to their subordinates. School principals solely depend on middle-level leaders, or even on themselves. Further, research has indicated that teachers perform teacher leadership practices at the school level based on the premise of principals' power and authority [104]. Therefore, school principals should empower teachers to take on leadership roles at the school level. For example, school principals could empower teachers to provide suggestions on how to improve efficiency in the use of school operating funds, because teachers understand how such expenditures can promote teaching and learning. Doing so contributes to teachers' self-efficacy and morale [105] and flattens the hierarchical structure [106].

To summarise, since the 1970s, the Chinese central government has implemented a comprehensive educational reform to improve various aspects of ECE, such as universal education, school governance, school management, financial resources, teacher education and professional development. Educational reform has been shaping the landscape of school leadership from a centralised to both of a co-existing and a decentralised form. The practice of teacher leadership has been emerging in the area of home-school committees and teaching research groups. This has suggested that the role of ECE in China is changing from babysitting to developmental nurturing. Preschools act as important institutions that help nurture and develop young generations. To conclude, the above discussion has begun to flesh out the fundamental issues of school leadership practices in political and cultural dimensions, providing direction for future leadership inquiry.

**179**

**Author details**

Dora Ho\*, Mo Wang and Pan He

provided the original work is properly cited.

The Education University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China

\*Address all correspondence to: doraho@eduhk.hk

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

*The Changing Landscape of Leadership in Early Childhood Education in China*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84799*

*The Changing Landscape of Leadership in Early Childhood Education in China DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84799*

#### **Author details**

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

structure [106].

inquiry.

to decentralised. In a Chinese hierarchical culture, there are questions about the extent to which principals can delegate power and authority to teachers. It has been argued that preschool principals take control of staff management and rarely distribute power and authority to their subordinates. School principals solely depend on middle-level leaders, or even on themselves. Further, research has indicated that teachers perform teacher leadership practices at the school level based on the premise of principals' power and authority [104]. Therefore, school principals should empower teachers to take on leadership roles at the school level. For example, school principals could empower teachers to provide suggestions on how to improve efficiency in the use of school operating funds, because teachers understand how such expenditures can promote teaching and learning. Doing so contributes to teachers' self-efficacy and morale [105] and flattens the hierarchical

To summarise, since the 1970s, the Chinese central government has implemented a comprehensive educational reform to improve various aspects of ECE, such as universal education, school governance, school management, financial resources, teacher education and professional development. Educational reform has been shaping the landscape of school leadership from a centralised to both of a co-existing and a decentralised form. The practice of teacher leadership has been emerging in the area of home-school committees and teaching research groups. This has suggested that the role of ECE in China is changing from babysitting to developmental nurturing. Preschools act as important institutions that help nurture and develop young generations. To conclude, the above discussion has begun to flesh out the fundamental issues of school leadership practices in political and cultural dimensions, providing direction for future leadership

**178**

Dora Ho\*, Mo Wang and Pan He The Education University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China

\*Address all correspondence to: doraho@eduhk.hk

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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of the school principal in fostering parent-school engagement. Educational

[103] Lindahl R. Shared leadership: Can it work in schools.? The Educational

Management Administration & Leadership. 2014;**42**(4):491-505

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[105] Murphy J. Connecting Teacher Leadership and School Improvement. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press;

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2005

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[94] Gu Q , Sammons P, Mehta P. Leadership characteristics and practices in schools with different effectiveness and improvement profiles. School Leadership and Management.

[95] Bai R. The excellent leaders of teaching research groups in schools [in Chinese]. Teaching and Learning.

[96] Wang Y, Xin QX. What is a good teaching research group leader in school? [in Chinese]. New Study.

Awakening the Sleeping Giant: Helping Teachers Develop as Leaders. Thousand

[97] Katzenmeyer M, Moller G.

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[98] York-Barr J, Duke K. What do we know about teacher leadership? Findings from two decades of scholarship. Review of Educational Research. 2004 Sep;**74**(3):255-316

[99] Ho D. Exploring the definitions of quality early childhood programmes in a market-driven context: Case studies of two Hong Kong preschools. International Journal of Early Years Education. 2008;**16**(3):223-236

[100] Svanbjörnsdóttir BM, Macdonald A, Frímannsson GH. Views of learning and a sense of community among students, paraprofessionals and parents in developing a school culture towards a professional learning community. Professional Development in Education.

[101] Greenlee BJ. Building teacher leadership capacity through educational

[102] Barr J, Saltmarsh S. "It all comes down to the leadership" The role

leadership programs. Journal of Research for Educational Leaders.

2016;**42**(4):589-609

2007;**4**(1):44-74

2008;**28**(1):43-63

2013;**4**:43

2014;**6**:22-24

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[94] Gu Q , Sammons P, Mehta P. Leadership characteristics and practices in schools with different effectiveness and improvement profiles. School Leadership and Management. 2008;**28**(1):43-63

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

Wiley & Sons Inc; 2003

[75] Hulin CL, Judge TA. Handbook of Psychology: Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Vol. 12. Hoboken, NJ: John

[84] Ministry of Education. Secondary School Provisional Regulation [in Chinese]. Beijing: Author; 1952

[85] Guo CY. Defining the roles of the leaders of teaching-research groups in new curriculum [In Chinese]. Contemporary Educational Science.

[86] Hu Y. Empirical study on the nature of teaching and research group in secondary schools in China: A case study of secondary in the Urban Area of Beijing [in Chinese]. Journal of Educational Studies. 2012;**8**(6):78-89

[87] Wang R. Roles of the leaders of teaching research groups in school transformation and reform [in Chinese]. Kecheng Yu Jiaoxue Guanli.

[88] Jarvis A. The necessity for collegiality: Power, authority and influence in the middle. Educational Management Administration & Leadership. 2012;**40**(4):480-493

[89] Li YG, Yang HK. The roles of teaching research groups in leading teaching training [in Chinese]. Teacher

[90] Liang P. Leaders of teaching research groups and their authority building [in Chinese]. New Study.

[91] Niu LL, Liu XR. Characteristics of leaders of teaching research groups [in Chinese]. Teachers' World. 2012;**6**:19

[92] Ma LQ. Roles of teaching research

[93] Shi JD, Xie XJ. The changing of roles of leaders of teaching research groups [in Chinese]. Exploration Horizon.

team leaders and professional development training [in Chinese]. Teacher's World. 2007;**2**:66-68

Development. 2006;**3**:56-60

2007;**1**:33-36

2011;**12**:40-41

2009;**3**:28-32

2009;**8**:50-53

[76] Taylor WA. Leadership challenges

perceptions of TQM implementation.

organizational trust on the culture of teacher leadership in primary schools. Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice. 2015;**15**(3):621-634

for smaller organisations: Self-

Omega. 1997;**25**(5):567-579

[77] Demir K. The effect of

[78] Kwan P, Walker A. Viceprincipalship in Hong Kong: Aspirations, competencies, and satisfaction. School Effectiveness

and School Improvement.

Research. 2018;**6**(6):291-302

[80] Ho D. Identifying leadership roles for quality in early childhood education programmes. International Journal of Leadership in Education.

[81] Sun M. Education system reform in China after 1978: Some practical implications. International Journal of Educational Management.

[82] Law WW. Educational leadership and culture in China: Dichotomies between Chinese and Anglo-American leadership traditions.? International Journal of Educational Development.

[83] Shen Y. Thoughts and practices on the construction of the teaching and research team of kindergartens [in Chinese]. New Countryside.

[79] Alegado PJE. The challenges of teacher leadership in the Philippines as experienced and perceived by teachers. International Journal of Educational

2008;**19**(1):73-97

2011;**14**(1):47-59

2010;**24**(4):314-329

2012;**32**(2):273-282

**184**

2011;**5**:4-6

[95] Bai R. The excellent leaders of teaching research groups in schools [in Chinese]. Teaching and Learning. 2013;**4**:43

[96] Wang Y, Xin QX. What is a good teaching research group leader in school? [in Chinese]. New Study. 2014;**6**:22-24

[97] Katzenmeyer M, Moller G. Awakening the Sleeping Giant: Helping Teachers Develop as Leaders. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press; 2001

[98] York-Barr J, Duke K. What do we know about teacher leadership? Findings from two decades of scholarship. Review of Educational Research. 2004 Sep;**74**(3):255-316

[99] Ho D. Exploring the definitions of quality early childhood programmes in a market-driven context: Case studies of two Hong Kong preschools. International Journal of Early Years Education. 2008;**16**(3):223-236

[100] Svanbjörnsdóttir BM, Macdonald A, Frímannsson GH. Views of learning and a sense of community among students, paraprofessionals and parents in developing a school culture towards a professional learning community. Professional Development in Education. 2016;**42**(4):589-609

[101] Greenlee BJ. Building teacher leadership capacity through educational leadership programs. Journal of Research for Educational Leaders. 2007;**4**(1):44-74

[102] Barr J, Saltmarsh S. "It all comes down to the leadership" The role

of the school principal in fostering parent-school engagement. Educational Management Administration & Leadership. 2014;**42**(4):491-505

[103] Lindahl R. Shared leadership: Can it work in schools.? The Educational Forum. 2008;**72**(4):298-307

[104] Wang M. Perceptions and its influencing factors of teacher leadership in early childhood education in China [dissertation]. Hong Kong: Education University of Hong Kong; 2018

[105] Murphy J. Connecting Teacher Leadership and School Improvement. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press; 2005

[106] Rieckhoff BS, Larsen C. The impact of a professional development network on leadership development and school improvement goals. School-University Partnerships. 2012;**5**(1):57-73

**187**

**Chapter 13**

**Abstract**

**1. Introduction**

the Teacher

Advanced Digital Competence of

This chapter is devoted to the issues of changing the structure of the competence

of teachers in the transformation of the school of the twenty-first century—the school of digital civilization. With this in mind, this chapter takes a fresh look at the advanced competencies of teachers of the near future in the context of these real school changes, the structure of which can be represented as the "triangle of digital competencies": life, social, and professional. As shown by analytical studies and experimental experience of teacher training, the results of which are presented in this chapter, this triangle of competences will allow children to be included in the digital school environment and form their further activity in the smart education system in the profession throughout their lives. It is also important to note that new competencies have become the basis of a new profession in the school—a digital

**Keywords:** digital economy, digital pedagogy, digital competence of teachers,

Each new stage in the development of society changes first of all the forms of learning. The school of the eighteenth to nineteenth centuries, the school of humanism of the Enlightenment, changed the attitude toward the child in accordance with the nature of their growing up, aimed learning on the study of nature. It was an era of great scientific research and geographical discoveries, travel, and

The school of the twentieth century, the school of the era of industrial society, became widespread and introduced into formal education scientific achievements, educational equipment, mathematics, as the language of science, and rationalism in cognition and design. It was a period of searching for new pedagogical methods, and as a result, the twentieth century became the century of universal literacy.

The school of the twenty-first century, a digital school, made it possible to use the individualization of education in a global knowledge network that transformed the concept of school as a building where children study in classes. Network class, virtual

Digital forms of formal education in the open knowledge network have become part of a new educational environment, a smart education environment in which each student can build their own individual educational route outside formal education in accordance with their educational developmental interests. This new form of education is part of the social benefits of the digital age for everyone throughout

*Marina S. Tsvetkova and Vladimir M. Kiryukhin*

curator, which is also discussed in this chapter.

smart education, digital school, digital curator

knowledge of the evolution of life on earth.

network school, has become a reality.

#### **Chapter 13**

## Advanced Digital Competence of the Teacher

*Marina S. Tsvetkova and Vladimir M. Kiryukhin*

#### **Abstract**

This chapter is devoted to the issues of changing the structure of the competence of teachers in the transformation of the school of the twenty-first century—the school of digital civilization. With this in mind, this chapter takes a fresh look at the advanced competencies of teachers of the near future in the context of these real school changes, the structure of which can be represented as the "triangle of digital competencies": life, social, and professional. As shown by analytical studies and experimental experience of teacher training, the results of which are presented in this chapter, this triangle of competences will allow children to be included in the digital school environment and form their further activity in the smart education system in the profession throughout their lives. It is also important to note that new competencies have become the basis of a new profession in the school—a digital curator, which is also discussed in this chapter.

**Keywords:** digital economy, digital pedagogy, digital competence of teachers, smart education, digital school, digital curator

#### **1. Introduction**

Each new stage in the development of society changes first of all the forms of learning. The school of the eighteenth to nineteenth centuries, the school of humanism of the Enlightenment, changed the attitude toward the child in accordance with the nature of their growing up, aimed learning on the study of nature. It was an era of great scientific research and geographical discoveries, travel, and knowledge of the evolution of life on earth.

The school of the twentieth century, the school of the era of industrial society, became widespread and introduced into formal education scientific achievements, educational equipment, mathematics, as the language of science, and rationalism in cognition and design. It was a period of searching for new pedagogical methods, and as a result, the twentieth century became the century of universal literacy.

The school of the twenty-first century, a digital school, made it possible to use the individualization of education in a global knowledge network that transformed the concept of school as a building where children study in classes. Network class, virtual network school, has become a reality.

Digital forms of formal education in the open knowledge network have become part of a new educational environment, a smart education environment in which each student can build their own individual educational route outside formal education in accordance with their educational developmental interests. This new form of education is part of the social benefits of the digital age for everyone throughout

their lives. The school of the twenty-first century is an open information resource of education for everyone; it is a school of universal education.

The history of the development of the digital competences of the citizens lasts from the 1960s of the twentieth century. In the second half of the twentieth century—the century of Cybernetics—massive development received television. It entered every home, which led to the instantaneous dissemination of information and the influence of the information flow on the public consciousness. This can be called the first information wave that was emerging at that time. In schools, there was a TV, and television in school time broadcasts TV courses of leading scientists in different subject areas directly to the classes. Now it has grown into a digital television, which has become available on the Internet to anyone in any country, not only as a public global media but also as part of a global network of knowledge.

Modern TV technologies have allowed to generate a new form of digital pedagogical education—MOOC, which gave rise to "tsunami" of higher education and became a possible alternative form of formal training. e-Learning, as a new pedagogical environment, requires new competencies from all teachers—e-learning competencies. Awareness about various courses, the ability to use the tools of online courses, and the ability to use video communications assist students in such courses—these are the key competencies of e-learning digital pedagogy of modernity and the future.

Since the 1980s, there has been a period of massive introduction of personal computers in human life, family, and school. It was a computer wave of social development. This wave swept the children in the education system, and the computerization of schools has begun. Computer classes, training programs and tests, e-books appeared in each school. Now this wave has grown into the infrastructure of digital schools, distance, and e-learning, accessible to the child with the use of collections of electronic learning materials and mass online courses.

In the first decade of the twenty-first century came the third digital wave—the development of mobile networks and the Internet and their coverage of all the inhabitants of the planet. This ensured the academic mobility of students and the accessibility of education to all children with any special needs via video link. Video consultations and trainings, webinars, teleconferences swept the educational environment. Social networks have formed a new subculture—a cyber society without borders between states and people. Scientists are already talking about the new humanism in the global social network, global media. The key issue for the development of our digital civilization is the preservation of the principles of humanism in the global digital world for future generations.

The school as a social institution has taken these digital waves upon itself, and this has influenced the extremely dynamic renewal and expansion of teachers' competencies—from traditional to digital. This demanded from governments to pay close attention to the digital competencies of citizens, and especially teachers, who form these competencies in children not spontaneously, but systematically for the socialization of the younger generation in the information society.

A modern digital society educator must continuously enrich and complement their digital competence by working with the growing digital generation of aboriginal children in the digital society.

Any adult, not only a teacher, will always face a new digital wave during his life, which is generated by more and more technically advanced information and communication technologies. In this sense, an adult, and a teacher also, in the community of children, always remains an emigrant of the digital society in the new digital wave.

Now we are experiencing a digital wave of artificial intelligence—the fourth industrial revolution and the electronic economy [1]. It is connected with the penetration of

**189**

*Advanced Digital Competence of the Teacher DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83788*

a globalizing world in the digital age [3].

particular, such programs were as follows:

a teacher in the conditions of the fourth digital wave.

standard of teachers in Russia (2011–2015).

numbers in the artificial world of things, which became possible to manage thanks to artificial intelligence already in the global information space through the Internet and mobile devices not only in the workplace but also in everyday life. In this new digital

At the turn of the fourth digital wave, the international community of teachers under the auspices of UNESCO in 2010 developed a structure of ICT competence of teachers, which can serve as a framework for the development of new digital competencies of teachers [2]. What should be the structure of digital competence of teachers of the new digital wave, what prospects for the development of digital competence should lay society in the training of teachers? This issue will accompany the digital wave of our era for a long time; this is the focus of UNESCO's research in

Existing experience shows that user competencies (digital literacy) in the new conditions of the digital economy are transforming and include not only common for all user (life) digital competencies, but also professional digital competencies (profession digitalization) and new social digital competencies in the global information world. Consider this triangle of new advanced digital competencies for

The concept of advanced digital competencies, presented in this chapter, is based on an analysis of the development of advanced training courses for teachers in ICT competences that have been held on large scale in Russia since 2000 within the framework of national targeted educational informatization programs. In

• The program for the development of a unified educational information environment of the Russian Federation for 2000–2005 (at least five teachers were trained in each school of the country in open educational resources in school

• The program of developing the publicly accessible information environment "Russian E-School (NES)," raising the qualifications of teachers in e-learning methods, involving teachers in developing scenario lessons in the NES environment, including basic ICT competencies of teachers in the professional

• The program of developing a new system of teacher certification, taking into account the key competencies of active work in the digital learning environment based on the use of information training systems in Russia (NES and the electronic textbook system in all school subjects), remote communication tools with students and parents (digital communication medium of electronic diaries), as well as systems of educational analytics (electronic system of accounting of control materials and the final certification of students) and

subjects—a single collection of digital educational resources).

electronic cloud-based document management (since 2015) [6].

The new concept of "smart education" is debated, but there is an important material for International Studies, which is summarized in publications on the official website of UNESCO Institute for Information Technologies in Education (IITE) [11]. The problem of the deployment of smart education in different countries, including Russia, has already approaches and solutions, which can be solved

**2. The transformation of school in the digital environment**

by methods of digital pedagogy—pedagogy of the information society.

world, a teacher forms a willingness to live in a new civilization.

#### *Advanced Digital Competence of the Teacher DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83788*

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

nity and the future.

future generations.

new digital wave.

nal children in the digital society.

their lives. The school of the twenty-first century is an open information resource of

The history of the development of the digital competences of the citizens lasts from the 1960s of the twentieth century. In the second half of the twentieth century—the century of Cybernetics—massive development received television. It entered every home, which led to the instantaneous dissemination of information and the influence of the information flow on the public consciousness. This can be called the first information wave that was emerging at that time. In schools, there was a TV, and television in school time broadcasts TV courses of leading scientists in different subject areas directly to the classes. Now it has grown into a digital television, which has become available on the Internet to anyone in any country, not only as a public global media but also as part of a global network of knowledge. Modern TV technologies have allowed to generate a new form of digital pedagogical education—MOOC, which gave rise to "tsunami" of higher education and became a possible alternative form of formal training. e-Learning, as a new pedagogical environment, requires new competencies from all teachers—e-learning competencies. Awareness about various courses, the ability to use the tools of online courses, and the ability to use video communications assist students in such courses—these are the key competencies of e-learning digital pedagogy of moder-

Since the 1980s, there has been a period of massive introduction of personal computers in human life, family, and school. It was a computer wave of social development. This wave swept the children in the education system, and the computerization of schools has begun. Computer classes, training programs and tests, e-books appeared in each school. Now this wave has grown into the infrastructure of digital schools, distance, and e-learning, accessible to the child with the use of

In the first decade of the twenty-first century came the third digital wave—the development of mobile networks and the Internet and their coverage of all the inhabitants of the planet. This ensured the academic mobility of students and the accessibility of education to all children with any special needs via video link. Video consultations and trainings, webinars, teleconferences swept the educational environment. Social networks have formed a new subculture—a cyber society without borders between states and people. Scientists are already talking about the new humanism in the global social network, global media. The key issue for the development of our digital civilization is the preservation of the principles of humanism in the global digital world for

The school as a social institution has taken these digital waves upon itself, and this has influenced the extremely dynamic renewal and expansion of teachers' competencies—from traditional to digital. This demanded from governments to pay close attention to the digital competencies of citizens, and especially teachers, who form these competencies in children not spontaneously, but systematically for the

A modern digital society educator must continuously enrich and complement their digital competence by working with the growing digital generation of aborigi-

Any adult, not only a teacher, will always face a new digital wave during his life, which is generated by more and more technically advanced information and communication technologies. In this sense, an adult, and a teacher also, in the community of children, always remains an emigrant of the digital society in the

Now we are experiencing a digital wave of artificial intelligence—the fourth industrial revolution and the electronic economy [1]. It is connected with the penetration of

collections of electronic learning materials and mass online courses.

socialization of the younger generation in the information society.

education for everyone; it is a school of universal education.

**188**

numbers in the artificial world of things, which became possible to manage thanks to artificial intelligence already in the global information space through the Internet and mobile devices not only in the workplace but also in everyday life. In this new digital world, a teacher forms a willingness to live in a new civilization.

At the turn of the fourth digital wave, the international community of teachers under the auspices of UNESCO in 2010 developed a structure of ICT competence of teachers, which can serve as a framework for the development of new digital competencies of teachers [2]. What should be the structure of digital competence of teachers of the new digital wave, what prospects for the development of digital competence should lay society in the training of teachers? This issue will accompany the digital wave of our era for a long time; this is the focus of UNESCO's research in a globalizing world in the digital age [3].

Existing experience shows that user competencies (digital literacy) in the new conditions of the digital economy are transforming and include not only common for all user (life) digital competencies, but also professional digital competencies (profession digitalization) and new social digital competencies in the global information world. Consider this triangle of new advanced digital competencies for a teacher in the conditions of the fourth digital wave.

The concept of advanced digital competencies, presented in this chapter, is based on an analysis of the development of advanced training courses for teachers in ICT competences that have been held on large scale in Russia since 2000 within the framework of national targeted educational informatization programs. In particular, such programs were as follows:


#### **2. The transformation of school in the digital environment**

The new concept of "smart education" is debated, but there is an important material for International Studies, which is summarized in publications on the official website of UNESCO Institute for Information Technologies in Education (IITE) [11]. The problem of the deployment of smart education in different countries, including Russia, has already approaches and solutions, which can be solved by methods of digital pedagogy—pedagogy of the information society.

Digital school is an integral part of smart education. Digital school as a concept appeared at the beginning of the twenty-first century. This concept reflected the objective processes of development of the information society and its social institutions. The transformation of the educational system was the result of the formation of a global digital civilization. Society is on the verge of great change, and teachers are directly involved in the formation of a new education system in the world—digital education. One can only observe this process as a challenge of time, and one can be an active designer of digital education as an order of the information society for changes in social institutions, one of which is the school. Smart meaning "intelligent", spaces mart education—is automated, controlled, and accessed from anywhere in the educational process—the most complex system for integration in school.

Smart education integrates the new concepts of digital pedagogy [1]:


Undoubtedly, digital pedagogy engaged in system integration of various digital educational resources and organic insertion in the training along with traditional learning materials, their coordination and management throughout the country, ensuring access to them for every student and teacher. In addition, she is engaged in shaping new educational standards and resources, taking into account these new realities of the modern world, developing and testing methods for their use in educational activities, and updating teachers' competences. It should be noted that, in addition to schools, it covers all levels of education.

You can see that the process of updating education in terms of embedding innovations in digital pedagogy comes from the top down. The higher school responded first to the changes: smart university, electronic campus, open university—this is the current state of universities, and it all began with the introduction of distance learning and digital libraries. But if a university is a systemic mechanism of compact management within the corporate network of organizations, then the digital school

**191**

place where the child is.

design of smart education:

*Advanced Digital Competence of the Teacher DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83788*

and the new portal "Russian e-school" is being created.

devices (digital model of nonformal education) [3].

of the region is a global territorial system that includes hundreds of educational organizations in a single management from the region through a network of municipal clusters. At the same time, the globalization of the digital school is already underway in the Russian education: a federal cloud accounting system is being created for all students in the country, the state educational portal EDU.RU is being developed,

For now, we are talking about digital schools as the pioneers of smart education. These are separate pilot schools that have begun to introduce digital services and education resources with coverage of all students and teachers of this school. However, digital pedagogy implies a systemic solution, that is, the design of smart education as a system of digital schools in the territory, and this is the task of the next decades. In many countries, digital school systems are already being created as global cities of smart education. Different models are selected, from the coverage of each school by a single territorial educational platform (digital model of formal education) to the global cloud environment open to everyone through mobile

There is no doubt that the introduction of intelligent educational models depends largely on the management decisions of the governing bodies of the country's education management. This factor can both enhance the pace of this construction, and slow them down what is observed in different countries in the twenty first century as a result of the development of digital society. New ICTs offer solutions for smart education and provide a lot of educational innovation. It is important that the pedagogical community in this process perceives new ICT in education not as a spectator, but as a creative community of like-minded creators. But there is a risk factor here—this is the staff readiness of teachers to build smart education. There are already pioneers of smart education, and with respect to them,

Teachers in partnership with the family are people who directly integrate smart

It should be noted that in Russia for 30 years of informatization of education, teachers have been prepared to work with smart education objects, and there is already a family order for smart education. In every school, today there are more than half of teachers who are already using elements of the digital educational environment and are puzzled by the slowdown in the pace of introducing smart objects into the educational process. Such readiness of schools is a guarantee of a systemic good result. It is also a matter of the willingness of the smart education facilities themselves and the management level of specialists in the territories to constructively treat innovations. But various countries themselves choose digital school strategies, models, and learning platforms for their integration into smart education. At the same time, the following approaches can be distinguished in the

education innovations into the learning process. The role of the family in the design of smart education is very significant, since the special feature of the digital school of the territory is its penetration into the family, the inclusiveness of digital resources, and access to them in all areas of the child's activities at home and in any

1.Development, globalization, and smart management of digital school resources through cloud services, including personalized in the region: an electronic diary for all schools in the territory, a unified management environment for diagnosing student achievement, electronic textbooks as a content system, a single access point to them in territories, and in integration with the electronic diary, open educational content and its development by students, ACS of the schools of the territory as a single mechanism of material and

one can trace the speed of updating schools in different countries.

#### *Advanced Digital Competence of the Teacher DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83788*

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

• Open educational resources (OER)

• Electronic libraries (e-library)

• Digital video communications

schools, "smart systems")

• Global media

cational process

• Massive open online courses (MOOC)

• Electronic textbooks (smart book/e-book)

• Open licenses (e.g., Creative Commons)

• Mobile training and mobile educational services

in addition to schools, it covers all levels of education.

• Cloud educational systems and Internet services Web 3.0

• Automated management systems of educational organizations (e.g., the ACS of

• Electronic portfolios and personal electronic offices of participants in the edu-

Undoubtedly, digital pedagogy engaged in system integration of various digital educational resources and organic insertion in the training along with traditional learning materials, their coordination and management throughout the country, ensuring access to them for every student and teacher. In addition, she is engaged in shaping new educational standards and resources, taking into account these new realities of the modern world, developing and testing methods for their use in educational activities, and updating teachers' competences. It should be noted that,

You can see that the process of updating education in terms of embedding innovations in digital pedagogy comes from the top down. The higher school responded first to the changes: smart university, electronic campus, open university—this is the current state of universities, and it all began with the introduction of distance learning and digital libraries. But if a university is a systemic mechanism of compact management within the corporate network of organizations, then the digital school

Digital school is an integral part of smart education. Digital school as a concept appeared at the beginning of the twenty-first century. This concept reflected the objective processes of development of the information society and its social institutions. The transformation of the educational system was the result of the formation of a global digital civilization. Society is on the verge of great change, and teachers are directly involved in the formation of a new education system in the world—digital education. One can only observe this process as a challenge of time, and one can be an active designer of digital education as an order of the information society for changes in social institutions, one of which is the school. Smart meaning "intelligent", spaces mart education—is automated, controlled, and accessed from anywhere in the

educational process—the most complex system for integration in school. Smart education integrates the new concepts of digital pedagogy [1]:

• Educational platforms (learning management system/LMS)

**190**

of the region is a global territorial system that includes hundreds of educational organizations in a single management from the region through a network of municipal clusters. At the same time, the globalization of the digital school is already underway in the Russian education: a federal cloud accounting system is being created for all students in the country, the state educational portal EDU.RU is being developed, and the new portal "Russian e-school" is being created.

For now, we are talking about digital schools as the pioneers of smart education. These are separate pilot schools that have begun to introduce digital services and education resources with coverage of all students and teachers of this school. However, digital pedagogy implies a systemic solution, that is, the design of smart education as a system of digital schools in the territory, and this is the task of the next decades. In many countries, digital school systems are already being created as global cities of smart education. Different models are selected, from the coverage of each school by a single territorial educational platform (digital model of formal education) to the global cloud environment open to everyone through mobile devices (digital model of nonformal education) [3].

There is no doubt that the introduction of intelligent educational models depends largely on the management decisions of the governing bodies of the country's education management. This factor can both enhance the pace of this construction, and slow them down what is observed in different countries in the twenty first century as a result of the development of digital society. New ICTs offer solutions for smart education and provide a lot of educational innovation. It is important that the pedagogical community in this process perceives new ICT in education not as a spectator, but as a creative community of like-minded creators. But there is a risk factor here—this is the staff readiness of teachers to build smart education. There are already pioneers of smart education, and with respect to them, one can trace the speed of updating schools in different countries.

Teachers in partnership with the family are people who directly integrate smart education innovations into the learning process. The role of the family in the design of smart education is very significant, since the special feature of the digital school of the territory is its penetration into the family, the inclusiveness of digital resources, and access to them in all areas of the child's activities at home and in any place where the child is.

It should be noted that in Russia for 30 years of informatization of education, teachers have been prepared to work with smart education objects, and there is already a family order for smart education. In every school, today there are more than half of teachers who are already using elements of the digital educational environment and are puzzled by the slowdown in the pace of introducing smart objects into the educational process. Such readiness of schools is a guarantee of a systemic good result. It is also a matter of the willingness of the smart education facilities themselves and the management level of specialists in the territories to constructively treat innovations. But various countries themselves choose digital school strategies, models, and learning platforms for their integration into smart education. At the same time, the following approaches can be distinguished in the design of smart education:

1.Development, globalization, and smart management of digital school resources through cloud services, including personalized in the region: an electronic diary for all schools in the territory, a unified management environment for diagnosing student achievement, electronic textbooks as a content system, a single access point to them in territories, and in integration with the electronic diary, open educational content and its development by students, ACS of the schools of the territory as a single mechanism of material and

financial accounting, including the global digital video network of education, mass open online courses in the cloud of the region in integration with universities for children and teachers, and above all the various extracurricular courses available for the development of creativity, research activities in areas of children's interests.

	- "one to one" (requires equipping each student with a mobile computer device);
	- "one to many" (a group of children needs access to a single digital resource containing courses and video services);
	- "many to one" (individual access of any child to computers and resources of several teachers is required, it is especially important to provide such access for children with disabilities, gifted schoolchildren who are trained according to an individual plan);
	- "many to many" (collective access is required for educational creative communities with groups of remote users, children, and adults, to use digital resources of libraries, clubs, museums, exhibitions, etc.). So far, such a model of interaction in a digital school is developing spontaneously, but we need to allocate Web space, for example, to create a "single window" so that groups of children and communities of teachers can use them at any time.

**193**

world.

content.

**3. Digital life competencies**

cyberspace and cyber worlds in it.

the general digital competencies of citizens.

*Advanced Digital Competence of the Teacher DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83788*

> open digital educational resources in the modern Web space based on cloud and mobile technologies. This idea is reflected in the concept of a global "knowledge network" [3], which unites various educational resources on the Internet and is

As shown by analytical studies and experimental experience of teacher training, an important perspective task of the development of a digital school is to ensure the readiness of teachers for work and creativity in the global knowledge network. This is one of the most important tasks of digital pedagogy. Therefore, there is a high demand for massive open online courses on advanced digital competencies of teachers. This is a new step toward the development of digital pedagogy, since this requires updating the structure of digital competences of teachers in the near future, taking into account the existing experience of informatization of education. Such advanced competencies of a digital school teacher are represented by a triangle of digital competencies: vital digital competences (common user), social competencies (communicative competencies of the digital society), and profile competencies (on the subject of the teacher's activities). Consider their conceptual

Digital space is based on the mass exchange of information between people, computer programs, things, and machines. In the process of this global exchange of information in the world, there are common to all rules—the need for digital literacy, which relates mainly to the technological aspects of the use of cyberspace resources, which combine computers, mobile communications, and Internet of things (smart things that can be controlled remotely). Cyberspace accumulates huge amounts of information (big data). Cyberspace has become an integral part of our civilization, creating a cyberspace without borders. This society is not only capable of the highest progress but also carries dangerous threats as people create

In the modern real computerized world, new technologies of artificial intelligence (smart technologies) are developing. These technologies allow machines, computer systems, to learn on the basis of the information that they process, to create new information objects themselves, and to interact with other machines and people, that is, to generate new cyber worlds or to contribute new features into existing hyperworlds. Smart technologies change society greatly, as in real life there are new relationships between people and smart machines, and this becomes part of

UNESCO's Information for All Programme [7] recognizes the considerable effort being invested by many international organizations in "measuring the information society," defining digital literacy as a life skill. Basic digital competence actually complements all major life competencies of citizens and expands opportunities in education, creative development, and professional growth and success in the work [8]. Cyber worlds, in which children of our digital wave already live, are a natural environment of normal human activity, filled with virtual analogs: cyber art, cyber education, cyber offices, cyber banks, cyber police, cyber libraries, cyber enterprises, cyber medicine, etc. All this should be included in the basic digital competence of the teacher to teach children to live in a digital world and to have an idea of the penetration of all new digital devices into it. Life digital competence of a competent user becomes a natural component of the general culture of the digital

open to creativity of students and teachers in a digital school.

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

of children's interests.

school of the territory:

containing courses and video services);

ing to an individual plan);

the school education system.

device);

financial accounting, including the global digital video network of education, mass open online courses in the cloud of the region in integration with universities for children and teachers, and above all the various extracurricular courses available for the development of creativity, research activities in areas

2.The introduction of different models of access to the resources of the digital

• "one to one" (requires equipping each student with a mobile computer

• "one to many" (a group of children needs access to a single digital resource

• "many to one" (individual access of any child to computers and resources of several teachers is required, it is especially important to provide such access for children with disabilities, gifted schoolchildren who are trained accord-

• "many to many" (collective access is required for educational creative communities with groups of remote users, children, and adults, to use digital resources of libraries, clubs, museums, exhibitions, etc.). So far, such a model of interaction in a digital school is developing spontaneously, but we need to allocate Web space, for example, to create a "single window" so that groups of children and communities of teachers can use them at any time.

3.The system integration and strategic management of digital schools and digital education resources is the core of smart education in the region. Systems integration, considered as a digital school platform, can have its own development model (projection) in different countries of the world and in different territories in a particular country. It is already in its infancy and its growth rate is colossal, while it is formed spontaneously in the part of the procedures for embedding in the territories. The digital school platform includes a set of system solutions in a digital environment: banks of students and teachers, collections of educational materials, educational communication mediums, means of managing the educational process, financial and logistical accounting subsystems, and environment of creative portfolio of educational process participants. Here, we need a strategy for its design with the possibility of combining subsystems according to general technological requirements. In the meantime, it is necessary to analyze what to choose from a set of system solutions, how to put the selected constructs into a single smart education platform, and how to ensure its functioning as a global accessible educational environment in the territory. Digital school in the smart education system will allow to conduct educational analytics and identify the demand for digital resources, services, and educational statistics, that is, get a picture of the educational activity of children and teachers in various educational services and build on the basis of this analysis, promising trajectories of development and modernization of digital school, to determine the actual order for teachers' professional development in the most demanded directions of development of

4.As part of the promotion of smart education ideas, the notion of resource availability plays a special role, that is, their openness and free access for all comers. At the same time, the most important focus is on the problem of the quality of

**192**

open digital educational resources in the modern Web space based on cloud and mobile technologies. This idea is reflected in the concept of a global "knowledge network" [3], which unites various educational resources on the Internet and is open to creativity of students and teachers in a digital school.

As shown by analytical studies and experimental experience of teacher training, an important perspective task of the development of a digital school is to ensure the readiness of teachers for work and creativity in the global knowledge network. This is one of the most important tasks of digital pedagogy. Therefore, there is a high demand for massive open online courses on advanced digital competencies of teachers. This is a new step toward the development of digital pedagogy, since this requires updating the structure of digital competences of teachers in the near future, taking into account the existing experience of informatization of education.

Such advanced competencies of a digital school teacher are represented by a triangle of digital competencies: vital digital competences (common user), social competencies (communicative competencies of the digital society), and profile competencies (on the subject of the teacher's activities). Consider their conceptual content.

#### **3. Digital life competencies**

Digital space is based on the mass exchange of information between people, computer programs, things, and machines. In the process of this global exchange of information in the world, there are common to all rules—the need for digital literacy, which relates mainly to the technological aspects of the use of cyberspace resources, which combine computers, mobile communications, and Internet of things (smart things that can be controlled remotely). Cyberspace accumulates huge amounts of information (big data). Cyberspace has become an integral part of our civilization, creating a cyberspace without borders. This society is not only capable of the highest progress but also carries dangerous threats as people create cyberspace and cyber worlds in it.

In the modern real computerized world, new technologies of artificial intelligence (smart technologies) are developing. These technologies allow machines, computer systems, to learn on the basis of the information that they process, to create new information objects themselves, and to interact with other machines and people, that is, to generate new cyber worlds or to contribute new features into existing hyperworlds. Smart technologies change society greatly, as in real life there are new relationships between people and smart machines, and this becomes part of the general digital competencies of citizens.

UNESCO's Information for All Programme [7] recognizes the considerable effort being invested by many international organizations in "measuring the information society," defining digital literacy as a life skill. Basic digital competence actually complements all major life competencies of citizens and expands opportunities in education, creative development, and professional growth and success in the work [8].

Cyber worlds, in which children of our digital wave already live, are a natural environment of normal human activity, filled with virtual analogs: cyber art, cyber education, cyber offices, cyber banks, cyber police, cyber libraries, cyber enterprises, cyber medicine, etc. All this should be included in the basic digital competence of the teacher to teach children to live in a digital world and to have an idea of the penetration of all new digital devices into it. Life digital competence of a competent user becomes a natural component of the general culture of the digital world.

#### **4. Social digital competencies**

All Internet users are cyber citizens, or Internet citizens, who have no geographical boundaries for interaction. How to be a cyber citizen in a global cyber society?

Our civilization as a cyber society works in everyday life continuously and at a high pace with large amounts of electronic information in the form of websites, e-mails, and visual and audio fragments (clips), which in turn leads to a decrease in attention, critical meaningful perception of information which is characteristic of the precomputer "book" civilization. Thus, fragmentation in the perception of information increases in a modern child, and "clip thinking" develops.

Cyber society bears the psychological threat to the man himself in it. Computer or Internet addiction is an irresistible addiction of a person to spend time at the computer or on the Internet. Internet addiction, which is now supplemented by and cyber mania, due to the increase in different new devices, allows not only to work with information in the Internet but also to immerse themselves in virtual worlds. All these are new aspects of pedagogy-digital pedagogy.

How to use the enormous possibilities of cyber-books, electronic textbooks, educational platforms, virtual reality and global communications to preserve value human communication and emotions, moral values of humanism, where insults, deception, fraud, rudeness, invasion of privacy is unacceptable? Studies in this direction show the importance of educating children in the spirit of humanism in the context of global media and the formation of new media information literacy [9].

Social digital competence of the teacher is not only psycho-oriented but is also aimed to form in children the value of education and general media literacy in working with information on the Internet and global media, prevention of cybercrime and cyber mania, fostering a culture of cyber security and Internet etiquette in global knowledge networks as opposed to entertainment. Here, the teacher should act like a digital curator for the socialization of children in the digital world.

#### **5. Professional and specialized digital competence**

The profile aspect in digital competencies is a personal choice and the sphere of adaptation of each person to new challenges in the profession with the development of digital technologies throughout life, so as not to lose professionalism and keep up with the digital wave. Each high school student learns in the profile chosen by them, defining the future professional sphere of activity. Each teacher already has a professional environment, which is determined by the school curriculum and school subjects. Knowledge of all aspects of the subject is already insufficient for the teacher of the digital age.

Teachers' professional competences are based on general digital literacy but include general competencies of digital pedagogy, such as e-learning, use of learning platforms for mobile learning, e-books, and open educational resources. This also includes educational analytics systems based on big data, as well as digital competencies for the development and use of digital learning materials on job profile (pedagogical design) and digital learning equipment on school subjects (teacher's computer workplace) [6].

A wide range of digital materials of the knowledge network has become an important, if not predominant, part of the professional environment of the teacher. The ability to work with modern digital materials and learning platform, to be a tutor of e-learning, to actively use online courses for self-education in their subject—these are already existing key professional competencies of the teacher.

**195**

*Advanced Digital Competence of the Teacher DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83788*

supplemented by e-learning in all subjects.

The digital wave has brought new resources to digital pedagogy—interactive worlds of cognitive activity, virtual reality, smart equipment for learning and practice, new approaches for educational analytics based on big data. Individual study route for each child is the nearest prospect in a mass traditional school,

The advanced new professional digital competencies of the teacher are based on their inclusion in work with educational information systems, e-learning systems, and distance learning technologies, including video calls for the remote presence of children in the classroom. Each school should become a digital bridge for accessible education of children with their class and teachers, even if the child is out of school, studying at home, in a hospital or working in field practice, creative competition,

The new mission of a digital pedagogy teacher is to teach children to learn in a digital environment throughout their lives. It is also important that each teacher brings to the children's community information about new professions in their subject area. Children are focused on the future. Their professional choice is formed in school, and professions are formed by the digital economy and the new digital

In addition to the professions of a programmer, web designer, and system administrator, which are traditionally digital for the beginning of the twenty-first century, the digital economy is rapidly enriching all professions with numbers and creating new professions. New professions of the near future show the dynamic addition of the surrounding world with the cyber world. Knowing about these professions, helping children to get basic professional skills with the involvement of business partners in school is the most important task for the professional choice of

In the new digital wave, social digital competencies require special attention for teachers to work with children. It is necessary to strengthen the environment of development of social digital competences of teachers. In many countries, teachers have already appeared-digital curators in libraries and social adaptation centers, but

Professional standard "consultant in the field of digital literacy (digital curator)" is approved in Russia from October 31, 2018, by the Ministry of Labor and Social Protection [4]. The responsible organization developer of the professional standard was the all-Russian public and state educational organization "knowledge" [5]. The purpose of the new type of professional activity is to advise on the use of information and communication technologies in various spheres of life, to promote

• search and processing of information required for consultations in accordance

the development of digital literacy of different groups of the population.

• visual and remote placement of information and consultations;

The competencies of the digital curator are the following:

• conducting direct reception of citizens' appeals;

• electronic communication on citizens' appeals;

with the work assignment;

temporarily being trained in another educational organization [10].

wave also defines the digitalization of the professions.

**6. New profession in school-digital curator**

it is important that they are in every school.

the child, their readiness for the challenges of the digital world.

#### *Advanced Digital Competence of the Teacher DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83788*

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

**4. Social digital competencies**

All Internet users are cyber citizens, or Internet citizens, who have no geographical boundaries for interaction. How to be a cyber citizen in a global cyber society? Our civilization as a cyber society works in everyday life continuously and at a high pace with large amounts of electronic information in the form of websites, e-mails, and visual and audio fragments (clips), which in turn leads to a decrease in attention, critical meaningful perception of information which is characteristic of the precomputer "book" civilization. Thus, fragmentation in the perception of

Cyber society bears the psychological threat to the man himself in it. Computer or Internet addiction is an irresistible addiction of a person to spend time at the computer or on the Internet. Internet addiction, which is now supplemented by and cyber mania, due to the increase in different new devices, allows not only to work with information in the Internet but also to immerse themselves in virtual worlds.

How to use the enormous possibilities of cyber-books, electronic textbooks, educational platforms, virtual reality and global communications to preserve value human communication and emotions, moral values of humanism, where insults, deception, fraud, rudeness, invasion of privacy is unacceptable? Studies in this direction show the importance of educating children in the spirit of humanism in the context of global media and the formation of new media information literacy [9]. Social digital competence of the teacher is not only psycho-oriented but is also aimed to form in children the value of education and general media literacy in working with information on the Internet and global media, prevention of cybercrime and cyber mania, fostering a culture of cyber security and Internet etiquette in global knowledge networks as opposed to entertainment. Here, the teacher should act like a digital curator for the socialization of children in the digital world.

The profile aspect in digital competencies is a personal choice and the sphere of adaptation of each person to new challenges in the profession with the development of digital technologies throughout life, so as not to lose professionalism and keep up with the digital wave. Each high school student learns in the profile chosen by them, defining the future professional sphere of activity. Each teacher already has a professional environment, which is determined by the school curriculum and school subjects. Knowledge of all aspects of the subject is already insufficient for

Teachers' professional competences are based on general digital literacy but include general competencies of digital pedagogy, such as e-learning, use of learning platforms for mobile learning, e-books, and open educational resources. This also includes educational analytics systems based on big data, as well as digital competencies for the development and use of digital learning materials on job profile (pedagogical design) and digital learning equipment on school subjects (teacher's

A wide range of digital materials of the knowledge network has become an important, if not predominant, part of the professional environment of the teacher. The ability to work with modern digital materials and learning platform, to be a tutor of e-learning, to actively use online courses for self-education in their subject—these are already existing key professional competencies of the teacher.

information increases in a modern child, and "clip thinking" develops.

All these are new aspects of pedagogy-digital pedagogy.

**5. Professional and specialized digital competence**

the teacher of the digital age.

computer workplace) [6].

**194**

The digital wave has brought new resources to digital pedagogy—interactive worlds of cognitive activity, virtual reality, smart equipment for learning and practice, new approaches for educational analytics based on big data. Individual study route for each child is the nearest prospect in a mass traditional school, supplemented by e-learning in all subjects.

The advanced new professional digital competencies of the teacher are based on their inclusion in work with educational information systems, e-learning systems, and distance learning technologies, including video calls for the remote presence of children in the classroom. Each school should become a digital bridge for accessible education of children with their class and teachers, even if the child is out of school, studying at home, in a hospital or working in field practice, creative competition, temporarily being trained in another educational organization [10].

The new mission of a digital pedagogy teacher is to teach children to learn in a digital environment throughout their lives. It is also important that each teacher brings to the children's community information about new professions in their subject area. Children are focused on the future. Their professional choice is formed in school, and professions are formed by the digital economy and the new digital wave also defines the digitalization of the professions.

In addition to the professions of a programmer, web designer, and system administrator, which are traditionally digital for the beginning of the twenty-first century, the digital economy is rapidly enriching all professions with numbers and creating new professions. New professions of the near future show the dynamic addition of the surrounding world with the cyber world. Knowing about these professions, helping children to get basic professional skills with the involvement of business partners in school is the most important task for the professional choice of the child, their readiness for the challenges of the digital world.

#### **6. New profession in school-digital curator**

In the new digital wave, social digital competencies require special attention for teachers to work with children. It is necessary to strengthen the environment of development of social digital competences of teachers. In many countries, teachers have already appeared-digital curators in libraries and social adaptation centers, but it is important that they are in every school.

Professional standard "consultant in the field of digital literacy (digital curator)" is approved in Russia from October 31, 2018, by the Ministry of Labor and Social Protection [4]. The responsible organization developer of the professional standard was the all-Russian public and state educational organization "knowledge" [5].

The purpose of the new type of professional activity is to advise on the use of information and communication technologies in various spheres of life, to promote the development of digital literacy of different groups of the population.

The competencies of the digital curator are the following:


Digital curator should know the rules of business correspondence and written etiquette; rules of business communication and speech etiquette; requirements for documentation; norms of the native language; principles and mechanisms of search engines; and functionality of popular search services. They need to know the legislation of the country law in the field of intellectual property, personal data, types and basic user characteristics of mobile devices; basic principles of organization; and functioning of computer networks. They should be familiar with the main online services for the provision of electronic services, state portals, and municipal services, including services provided with the use of electronic social cards, electronic payments, electronic queues, and electronic reception. They are required to get acquainted with the trends in the development of information and communication technologies and digital literacy; the market of modern educational programs aimed at the development of digital literacy; directions and prospects for the development of ICT for the citizens; modern approaches, forms, methods, and techniques of additional education and enlightenment; features of additional education and education on the development of digital literacy; etc.

#### **7. Conclusion**

The triangle of digital competencies creates a stable structure for their development. Vital (custom) digital competencies will keep up with the world of digital devices and services. Profile and professional competencies will determine the adaptability and success in the conditions of digitalization of professions. Social digital competence of citizens will help to preserve our fragile world on the

**197**

**Author details**

provided the original work is properly cited.

Marina S. Tsvetkova and Vladimir M. Kiryukhin\*

\*Address all correspondence to: vkiryukh@gmail.com

Russian Academy of Natural Sciences, Moscow, Russian Federation

*Advanced Digital Competence of the Teacher DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83788*

zation of digital society.

sional education.

principles of humanism and creative development of our children, to avoid atomi-

The child acquires vital user digital competencies not only at school, but also in everyday life, communication, profile competencies—in school and in the system of additional education, professional digital competence—in the system of profes-

Traditionally, the development of general user and professional digital competencies of teachers is engaged in the system of professional development of teachers, for which every year new courses are formed taking into account the development of digital pedagogy. As for the formation of social digital competencies in children at school, this is connected with the socialization and upbringing of children in a digital society, which has new features reflected in the interaction with the cyber world, cyber security, and legal information literacy of active citizens of any country. Here, the school needs help, and the digital curator of the school will become a new profession generated by the digital wave of our time. Digital curator will unite the efforts of the school as a social platform for working with children and family in the socialization of children in the face of complex challenges of the new digital world.

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

#### *Advanced Digital Competence of the Teacher DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83788*

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

using the means of communication;

development of digital literacy;

tional and enlightening programs);

of consulting services;

ence of counseling, etc.

consultation;

• maintaining a database of citizens who have applied for advice;

• explanation and demonstration of the ICT application algorithm;

• informing about the main methods of combating cyber threats;

• informing about the most common threats when working in the network,

• conducting surveys and questionnaires on the results of activities aimed at the

• development of programs of information and educational activities for the development of digital literacy of various groups of citizens and the promotion

• diagnostics of the level of digital literacy of the citizen who applied for

• analysis of the market of digital products and services, digital literacy of the citizens, and resources for their development (information resources, educa-

• organization of the introduction of modern methods, techniques and forms of counseling on digital literacy development, dissemination of positive experi-

Digital curator should know the rules of business correspondence and written etiquette; rules of business communication and speech etiquette; requirements for documentation; norms of the native language; principles and mechanisms of search engines; and functionality of popular search services. They need to know the legislation of the country law in the field of intellectual property, personal data, types and basic user characteristics of mobile devices; basic principles of organization; and functioning of computer networks. They should be familiar with the main online services for the provision of electronic services, state portals, and municipal services, including services provided with the use of electronic social cards, electronic payments, electronic queues, and electronic reception. They are required to get acquainted with the trends in the development of information and communication technologies and digital literacy; the market of modern educational programs aimed at the development of digital literacy; directions and prospects for the development of ICT for the citizens; modern approaches, forms, methods, and techniques of additional education and enlightenment; features of additional education and education on the development of

The triangle of digital competencies creates a stable structure for their development. Vital (custom) digital competencies will keep up with the world of digital devices and services. Profile and professional competencies will determine the adaptability and success in the conditions of digitalization of professions. Social digital competence of citizens will help to preserve our fragile world on the

**196**

digital literacy; etc.

**7. Conclusion**

principles of humanism and creative development of our children, to avoid atomization of digital society.

The child acquires vital user digital competencies not only at school, but also in everyday life, communication, profile competencies—in school and in the system of additional education, professional digital competence—in the system of professional education.

Traditionally, the development of general user and professional digital competencies of teachers is engaged in the system of professional development of teachers, for which every year new courses are formed taking into account the development of digital pedagogy. As for the formation of social digital competencies in children at school, this is connected with the socialization and upbringing of children in a digital society, which has new features reflected in the interaction with the cyber world, cyber security, and legal information literacy of active citizens of any country. Here, the school needs help, and the digital curator of the school will become a new profession generated by the digital wave of our time. Digital curator will unite the efforts of the school as a social platform for working with children and family in the socialization of children in the face of complex challenges of the new digital world.

#### **Author details**

Marina S. Tsvetkova and Vladimir M. Kiryukhin\* Russian Academy of Natural Sciences, Moscow, Russian Federation

\*Address all correspondence to: vkiryukh@gmail.com

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

### **References**

[1] Russian digital economy program [Internet]. 2018. Available from: http:// data-economy.ru [Accessed: 2018-11-27]

[2] The structure of ICT competences of teachers/UNESCO Recommendations. [Internet] 2011. Available from: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ images/0021/002134/213475r.pdf [Accessed: 2018-11-27]

[3] Badarch D, editor. Information and communication technologies in education: monograph. Moscow: UNESCO IITE; 2013. 320 p. Available from: https://iite.unesco.org/pics/ publications/ru/files/3214728.pdf [Accessed: 2018-11-27]

[4] Professional standard "Consultant in the field of digital literacy development (digital curator)" [Internet]. 2018. Available from: http://www.consultant. ru/document/cons\_doc\_LAW\_311506/ [Accessed: 2018-11-27]

[5] Russian Society "Knowledge" [Internet]. 2018. Available from: https://www.znanierussia.ru/useful/ Pages/digital-curator.aspx [Accessed: 2018-11-27]

[6] Marina T. Information Activity of Teachers: Methodological Handbook. 2nd ed. Moscow: BINOM. Knowledge Lab; 2013. 352 p

[7] Árpád R, editor. Information Society Policies. Annual World Report 2009. [Internet]. Available from: https://wayback.archive-it. org/10611/20160102230754/ http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ files/29547/12668551003ifap\_ world\_report\_2009.pdf/ifap\_world\_ report\_2009.pdf [Accessed: 2018-11-27]

[8] Karpat A. Digital Literacy in Education. Moscow: UNESCO Institute for Information Technologies in Education; 2011. 12 p

[9] Pérez Tornero JM, Varis T. Media Literacy and New Humanism. Moscow: UNESCO Institute for Information Technologies in Education; 2011. 136 p

[10] Marina T. The ICT competency MOOCs for teachers in Russia. Journal of Olympiads in Informatics. 2016;**10**(Special Issue):79-92. Available from: https://ioinformatics.org/files/ volume10si.pdf [Accessed: 2018-11-27]

[11] Official website of UNESCO Institute for Information Technologies in Education (IITE) [Internet]. Available from: http://ru.iite.unesco.org/ publications/ [Accessed: 2018-11-27]

**199**

**1. Introduction**

**Chapter 14**

Education

*Roy I. Morien*

**Abstract**

Leagility in Pedagogy: Applying

Management Thinking to Higher

Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) are commercial organisations facing the same operational problems as any business organisation, thus needing an appropriate business model, particularly for the teaching and learning processes which we refer to as the pedagogical system. The Logistics and Supply Chain Management (LSCM) paradigms are suggested as this new business model. The terminology of "agile education", "agile pedagogy", "the agile classroom", and "lean education" imply similar constructs for education derived from the literature on LSCM, and the intention is to overcome the perceived 8 wastes of education, based on the 8 wastes of manufacturing from the lean thinking model. The Internet is discussed in terms of it being both a disruptive and enabling technology for educationalists and students alike. A high level of digital literacy is now required of both. This paper is a discursive discussion, based on personal experience and perceptions of the author in the university sector. The educational research paradigm known as the "teacherresearcher" or "the teacher as researcher in the classroom" is elaborated, together with Educational Action Research, to meet the possible criticism of this proposal

and discussion as being based on the personal opinions of the author.

education technology, the 8 wastes of education

LSCM for the HEI pedagogical system is proposed.

**Keywords:** agile education, agile pedagogy, lean education, educational leagility,

Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) are commercial organisations facing the same problems of customer service levels, and cost inefficiencies, and competition, as any commercial organisation, therefore a radically different view of the pedagogical processes is required for future survival. A pedagogical paradigm based on

Even a brief study of the literature and the popular media reveals these competitive threats to the future of many HEIs. From [1] *" … in the current ecosystem, past success doesn't guarantee future success. No institution is too big to fail"*. HEIs face daunting challenges, and to ensure financial sustainability, many HEIs are responding with changes to their business models [2, 3]*.* This is in contradiction to the classical attitude towards education that HEIs are not commercial enterprises, and must

Logistics and Supply Chain

#### **Chapter 14**

## Leagility in Pedagogy: Applying Logistics and Supply Chain Management Thinking to Higher Education

*Roy I. Morien*

### **Abstract**

Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) are commercial organisations facing the same operational problems as any business organisation, thus needing an appropriate business model, particularly for the teaching and learning processes which we refer to as the pedagogical system. The Logistics and Supply Chain Management (LSCM) paradigms are suggested as this new business model. The terminology of "agile education", "agile pedagogy", "the agile classroom", and "lean education" imply similar constructs for education derived from the literature on LSCM, and the intention is to overcome the perceived 8 wastes of education, based on the 8 wastes of manufacturing from the lean thinking model. The Internet is discussed in terms of it being both a disruptive and enabling technology for educationalists and students alike. A high level of digital literacy is now required of both. This paper is a discursive discussion, based on personal experience and perceptions of the author in the university sector. The educational research paradigm known as the "teacherresearcher" or "the teacher as researcher in the classroom" is elaborated, together with Educational Action Research, to meet the possible criticism of this proposal and discussion as being based on the personal opinions of the author.

**Keywords:** agile education, agile pedagogy, lean education, educational leagility, education technology, the 8 wastes of education

#### **1. Introduction**

Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) are commercial organisations facing the same problems of customer service levels, and cost inefficiencies, and competition, as any commercial organisation, therefore a radically different view of the pedagogical processes is required for future survival. A pedagogical paradigm based on LSCM for the HEI pedagogical system is proposed.

Even a brief study of the literature and the popular media reveals these competitive threats to the future of many HEIs. From [1] *" … in the current ecosystem, past success doesn't guarantee future success. No institution is too big to fail"*. HEIs face daunting challenges, and to ensure financial sustainability, many HEIs are responding with changes to their business models [2, 3]*.* This is in contradiction to the classical attitude towards education that HEIs are not commercial enterprises, and must

**198**

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

**References**

[1] Russian digital economy program [Internet]. 2018. Available from: http:// data-economy.ru [Accessed: 2018-11-27] [9] Pérez Tornero JM, Varis T. Media Literacy and New Humanism. Moscow: UNESCO Institute for Information Technologies in Education; 2011. 136 p

[10] Marina T. The ICT competency MOOCs for teachers in Russia. Journal of Olympiads in Informatics. 2016;**10**(Special Issue):79-92. Available from: https://ioinformatics.org/files/ volume10si.pdf [Accessed: 2018-11-27]

[11] Official website of UNESCO Institute for Information Technologies in Education (IITE) [Internet].

Available from: http://ru.iite.unesco.org/ publications/ [Accessed: 2018-11-27]

[2] The structure of ICT competences of teachers/UNESCO Recommendations. [Internet] 2011. Available from: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ images/0021/002134/213475r.pdf

[Accessed: 2018-11-27]

[Accessed: 2018-11-27]

[Accessed: 2018-11-27]

2018-11-27]

Lab; 2013. 352 p

[5] Russian Society "Knowledge" [Internet]. 2018. Available from: https://www.znanierussia.ru/useful/ Pages/digital-curator.aspx [Accessed:

[6] Marina T. Information Activity of Teachers: Methodological Handbook. 2nd ed. Moscow: BINOM. Knowledge

[7] Árpád R, editor. Information Society Policies. Annual World Report 2009. [Internet]. Available from: https://wayback.archive-it. org/10611/20160102230754/ http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ files/29547/12668551003ifap\_ world\_report\_2009.pdf/ifap\_world\_ report\_2009.pdf [Accessed: 2018-11-27]

[8] Karpat A. Digital Literacy in

for Information Technologies in

Education; 2011. 12 p

Education. Moscow: UNESCO Institute

[3] Badarch D, editor. Information and communication technologies in education: monograph. Moscow: UNESCO IITE; 2013. 320 p. Available from: https://iite.unesco.org/pics/ publications/ru/files/3214728.pdf

[4] Professional standard "Consultant in the field of digital literacy development (digital curator)" [Internet]. 2018. Available from: http://www.consultant. ru/document/cons\_doc\_LAW\_311506/

accept that students are customers [4, 5]. HEIs cannot be the "ivory tower detached from the real world" style and must provide job skills, organisational "social" skills, problem-solving skills, know-how, as well as know-what and know-why as well as subject matter expertise [6].

Students pay to attend the HEI, therefore they are the customers. The provision of education is a multi-billion-dollar industry, ranking high in the importance scale of export industries. for example, in Australia, international students generated a record AUD\$28 billion in income for Australia in 2016/17 [7].

Clearly, HEIs are commercial enterprises operating as a competitive, commercial industry, and it equally clear that a new model of HEI pedagogy is needed that considers HEIs as competitive, commercial enterprises whose education processes are appropriately seen as being akin to product development, production, and LSCM processes [8].

We also must consider both the disruptive impact of the Internet, and the opportunities that the Internet provides, on current and future scholarship and pedagogy. A high level of digital literacy is now becoming almost an existential requirement for teachers, researchers, and students.

#### **2. Three higher education systems**

HEIs have three systems in play; the General Administration System, the Education Administration System, and the Pedagogical System. While being related, these systems can be defined separately as to their function and processes. The application of Lean Thinking and Organisational Agility to the general and academic administrative processes is not controversial, and many HEIs are applying both Lean and Agile to these processes. However, less attention has been paid to applying these to the Pedagogical System, which I have defined below:

#### **2.1 The general administration system**

Includes all of the general administrative functions necessary for the HEI to continue operations: HRM, payroll, purchasing, accounting, budgeting, and so on.

#### **2.2 The education administration system**

Includes all of the administrative functions necessary for the university to manage student applications, course and subject enrolments, organise teaching timetables, record examination results and grades, and appeals against assessment, graduate research and dissertation submission, and deciding on curriculum.

#### **2.3 The pedagogical system**

Includes all of the processes and activities involved in curriculum design, sourcing, development and availability to students, monitoring the learning activities of the students, and the assessment and evaluation activities necessary to monitor student progress and to monitor the quality and success of these processes; i.e. all the teaching, learning, assessment and curriculum matters.

This is the system that we see as being of particular relevance when considering "agile education" or, also terms used in the literature, "agile classrooms" and "pedagogical agility". As joint players in this system, the role of both teachers and students working together collaboratively in the twenty-first century is of great importance.

**201**

edge unit.

*Leagility in Pedagogy: Applying Logistics and Supply Chain Management Thinking to Higher...*

The pedagogical system in all of the HEIs with which the author is familiar, having been involved in higher education for more than 50 years, have followed a

A course is a series of subjects undertaken by the students, each subject bounded

Each subject is studied by the whole cohort or "batch" of students with little or no opportunity to "get ahead" by private study or at the student's initiative. This is therefore reminiscent of a batch production system with fixed product output essentially based on the Ford model of production circa 1920. A batch, or cohort, of students enters together at the same time, advances through the course at a designated pace without the ability or incentive to accelerate their learning, and with little or no opportunity for individualistic education according to the student's interest, producing a product well described by Henry Ford's sales motto "you can

The production and LSCM paradigms, together with the new opportunities offered by the Internet, will free up students from the lock-step, batch processing approach, enabling a more student self-guided but mentored approach to teaching and learning, allowing students to advance at their own accelerated or reduced pace:

To achieve this, knowledge units of various kinds including videos, PowerPoint presentations, downloadable lectures and any variety of information, be made available on an Anywhere/Anytime/AnyDevice basis, allowing continuous and longitudinal learning online learning and assessment opportunities. The learning process based on term-length subjects would be abandoned. Students would be able to advance at their own pace, an accelerated pace, or a slower pace, thus overcoming the restraints of the batch or cohort processing production line. Appropriate teaching methods would be applied which would include teachers holding appropriate meetings or having brief seminars and practical sessions to elucidate the subject

In each subject, a particular teacher, usually referred to in HEIs as a lecturer, is the Lecturer-in-Charge (LIC), acting alone or with teaching assistants or tutors. The LIC usually assumes "ownership" of the subject with the responsibility to present the required subject curriculum, which presumably is commensurate with what is being taught in other subjects. This "ownership" concept also implies that the LIC of a particular subject may object to "interference" from another lecturer, and may also refuse to assist other lecturers. Thus, teaching often occurs in "silos" without interaction or collaboration. To overcome this problem, teachers would be designated learning leaders, and would work in teaching teams to ensure that the broadest knowledge base would be available to students at any time, in any knowl-

**3. The traditional pedagogical system: Problems and solutions**

particular traditional and unchanged pattern for decades, if not centuries.

by the time constraint of a teaching term, usually of a duration of 16 teaching weeks, with 2 teaching terms per year with usually a long holiday period over the summer. The number of subjects per term varies, depending on the HEI, with each

subject covering a relatively small part of the overall learning load.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85264*

**4. A progression of subjects**

choose any colour as long as it is black".

"agile and lean education" thus "leagility".

**5. Taught usually by a single teacher or lecturer**

matter as necessary.

*Leagility in Pedagogy: Applying Logistics and Supply Chain Management Thinking to Higher... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85264*

#### **3. The traditional pedagogical system: Problems and solutions**

The pedagogical system in all of the HEIs with which the author is familiar, having been involved in higher education for more than 50 years, have followed a particular traditional and unchanged pattern for decades, if not centuries.

#### **4. A progression of subjects**

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

subject matter expertise [6].

LSCM processes [8].

for teachers, researchers, and students.

**2. Three higher education systems**

**2.1 The general administration system**

**2.2 The education administration system**

the teaching, learning, assessment and curriculum matters.

**2.3 The pedagogical system**

accept that students are customers [4, 5]. HEIs cannot be the "ivory tower detached from the real world" style and must provide job skills, organisational "social" skills, problem-solving skills, know-how, as well as know-what and know-why as well as

Students pay to attend the HEI, therefore they are the customers. The provision of education is a multi-billion-dollar industry, ranking high in the importance scale of export industries. for example, in Australia, international students generated a

Clearly, HEIs are commercial enterprises operating as a competitive, commercial

We also must consider both the disruptive impact of the Internet, and the opportunities that the Internet provides, on current and future scholarship and pedagogy. A high level of digital literacy is now becoming almost an existential requirement

industry, and it equally clear that a new model of HEI pedagogy is needed that considers HEIs as competitive, commercial enterprises whose education processes are appropriately seen as being akin to product development, production, and

HEIs have three systems in play; the General Administration System, the Education Administration System, and the Pedagogical System. While being related, these systems can be defined separately as to their function and processes. The application of Lean Thinking and Organisational Agility to the general and academic administrative processes is not controversial, and many HEIs are applying both Lean and Agile to these processes. However, less attention has been paid to

Includes all of the general administrative functions necessary for the HEI to continue operations: HRM, payroll, purchasing, accounting, budgeting, and so on.

Includes all of the administrative functions necessary for the university to manage student applications, course and subject enrolments, organise teaching timetables, record examination results and grades, and appeals against assessment, graduate research and dissertation submission, and deciding on curriculum.

Includes all of the processes and activities involved in curriculum design, sourcing, development and availability to students, monitoring the learning activities of the students, and the assessment and evaluation activities necessary to monitor student progress and to monitor the quality and success of these processes; i.e. all

This is the system that we see as being of particular relevance when considering "agile education" or, also terms used in the literature, "agile classrooms" and "pedagogical agility". As joint players in this system, the role of both teachers and students working together collaboratively in the twenty-first century is of great

applying these to the Pedagogical System, which I have defined below:

record AUD\$28 billion in income for Australia in 2016/17 [7].

**200**

importance.

A course is a series of subjects undertaken by the students, each subject bounded by the time constraint of a teaching term, usually of a duration of 16 teaching weeks, with 2 teaching terms per year with usually a long holiday period over the summer. The number of subjects per term varies, depending on the HEI, with each subject covering a relatively small part of the overall learning load.

Each subject is studied by the whole cohort or "batch" of students with little or no opportunity to "get ahead" by private study or at the student's initiative. This is therefore reminiscent of a batch production system with fixed product output essentially based on the Ford model of production circa 1920. A batch, or cohort, of students enters together at the same time, advances through the course at a designated pace without the ability or incentive to accelerate their learning, and with little or no opportunity for individualistic education according to the student's interest, producing a product well described by Henry Ford's sales motto "you can choose any colour as long as it is black".

The production and LSCM paradigms, together with the new opportunities offered by the Internet, will free up students from the lock-step, batch processing approach, enabling a more student self-guided but mentored approach to teaching and learning, allowing students to advance at their own accelerated or reduced pace: "agile and lean education" thus "leagility".

To achieve this, knowledge units of various kinds including videos, PowerPoint presentations, downloadable lectures and any variety of information, be made available on an Anywhere/Anytime/AnyDevice basis, allowing continuous and longitudinal learning online learning and assessment opportunities. The learning process based on term-length subjects would be abandoned. Students would be able to advance at their own pace, an accelerated pace, or a slower pace, thus overcoming the restraints of the batch or cohort processing production line. Appropriate teaching methods would be applied which would include teachers holding appropriate meetings or having brief seminars and practical sessions to elucidate the subject matter as necessary.

#### **5. Taught usually by a single teacher or lecturer**

In each subject, a particular teacher, usually referred to in HEIs as a lecturer, is the Lecturer-in-Charge (LIC), acting alone or with teaching assistants or tutors. The LIC usually assumes "ownership" of the subject with the responsibility to present the required subject curriculum, which presumably is commensurate with what is being taught in other subjects. This "ownership" concept also implies that the LIC of a particular subject may object to "interference" from another lecturer, and may also refuse to assist other lecturers. Thus, teaching often occurs in "silos" without interaction or collaboration. To overcome this problem, teachers would be designated learning leaders, and would work in teaching teams to ensure that the broadest knowledge base would be available to students at any time, in any knowledge unit.

#### **6. In a lecture hall or classroom**

The lecturer's primary presentation method is traditionally to have a stand-up lecture on a weekly basis of usually 2 hours' duration. This has often been termed the "chalk and talk" approach, and even, somewhat disparagingly, the "Sage on the Stage" approach. The "teaching" process also includes an associated period of a further 1, 2, and sometimes 3 hours per week, variously termed a tutorial or "prac.", or a workshop or lab, are undertaken by the students on a weekly basis.

There are many problems here which are barriers to quality teaching and learning. Student boredom in such classes is an obvious and often observed fact. Students are required to listen to lectures and attend classes that may be held at inconvenient times and need to attend the lectures or classes on the campus come rain, hail or shine, regardless of the distance the student needs to travel to attend the lecture. Often significant amounts of time are wasted in travel. The fact that students are often engaged in full- and part-time work is also a factor that demands attention.

Classroom teaching of this style has been found to be the least effective for learning. According to **Figure 1**, sourced from (NTL Institute, https://www.ntl. org/), attending a lecture is the least successful learning experience. Online delivery of knowledge units with supporting as-needed classes and seminars should be the usual mode of delivery of curriculum, and formal stand-up classes should be abandoned. Anywhere/Anytime/AnyDevice access to online stored curriculum should be the preferred method of knowledge delivery. The Internet can be used as a significant curriculum delivery technology and a collaboration platform between teachers and students. We need to adopt a radical terminology to replace "classroom". Instead, we suggest "learning spaces", such as have been set up in various HEIs in Australia, for example [9], referred to in [10] as a teaching hub. Note also in [10] the references to "no lectures, no exams".

#### **Figure 1.**

*The National Training Laboratories' learning pyramid.*

#### **7. Assessment of student learning achievement**

Assessment is a huge area of quality problems, with often highly stressed students sitting important exams and being unable to perform to their full capabilities.

**203**

*Leagility in Pedagogy: Applying Logistics and Supply Chain Management Thinking to Higher...*

"end-of-term" assessment, referred to in the production process literature as "endof-line" QA, is ineffective, and often requires students to acquire sufficient "last minute" knowledge to pass, which is then forgotten because it was shallow learning, and discarded following the exam, having served its purpose. Assessment often includes also a mid-term test, which is a sit-down test of perhaps 2 hours' duration, and there is inevitably a Final Examination which is also a sit-down test of 2 or 3 hours' duration, which will contribute the majority of the assessment grade. Formal examinations are not necessary if a variety of well-researched assessment methods are applied; student self-assessment [11], peer assessment (within student learning teams) [12], assessment based on project outcomes, online quizzes that can be repeated as many times as necessary until a result of 100% or close is achieved. Formative assessment that informs teachers to enable them to monitor, mentor and assist students to achieve a high level of knowledge acquisition is much preferable to summative assessment. Again, the Internet offers a solution here, at

Student assessment usually "continuous assessment" that includes weekly assignments and/or a "term paper" of some substance. This style of assessment is fraught with problems, particularly plagiarism, copying, and also paying for an external "expert" to do the work. The Internet has had an important impact on this, giving students a much greater opportunity for plagiarising. The knowledge acquisition and assessment problems here are that the student may not actually learn anything from their assignments, yet gain high marks for this continuous assessment activity, but then fail the final exam dismally. The continuous assessment activity may be a hands-on project, such as is common in computer system development subjects, with the scope of the development problem is necessarily limited, often to the point of being useless as a learning activity. This problem can be overcome by applying a variety of assessment methods, and presenting curriculum in a significantly different manner, as has been discussed above. In [13], a proposal specific to computer system development courses, suggests a major project that is developed over the entire period of the course which would include "Just-in-

Sit-down examinations are extremely problematic, especially when used for summative assessment only. First, the stress felt by students in the exam room has a significant impact on student achievement in the exam, particularly for those students who are already at risk by being ill-prepared. Then, there is the problem of shallow learning, actually encouraged by the common practice and requirement to give students "exam hints" in the last lecture of the term, thus narrowing the scope of learning for the students preparing for the exam. This practice encourages a lastminute mad scramble to learn something about the indicated topics sufficient to perhaps pass the exam, and can then be forgotten, having served the purpose. This activity occurs in what is often termed "swat vac" which is a 1 or 2 weeks "laytime" between the end of the lecture series and the exam. This "cram, sit and then forget" problem creates on-going problems when that information is pre-requisite knowledge for subsequent subjects. It also counts as a waste of education; wasted time

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85264*

least as an effective and efficient method of assessment.

**8. Continuous assessment during term**

Time" curriculum, another LSCM concept.

particularly, sub-standard quality of learning.

**9. Sit-down exams**

#### *Leagility in Pedagogy: Applying Logistics and Supply Chain Management Thinking to Higher... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85264*

"end-of-term" assessment, referred to in the production process literature as "endof-line" QA, is ineffective, and often requires students to acquire sufficient "last minute" knowledge to pass, which is then forgotten because it was shallow learning, and discarded following the exam, having served its purpose. Assessment often includes also a mid-term test, which is a sit-down test of perhaps 2 hours' duration, and there is inevitably a Final Examination which is also a sit-down test of 2 or 3 hours' duration, which will contribute the majority of the assessment grade.

Formal examinations are not necessary if a variety of well-researched assessment methods are applied; student self-assessment [11], peer assessment (within student learning teams) [12], assessment based on project outcomes, online quizzes that can be repeated as many times as necessary until a result of 100% or close is achieved. Formative assessment that informs teachers to enable them to monitor, mentor and assist students to achieve a high level of knowledge acquisition is much preferable to summative assessment. Again, the Internet offers a solution here, at least as an effective and efficient method of assessment.

#### **8. Continuous assessment during term**

Student assessment usually "continuous assessment" that includes weekly assignments and/or a "term paper" of some substance. This style of assessment is fraught with problems, particularly plagiarism, copying, and also paying for an external "expert" to do the work. The Internet has had an important impact on this, giving students a much greater opportunity for plagiarising. The knowledge acquisition and assessment problems here are that the student may not actually learn anything from their assignments, yet gain high marks for this continuous assessment activity, but then fail the final exam dismally. The continuous assessment activity may be a hands-on project, such as is common in computer system development subjects, with the scope of the development problem is necessarily limited, often to the point of being useless as a learning activity. This problem can be overcome by applying a variety of assessment methods, and presenting curriculum in a significantly different manner, as has been discussed above. In [13], a proposal specific to computer system development courses, suggests a major project that is developed over the entire period of the course which would include "Just-in-Time" curriculum, another LSCM concept.

#### **9. Sit-down exams**

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

**6. In a lecture hall or classroom**

[10] the references to "no lectures, no exams".

**7. Assessment of student learning achievement**

*The National Training Laboratories' learning pyramid.*

Assessment is a huge area of quality problems, with often highly stressed students sitting important exams and being unable to perform to their full capabilities.

The lecturer's primary presentation method is traditionally to have a stand-up lecture on a weekly basis of usually 2 hours' duration. This has often been termed the "chalk and talk" approach, and even, somewhat disparagingly, the "Sage on the Stage" approach. The "teaching" process also includes an associated period of a further 1, 2, and sometimes 3 hours per week, variously termed a tutorial or "prac.",

There are many problems here which are barriers to quality teaching and learning. Student boredom in such classes is an obvious and often observed fact. Students are required to listen to lectures and attend classes that may be held at inconvenient times and need to attend the lectures or classes on the campus come rain, hail or shine, regardless of the distance the student needs to travel to attend the lecture. Often significant amounts of time are wasted in travel. The fact that students are often engaged in full- and part-time work is also a factor that demands attention. Classroom teaching of this style has been found to be the least effective for learning. According to **Figure 1**, sourced from (NTL Institute, https://www.ntl. org/), attending a lecture is the least successful learning experience. Online delivery of knowledge units with supporting as-needed classes and seminars should be the usual mode of delivery of curriculum, and formal stand-up classes should be abandoned. Anywhere/Anytime/AnyDevice access to online stored curriculum should be the preferred method of knowledge delivery. The Internet can be used as a significant curriculum delivery technology and a collaboration platform between teachers and students. We need to adopt a radical terminology to replace "classroom". Instead, we suggest "learning spaces", such as have been set up in various HEIs in Australia, for example [9], referred to in [10] as a teaching hub. Note also in

or a workshop or lab, are undertaken by the students on a weekly basis.

**202**

**Figure 1.**

Sit-down examinations are extremely problematic, especially when used for summative assessment only. First, the stress felt by students in the exam room has a significant impact on student achievement in the exam, particularly for those students who are already at risk by being ill-prepared. Then, there is the problem of shallow learning, actually encouraged by the common practice and requirement to give students "exam hints" in the last lecture of the term, thus narrowing the scope of learning for the students preparing for the exam. This practice encourages a lastminute mad scramble to learn something about the indicated topics sufficient to perhaps pass the exam, and can then be forgotten, having served the purpose. This activity occurs in what is often termed "swat vac" which is a 1 or 2 weeks "laytime" between the end of the lecture series and the exam. This "cram, sit and then forget" problem creates on-going problems when that information is pre-requisite knowledge for subsequent subjects. It also counts as a waste of education; wasted time particularly, sub-standard quality of learning.

The solution has been discussed above; a teaching, learning and assessment process based on the Internet as the primary curriculum delivery technology, offering Anywhere/Anytime/AnyDevice accessibility to knowledge units.

It is incumbent on HEIs to offer students an interesting, even exciting and fun, learning environment to draw and keep student willingness to learn. This requires hands-on, practical learning, project-based, and using all of the facilities and tools offered by the Internet, together with "learning spaces" equipped with TVs, fast Internet access, e-learning material, and a portfolio of Internet-based software.

#### **10. Quality assurance for assessments**

Quality assurance of assessment instruments and their contents is highly problematic. It is extremely difficult to ensure fully fair and proper exam paper content. To be so, many questions arise on the appropriate and proper presentation of the subject matter to the students during the term, on the quantity of subject matter presented being appropriate to the time constraint of the length of the term, on the quality of teaching. Are the questions clearly understandable and unambiguous? Is the assessment rubric appropriate and sure to provide objectively fair assessments? Were the questions too simple and too easily answered, thus lowering the standard of learning required? Were the questions unreasonably difficult? The solution has been suggested above: peer-assessment, self-assessment, longitudinal assessment, and a variety of assessment methods which are not based on sit-down examinations. I might even suggest here a new term: "agile assessment" meaning frequent and repeatable assessment, and the application of various assessment methods as a triangulated assessment process.

#### **11. Failure to learn assessed as a pass**

This is a significant quality problem. While a 50% pass grade is lauded, and gratefully received by many students, what this really means is that the student has failed to learn 50% of the required curriculum.

Passing grades may vary between 45 and 60% to achieve a "C" grade, meaning a pass. This implies that it is acceptable for the student to exit the subject having failed to learn half of the subject matter, and if the student's grades are consistent, it is possible for that student to graduate from the HEI even though they have failed to learn some 50% of the total subject matter included in the course.

As a quality measure, students should be required to, and be able to, repeat any assessment task until a grade of at least 90% is achieved: "agile assessment" again. A program of longitudinal assessment, as discussed above, with teacher responsibility for supporting and mentoring students to achieve this outcome, should be in place. Frequent tests, often computer-administered, during and at the end of each knowledge unit, will indicate if students are progressing well, will enable appropriate intervention as necessary, will provide continual satisfaction and confidence to the student, and will never allow a student to fail, resulting in the heartbreaking problems discussed next.

#### **12. One-chance assessment**

Two weeks after the final exam of the term the student may be told "sorry, you failed, come back next year and try again". This often imposes a social, familial,

**205**

education.

*Leagility in Pedagogy: Applying Logistics and Supply Chain Management Thinking to Higher...*

financial and psychological burden on the student which could have been avoided if assessment had been done differently, and for a different reason, that being formative assessment, accompanied by a very different role of both teachers and students, in the former case as mentors, curators of content, and learning leaders, and in the student case, as willing students able to undertake guided learning, self-directed

In many HEIs, assessment of lecturers is undertaken, using a number of different methods, including, often as a significant component, up to 50%, of the overall assessment, student feedback. Assessment of teachers is done for many reasons including promotion opportunities, salary increments, and contract extensions. So assessment of teachers' performance can have a profound impact on the teachers' career prospects. This does have an often profound impact on the teacher or lecturer's performance and standard of curriculum developed and presented and students' assessment outcomes. Assessment criteria of lecturers may include the pass rate of the students in the subject, the overall grades by simple statistics of mean, mode, median etc., and scrutiny of lecture materials prepared which, in this day and age, seem to be well-designed PowerPoint slides as being essential. Assessment of lecturers is included in this discussion as being part of the pedagogical system because of the potential impacts, both positive and negative, that such assessment may have on lecturer behaviour, assessment standards and lecturerstudent relationships. It has been my experience that lecturers are not infrequently tempted to "game the system" by promising easy exams, signalling exam content, reducing curriculum content and even showing favouritism to particular students in their assessments to ensure positive feedback from the students, and boosting

As we are looking forward into the twenty-first century, it is informative to look back at what can be termed the mass education enabling revolutions. By this, we mean the development or invention of technology that enabled mass education to be delivered to all members of society. The 1st mass education enabling revolution occurred with the invention of the Gutenberg printing press, circa 1440. This printing device enabled the printing of books on a large-scale, taking the production and publishing of books out of the medieval monasteries and making information available to be widely distributed, thus heralding, and enabling, mass

The 2nd mass education enabling revolution was the invention and wide availability of the Internet. Nowadays, as has been well demonstrated, vast quantities of information are available to students and scholars, more than has ever been available "in one place" in the history of mankind. "Availability" implies not only the existence of the knowledge (the US Library of Congress is the largest library in the world, with millions of books, recordings, photographs, newspapers, maps and manuscripts in its collections) but also "accessibility". One significant aspect of this Internet-based information revolution is the accessibility of that information to anyone who has a cheap computer and an Internet connection in their home, or in their classroom. The information is available 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, on an

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85264*

**13. Assessment of teachers/lecturers**

assessment scores for the same purpose.

Anywhere/Anytime/AnyDevice basis.

**14. The mass education enabling revolutions**

learning and self-motivated learning assisted by the teachers.

*Leagility in Pedagogy: Applying Logistics and Supply Chain Management Thinking to Higher... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85264*

financial and psychological burden on the student which could have been avoided if assessment had been done differently, and for a different reason, that being formative assessment, accompanied by a very different role of both teachers and students, in the former case as mentors, curators of content, and learning leaders, and in the student case, as willing students able to undertake guided learning, self-directed learning and self-motivated learning assisted by the teachers.

#### **13. Assessment of teachers/lecturers**

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

**10. Quality assurance for assessments**

triangulated assessment process.

problems discussed next.

**12. One-chance assessment**

**11. Failure to learn assessed as a pass**

failed to learn 50% of the required curriculum.

learn some 50% of the total subject matter included in the course.

The solution has been discussed above; a teaching, learning and assessment process based on the Internet as the primary curriculum delivery technology, offering

It is incumbent on HEIs to offer students an interesting, even exciting and fun, learning environment to draw and keep student willingness to learn. This requires hands-on, practical learning, project-based, and using all of the facilities and tools offered by the Internet, together with "learning spaces" equipped with TVs, fast Internet access, e-learning material, and a portfolio of Internet-based software.

Quality assurance of assessment instruments and their contents is highly problematic. It is extremely difficult to ensure fully fair and proper exam paper content. To be so, many questions arise on the appropriate and proper presentation of the subject matter to the students during the term, on the quantity of subject matter presented being appropriate to the time constraint of the length of the term, on the quality of teaching. Are the questions clearly understandable and unambiguous? Is the assessment rubric appropriate and sure to provide objectively fair assessments? Were the questions too simple and too easily answered, thus lowering the standard of learning required? Were the questions unreasonably difficult? The solution has been suggested above: peer-assessment, self-assessment, longitudinal assessment, and a variety of assessment methods which are not based on sit-down examinations. I might even suggest here a new term: "agile assessment" meaning frequent and repeatable assessment, and the application of various assessment methods as a

This is a significant quality problem. While a 50% pass grade is lauded, and gratefully received by many students, what this really means is that the student has

Passing grades may vary between 45 and 60% to achieve a "C" grade, meaning a pass. This implies that it is acceptable for the student to exit the subject having failed to learn half of the subject matter, and if the student's grades are consistent, it is possible for that student to graduate from the HEI even though they have failed to

As a quality measure, students should be required to, and be able to, repeat any assessment task until a grade of at least 90% is achieved: "agile assessment" again. A program of longitudinal assessment, as discussed above, with teacher responsibility for supporting and mentoring students to achieve this outcome, should be in place. Frequent tests, often computer-administered, during and at the end of each knowledge unit, will indicate if students are progressing well, will enable appropriate intervention as necessary, will provide continual satisfaction and confidence to the student, and will never allow a student to fail, resulting in the heartbreaking

Two weeks after the final exam of the term the student may be told "sorry, you failed, come back next year and try again". This often imposes a social, familial,

Anywhere/Anytime/AnyDevice accessibility to knowledge units.

**204**

In many HEIs, assessment of lecturers is undertaken, using a number of different methods, including, often as a significant component, up to 50%, of the overall assessment, student feedback. Assessment of teachers is done for many reasons including promotion opportunities, salary increments, and contract extensions. So assessment of teachers' performance can have a profound impact on the teachers' career prospects. This does have an often profound impact on the teacher or lecturer's performance and standard of curriculum developed and presented and students' assessment outcomes. Assessment criteria of lecturers may include the pass rate of the students in the subject, the overall grades by simple statistics of mean, mode, median etc., and scrutiny of lecture materials prepared which, in this day and age, seem to be well-designed PowerPoint slides as being essential. Assessment of lecturers is included in this discussion as being part of the pedagogical system because of the potential impacts, both positive and negative, that such assessment may have on lecturer behaviour, assessment standards and lecturerstudent relationships. It has been my experience that lecturers are not infrequently tempted to "game the system" by promising easy exams, signalling exam content, reducing curriculum content and even showing favouritism to particular students in their assessments to ensure positive feedback from the students, and boosting assessment scores for the same purpose.

#### **14. The mass education enabling revolutions**

As we are looking forward into the twenty-first century, it is informative to look back at what can be termed the mass education enabling revolutions. By this, we mean the development or invention of technology that enabled mass education to be delivered to all members of society. The 1st mass education enabling revolution occurred with the invention of the Gutenberg printing press, circa 1440. This printing device enabled the printing of books on a large-scale, taking the production and publishing of books out of the medieval monasteries and making information available to be widely distributed, thus heralding, and enabling, mass education.

The 2nd mass education enabling revolution was the invention and wide availability of the Internet. Nowadays, as has been well demonstrated, vast quantities of information are available to students and scholars, more than has ever been available "in one place" in the history of mankind. "Availability" implies not only the existence of the knowledge (the US Library of Congress is the largest library in the world, with millions of books, recordings, photographs, newspapers, maps and manuscripts in its collections) but also "accessibility". One significant aspect of this Internet-based information revolution is the accessibility of that information to anyone who has a cheap computer and an Internet connection in their home, or in their classroom. The information is available 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, on an Anywhere/Anytime/AnyDevice basis.

The impact of the Internet on mass education, actual and possible, is, without doubt, revolutionary and enormous. The Internet and its associated information storage, accessibility and searchability, with a world-wide web of hyperlinking capability, is also possibly the most disruptive technology in the history of mankind, not the least of which is its impact on education. The Internet enables, demands even, that education delivery, the stuff of the HEI pedagogical system, change in a radical, overwhelming way, and methods and procedures for the properly organised use of and the efficient and effective utilisation of the Internet is now an imperative facing educators, scholars, and students at all levels.

The Internet opens up wider, broader, deeper, more abundant information to students and teachers, accessible in a way never before seen. It is now imperative that teachers at all levels of education; pre-school, primary, secondary, tertiary, and in all educational environments, trades oriented, academic studies, develop a significant level of what is now being termed digital literacy, and a new mindset on how to use the Internet to full advantage. This is so significant that a new theory of Internet access and use has been developed: connectivedness theory.

Using the Internet as a learning tool in the classroom, organising lessons and applying teaching approaches in a new and novel way, is a must, and each and every teacher needs to develop expertise in a personal set of Internet tools, including word processing, presentation tools, graphics programs, data storage sites to allow Anywhere/Anytime/AnyDevice access to materials, social networking tools, remote accessing, search engines; all of those now essential tools to fully use this digital environment, and to be able to teach them competently.

As such, the Internet is a highly disruptive technology in education, having opened up huge opportunities in education, but demanding a very high level of digital literacy on both teachers and students to be able to take full advantage of more technology in the classroom, for research, and for administration. In fact, it is quite possible that the Internet challenges the very existence of "red brick" HEIs.

#### **15. The eight wastes of education**

An underlying principle of this proposal is related to the eradication of waste in the pedagogical system [14]. What is now known as the 8 wastes of education have been derived from the original seven wastes (Muda) of manufacturing, developed by Taiichi Ohno, the Chief Engineer at Toyota, as part of the Toyota Production System (TPS), and subsequently extended to 8 [15, 16]. These "Wastes" provide the philosophical *raison d'etre* of the lean movement which is dedicated to the eradication of waste in any endeavour. Following on from these "8 Wastes of Manufacturing", other authors have described these wastes in terms of particular endeavours, such as software engineering [17], as part of the Agile Software Development movement that arose in 2001. This association is important in the education sphere as at least one of the agile software development method published, Scrum [18] has been adapted and adopted into the classroom, under the heading of Agile Classrooms [19]. More recently, Lean Thinking has been applied to education as "Lean Education", "Lean Pedagogogy" [20–22].

I have defined the 7 wastes of education, first published in [23], which was elaborated in [24], and then extended to be the 8 wastes of education published in [25] (**Table 1**). This is certainly neither the only rendition of these "Wastes", nor the first, it must be stated.

There have been many other attempts at defining the wastes of education to be found in the literature, not necessarily following the "8 Wastes of Manufacturing" Pattern. [26] applies these to the three main groups of actors in higher education;

**207**

development.

*Leagility in Pedagogy: Applying Logistics and Supply Chain Management Thinking to Higher...*

Overproduction Extra and unnecessary curriculum content and knowledge that is not useful or useable. Time spent developing curricula that may be purchased Waiting The knowledge gained by students that must be "put on hold" until required later in

Transport Movement of knowledge from one subject to another, wasting resources by the need to

Inventory Concepts, ideas, specific knowledge that must be stored (i.e. remembered) for a future

Defects Shallow learning, forgotten subject matter, failure to comprehend subject-matter,

failure to develop, failure to make use of students research

plagiarism, cheating, inappropriate curriculum. Obsolete curriculum

attendance in a classroom at a specific time

the pedagogical process which tends to be forgotten or becomes irrelevant

re-teach. The physical movement of staff and students to and from teaching locations,

Inefficient and ineffectual teaching and learning processes, such as classroom teaching, and failure to apply Internet technology efficiently, and ineffective assessment

time which is forgotten or becomes obsolete and irrelevant (leakage in LSCM terms)

Student and staff physical and intellectual movement between subjects and classes, overly dependent on pre-requisite knowledge, lack of coherent streaming of

Failure to recognise and acknowledge teacher and student abilities and suggestions,

administrative staff, academic staff, and students (paralleling the three systems: General Administration, Academic Administration and pedagogical, stated above), and in each case most of the wastes are in regard to the physical workplace and

For academic staff, the waste of motion is "Walking to deliver lectures and seminars in different areas or buildings in the same teaching day". For students, the waste of motion as "Scheduling classes for a single course in widely separated locations", and the waste of waiting as "Waiting for results/waiting for a lecture to start/waiting for equipment to be returned (or waiting for books to be returned to

These wastes are obviously particular to the physical environment and class scheduling, and identify some significant wastes that can be overcome by the imaginative and effective use of the Internet as a vehicle for the simple and timesaving dissemination of course material to students by the academics, accessible by the students on an Anywhere/Anytime/AnyDevice basis, alleviating a significant problem of the physical movement and time requirements of the traditional "come to class from wherever you live" to learn from the lecturer who must move to the lecture location (unless of course the class must be cancelled due to the absence of the lecturer, or the student is unable to come due to personal matters such as sick-

**16. Adopting production line, product development, logistics and supply** 

The HEI pedagogical system must be dramatically reorganised and re-designed,

and the LSCM paradigm be adopted, including the production line processes of modern manufacturing, and, possibly even more importantly, lean product

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85264*

activities

curriculum resulting

**Type of waste Explanation**

Inappropriate processing

Unnecessary & excessive motion

Recognition of staff

*The 8 wastes of education.*

**Table 1.**

physical movement of the actors.

the library by another borrower (my addition))".

ness, or inclement weather or transport problems).

**chain management paradigms**

*Leagility in Pedagogy: Applying Logistics and Supply Chain Management Thinking to Higher... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85264*


#### **Table 1.**

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

facing educators, scholars, and students at all levels.

environment, and to be able to teach them competently.

education as "Lean Education", "Lean Pedagogogy" [20–22].

**15. The eight wastes of education**

The impact of the Internet on mass education, actual and possible, is, without doubt, revolutionary and enormous. The Internet and its associated information storage, accessibility and searchability, with a world-wide web of hyperlinking capability, is also possibly the most disruptive technology in the history of mankind, not the least of which is its impact on education. The Internet enables, demands even, that education delivery, the stuff of the HEI pedagogical system, change in a radical, overwhelming way, and methods and procedures for the properly organised use of and the efficient and effective utilisation of the Internet is now an imperative

The Internet opens up wider, broader, deeper, more abundant information to students and teachers, accessible in a way never before seen. It is now imperative that teachers at all levels of education; pre-school, primary, secondary, tertiary, and in all educational environments, trades oriented, academic studies, develop a significant level of what is now being termed digital literacy, and a new mindset on how to use the Internet to full advantage. This is so significant that a new theory of

Using the Internet as a learning tool in the classroom, organising lessons and applying teaching approaches in a new and novel way, is a must, and each and every teacher needs to develop expertise in a personal set of Internet tools, including word processing, presentation tools, graphics programs, data storage sites to allow Anywhere/Anytime/AnyDevice access to materials, social networking tools, remote accessing, search engines; all of those now essential tools to fully use this digital

As such, the Internet is a highly disruptive technology in education, having opened up huge opportunities in education, but demanding a very high level of digital literacy on both teachers and students to be able to take full advantage of more technology in the classroom, for research, and for administration. In fact, it is quite possible that the Internet challenges the very existence of "red brick" HEIs.

An underlying principle of this proposal is related to the eradication of waste in the pedagogical system [14]. What is now known as the 8 wastes of education have been derived from the original seven wastes (Muda) of manufacturing, developed by Taiichi Ohno, the Chief Engineer at Toyota, as part of the Toyota Production System (TPS), and subsequently extended to 8 [15, 16]. These "Wastes" provide the philosophical *raison d'etre* of the lean movement which is dedicated to the eradication of waste in any endeavour. Following on from these "8 Wastes of Manufacturing", other authors have described these wastes in terms of particular endeavours, such as software engineering [17], as part of the Agile Software Development movement that arose in 2001. This association is important in the education sphere as at least one of the agile software development method published, Scrum [18] has been adapted and adopted into the classroom, under the heading of Agile Classrooms [19]. More recently, Lean Thinking has been applied to

I have defined the 7 wastes of education, first published in [23], which was elaborated in [24], and then extended to be the 8 wastes of education published in [25] (**Table 1**). This is certainly neither the only rendition of these "Wastes", nor the

There have been many other attempts at defining the wastes of education to be found in the literature, not necessarily following the "8 Wastes of Manufacturing" Pattern. [26] applies these to the three main groups of actors in higher education;

Internet access and use has been developed: connectivedness theory.

**206**

first, it must be stated.

*The 8 wastes of education.*

administrative staff, academic staff, and students (paralleling the three systems: General Administration, Academic Administration and pedagogical, stated above), and in each case most of the wastes are in regard to the physical workplace and physical movement of the actors.

For academic staff, the waste of motion is "Walking to deliver lectures and seminars in different areas or buildings in the same teaching day". For students, the waste of motion as "Scheduling classes for a single course in widely separated locations", and the waste of waiting as "Waiting for results/waiting for a lecture to start/waiting for equipment to be returned (or waiting for books to be returned to the library by another borrower (my addition))".

These wastes are obviously particular to the physical environment and class scheduling, and identify some significant wastes that can be overcome by the imaginative and effective use of the Internet as a vehicle for the simple and timesaving dissemination of course material to students by the academics, accessible by the students on an Anywhere/Anytime/AnyDevice basis, alleviating a significant problem of the physical movement and time requirements of the traditional "come to class from wherever you live" to learn from the lecturer who must move to the lecture location (unless of course the class must be cancelled due to the absence of the lecturer, or the student is unable to come due to personal matters such as sickness, or inclement weather or transport problems).

#### **16. Adopting production line, product development, logistics and supply chain management paradigms**

The HEI pedagogical system must be dramatically reorganised and re-designed, and the LSCM paradigm be adopted, including the production line processes of modern manufacturing, and, possibly even more importantly, lean product development.

#### **17. What can we learn from logistics and supply chain management**

The term "logistics" is used to refer to the process of coordinating and moving resources—people, materials, inventory, and equipment—from one location to storage at the desired destination [27]. More generally, logistics is the act of coordinating complex movements or projects or solving complex problems (https://www. yourdictionary.com/logistics) or the planning, implementation, and coordination of the details of a business or other operation (Dictionary.com). Therefore we can obviously apply processes applicable to logistics, such as quality assurance and quality control measures, to the pedagogical system. Supply chain management, while being associated with logistics, is defined separately in [28], supply chain management directly impacts product quality and the overall profitability of a company. For these reasons, quality control in the supply chain is critical for maintaining a competitive edge in the marketplace and reducing operating costs. Without quality control, waste becomes prevalent beyond a tolerable amount. Adapting from [27], to define LSCM in terms relevant to the pedagogical system of HEIs, logistics refers to what happens within an HEI, including the development, purchase and delivery of curriculum materials, the packaging for presentation to students of those curriculum materials (which I have defined as knowledge units), and the delivery of those knowledge units to students, to create a final product: the "Knowledge Product". Supply chain management refers to a larger network of outside organisations and stakeholders that work together to deliver the final product; a knowledgeable graduate leaving the HEI with the knowledge product created in the pedagogical system, to all stakeholders, defined in this chapter as including not only the students, but also other important stakeholders in the education process, who include future employers, students' families, society at large, and government.

#### **18. Why refer to logistics and supply chain management here?**

Supporting the assumption that we can see the pedagogical system of an HEI in terms of LSCM, there is a significant volume of research available on the application of "agile", "lean" and "leagility" from which we can learn: [29–31]. We can learn, for example, about quality circles and their relevance to product development and production line processes from the Toyota Way and apply this concept to the pedagogical system; an adaptation of a definition of quality circle [32], appropriate to education, is "A quality circle is a participatory teaching and learning technique that enlists the help of both teachers and students in solving problems related to their course of study". Circles are formed by teaching academics working in cooperative groups, or teaching teams, and students working together in learning teams, to discuss problems of quality and to devise solutions for improvements, as well as supporting more effective and efficient teaching and learning processes. In general, the literature on LSCM research is rich with information on "agility", "lean management" and "leagility", thus being an excellent and informative source of information appropriate to the pedagogical system.

#### **19. What are "agile pedagogy", "lean education" and "leagility"?**

The concept of agile education emanates from the concept of "organisational agility", which has been described by [33] and modified here to suit HEIs: *"… the ability of an HEI to renew itself, adapt, change quickly, and succeed in a rapidly changing, ambiguous, turbulent environment".* Elsewhere, the definition of organisational

**209**

*Leagility in Pedagogy: Applying Logistics and Supply Chain Management Thinking to Higher...*

agility, adapted for HEIs, is *"The capability of an HEI to rapidly change or adapt in response to changes in the demand for graduates with particular skills. A high degree of organizational agility can help an HEI to react successfully to the emergence of new competitors, the development of new industry-changing technologies, or sudden shifts in overall market conditions"* [34]. Agile practices have been adopted and adapted into, agile software development [17], and agile LSCM [28–30], agile shipbuilding [35] and in agile education [7], which, together with the concepts of lean thinking, is

**20. The pedagogical system as a logistics and supply chain management** 

Most, if not all, current LSCM practices can be valuably applied to education: quality management, quality circles, supplier networks, just-in-time manufacturing, eradication of waste in the manufacturing processes under the heading of lean management, adaptability of processes under the heading of "organisational agility", with these latter two approaches now being combined under the heading of

To set the scene for these proposals, a quick definition of each of these three terms is appropriate. In general terms, "agile" means "*fast, quick decision making and behaviour to meet changing circumstances, implying timely decision making*". This is seen as being "effective". Lean, or lean management, is stated as "*get the right things to the right place at the right time, the first time, while minimizing waste and being open to change*". This is "efficient", "leagility" is a combination of these terms, to imply *"overall efficacy, effective and efficient, behaving in both an agile and lean manner"*. I define the concept of "pedagogical agility", adapted from [36]: "The capability of an HEI to rapidly change or adapt in response to changes in the market for Graduates. A high degree of pedagogical agility can help an HEI to react successfully to the emergence of new competitors, the development of new industry-changing

Further, in the HEI situation, we define "Leanness" as developing a pedagogical value stream to eliminate all waste, including time, motion and transportation, and to ensure the continuous and levelled delivery of a schedule of knowledge enhancement. "*A lean HEI understands knowledge value and focuses its key processes to continuously increase it. The ultimate goal is to provide perfect Knowledge to the graduate through a perfect value creation process that has zero waste"* (definition adapted

Similarly, "Leagile" is a hybrid of lean and agile systems, and a paraphrased definition, also derived from [38] "Leagile has emerged, in HEIs, as an answer to the problem of reconciling long curriculum lead times with unpredictable technological and employment changes". These definitions of LSCM, drawn from the Internet, have been modified to be applicable to HEIs, particularly by referring to "students"

Where this question may have been addressed previously in the literature, there has been an assumption that the "customer" of the HEI is the student (who is, after all, paying to attend). We can imply this from [39] *"What 21st-century employers need … is singular, creative talent nurtured by a higher education system that offers* 

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85264*

**problem**

"Leagility" [5].

from [37].

rather than "customers".

now being seen in combination, termed as leagility.

technologies, or sudden shifts in overall market conditions".

**21. What is the "product" that is produced by an HEI?**

*opportunities for everyone"*: "talent" implying a person with talent.

*Leagility in Pedagogy: Applying Logistics and Supply Chain Management Thinking to Higher... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85264*

agility, adapted for HEIs, is *"The capability of an HEI to rapidly change or adapt in response to changes in the demand for graduates with particular skills. A high degree of organizational agility can help an HEI to react successfully to the emergence of new competitors, the development of new industry-changing technologies, or sudden shifts in overall market conditions"* [34]. Agile practices have been adopted and adapted into, agile software development [17], and agile LSCM [28–30], agile shipbuilding [35] and in agile education [7], which, together with the concepts of lean thinking, is now being seen in combination, termed as leagility.

#### **20. The pedagogical system as a logistics and supply chain management problem**

Most, if not all, current LSCM practices can be valuably applied to education: quality management, quality circles, supplier networks, just-in-time manufacturing, eradication of waste in the manufacturing processes under the heading of lean management, adaptability of processes under the heading of "organisational agility", with these latter two approaches now being combined under the heading of "Leagility" [5].

To set the scene for these proposals, a quick definition of each of these three terms is appropriate. In general terms, "agile" means "*fast, quick decision making and behaviour to meet changing circumstances, implying timely decision making*". This is seen as being "effective". Lean, or lean management, is stated as "*get the right things to the right place at the right time, the first time, while minimizing waste and being open to change*". This is "efficient", "leagility" is a combination of these terms, to imply *"overall efficacy, effective and efficient, behaving in both an agile and lean manner"*.

I define the concept of "pedagogical agility", adapted from [36]: "The capability of an HEI to rapidly change or adapt in response to changes in the market for Graduates. A high degree of pedagogical agility can help an HEI to react successfully to the emergence of new competitors, the development of new industry-changing technologies, or sudden shifts in overall market conditions".

Further, in the HEI situation, we define "Leanness" as developing a pedagogical value stream to eliminate all waste, including time, motion and transportation, and to ensure the continuous and levelled delivery of a schedule of knowledge enhancement. "*A lean HEI understands knowledge value and focuses its key processes to continuously increase it. The ultimate goal is to provide perfect Knowledge to the graduate through a perfect value creation process that has zero waste"* (definition adapted from [37].

Similarly, "Leagile" is a hybrid of lean and agile systems, and a paraphrased definition, also derived from [38] "Leagile has emerged, in HEIs, as an answer to the problem of reconciling long curriculum lead times with unpredictable technological and employment changes". These definitions of LSCM, drawn from the Internet, have been modified to be applicable to HEIs, particularly by referring to "students" rather than "customers".

#### **21. What is the "product" that is produced by an HEI?**

Where this question may have been addressed previously in the literature, there has been an assumption that the "customer" of the HEI is the student (who is, after all, paying to attend). We can imply this from [39] *"What 21st-century employers need … is singular, creative talent nurtured by a higher education system that offers opportunities for everyone"*: "talent" implying a person with talent.

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

**17. What can we learn from logistics and supply chain management**

**18. Why refer to logistics and supply chain management here?**

**19. What are "agile pedagogy", "lean education" and "leagility"?**

The concept of agile education emanates from the concept of "organisational agility", which has been described by [33] and modified here to suit HEIs: *"… the ability of an HEI to renew itself, adapt, change quickly, and succeed in a rapidly changing, ambiguous, turbulent environment".* Elsewhere, the definition of organisational

tion appropriate to the pedagogical system.

Supporting the assumption that we can see the pedagogical system of an HEI in terms of LSCM, there is a significant volume of research available on the application of "agile", "lean" and "leagility" from which we can learn: [29–31]. We can learn, for example, about quality circles and their relevance to product development and production line processes from the Toyota Way and apply this concept to the pedagogical system; an adaptation of a definition of quality circle [32], appropriate to education, is "A quality circle is a participatory teaching and learning technique that enlists the help of both teachers and students in solving problems related to their course of study". Circles are formed by teaching academics working in cooperative groups, or teaching teams, and students working together in learning teams, to discuss problems of quality and to devise solutions for improvements, as well as supporting more effective and efficient teaching and learning processes. In general, the literature on LSCM research is rich with information on "agility", "lean management" and "leagility", thus being an excellent and informative source of informa-

The term "logistics" is used to refer to the process of coordinating and moving resources—people, materials, inventory, and equipment—from one location to storage at the desired destination [27]. More generally, logistics is the act of coordinating complex movements or projects or solving complex problems (https://www. yourdictionary.com/logistics) or the planning, implementation, and coordination of the details of a business or other operation (Dictionary.com). Therefore we can obviously apply processes applicable to logistics, such as quality assurance and quality control measures, to the pedagogical system. Supply chain management, while being associated with logistics, is defined separately in [28], supply chain management directly impacts product quality and the overall profitability of a company. For these reasons, quality control in the supply chain is critical for maintaining a competitive edge in the marketplace and reducing operating costs. Without quality control, waste becomes prevalent beyond a tolerable amount. Adapting from [27], to define LSCM in terms relevant to the pedagogical system of HEIs, logistics refers to what happens within an HEI, including the development, purchase and delivery of curriculum materials, the packaging for presentation to students of those curriculum materials (which I have defined as knowledge units), and the delivery of those knowledge units to students, to create a final product: the "Knowledge Product". Supply chain management refers to a larger network of outside organisations and stakeholders that work together to deliver the final product; a knowledgeable graduate leaving the HEI with the knowledge product created in the pedagogical system, to all stakeholders, defined in this chapter as including not only the students, but also other important stakeholders in the education process, who include future employers, students' families, society at large, and government.

**208**

For our purpose, I will define the product being produced by any HEI as "Knowledge", or, to give it a more "production line" relevant identity, the product being produced by HEIs is a "Knowledge Product" constituting the entirety of the knowledge gain designed into the course of study, or the "production line" activity, by way of the sub-assemblies, parts and components that we refer to as knowledge units, or, in simple terms, curriculum components. The "customers" of HEIs must be seen as being a part of the greater society, extending this to include not only the students, but also other important stakeholders in the education process, who include future employers, students' families, society at large, and government.

By defining what is being produced by the HEI on the education production line as the knowledge product, and not the student or graduate as the product, allows the idea of the students themselves being active production line process workers, together with their teachers and other curriculum providers and participants. By providing a research-oriented environment, rather than a passive learning environment, students' research outcomes and inductive realisations can create students themselves as curriculum providers, or "production line workers". It also allows the knowledge product to be seen as the product that is designed, and produced by a process of adding sub-assemblies and component parts; the knowledge units, at each work station, which in today's conceptualisation is essentially the subject taught in a semester.

In a LSCM-based pedagogical system, knowledge units will be much smaller, much more focused, and continuously available to the students passing along the pedagogical system "production line". A knowledge unit can be a 2-week intensive classroom or seminar situation, or an online e-learning video series, or an entire MOOC presentation, or YouTube video, or a 20-minute video on a particular topic. This definition provides the freedom to deliver curriculum content, or knowledge, in a variety of ways, and which can be sourced from anywhere, or developed in-house. Also, by offering knowledge units online, with AnyWhere/Anytime/ AnyDevice access, students remote from the university, or who reside in remote locations ad are not able to attend a campus, can access the content, thus pursuing their course in their own time, at their own location.

In [2], the scenario now facing individual universities includes significant competition from many different sources, with courses being available from 3rd party online providers, and the Internet enabling the extensive availability of e-learning materials, the most illustrious of which are so-called Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) offered by prestigious universities and world-leading lecturers, online. Udemy offers many and varied online courses, and it seems that this is a low-cost source of academic material, competing for enrolments, thereby being competition for traditional providers of educational material (https://www.udemy.com/). Also, our experience in selecting textbooks for subjects over 3 decades includes seeing offers by textbook publishers to provide a complete, "canned" curriculum, requiring the teaching academic merely to set up the projector and present the slides provided. Confronted with these situations, together with the extraordinary developments and advances in computing, information technology, and communications technology, by huge organisations such as Google, Amazon, Microsoft, Tesla, and Facebook *inter alia*, one can only wonder at what HEIs can, and must, do to remain viable and relevant, even to continue to exist in anything like their current form.

Discussions published in many papers on or around this scenario [7] seem to be mostly concerned with improving the efficiency and effectiveness of the operational and administrative processes of HEIs as they currently operate, and do not address the actual education processes; the pedagogy. In our view. HEIs must make radical changes to their academic systems, what we have termed here as their pedagogical system. New ways to source curriculum materials, new ways to present those materials to students, new ways for students to access that material and learn,

**211**

**Figure 2.**

*The pedagogical production line.*

*Leagility in Pedagogy: Applying Logistics and Supply Chain Management Thinking to Higher...*

and new ways to assess the learning outcomes, are required. It cannot be a mere reorganisation of current processes, but a radical change in almost every aspect. The solution is seen here to be a new model of HEI pedagogy that considers HEI's as competitive, commercial enterprises whose education processes are appropriately seen as being akin to LSCM processes. To set the scene for these proposals, a quick definition of each of these three terms is appropriate. In general terms, "agile" means "*fast, quick decision making and behaviour to meet changing circumstances, implying timely decision making*". Lean, or lean management, is stated as "*get the right things to the right place at the right time, the first time, while minimizing waste and being open to change*", and, finally, "leagility" is a combination of these terms, to imply *"overall efficacy, effective and efficient, behaving in an agile and lean manner"*. We must also consider the lean product development paradigm, as espoused in a variety of books on lean product and

**Figure 2** illustrates the overall pedagogical production line, with incoming students, usually from secondary schools, proceeding through a course (along the production line) until graduation (finished product) and employment. **Figure 2** also includes illustrations of the equipment and tools available to the process line workers: the academics in charge of controlling the system and the students' activities, and indeed the students themselves. The tools (Office®, YouTube®, Linux, Open Office and so on, DBMSs, and a plethora of other Internet-based tools available for social interaction, information searching and extract, graphics; in fact, a vast number of tools. The figure also illustrates the variety of curriculum providers. So we see the incoming "raw material", the progress through the process line to the finished product, the graduates who are now the bearers of the knowledge product,

**Figure 3** more readily illustrates the knowledge package along the pedagogical production line. The "brain" of course represents the knowledge product, first introduced by incoming students, developed in their past schooling. The knowledge product is then developed and extended by the addition of the knowledge units to ultimately result in the final knowledge product that meets the total knowledge

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85264*

process development [39, 40].

**22. The pedagogical production line**

requirements of the course of study.

who venture into the world, usually to gain employment.

*Leagility in Pedagogy: Applying Logistics and Supply Chain Management Thinking to Higher... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85264*

and new ways to assess the learning outcomes, are required. It cannot be a mere reorganisation of current processes, but a radical change in almost every aspect.

The solution is seen here to be a new model of HEI pedagogy that considers HEI's as competitive, commercial enterprises whose education processes are appropriately seen as being akin to LSCM processes. To set the scene for these proposals, a quick definition of each of these three terms is appropriate. In general terms, "agile" means "*fast, quick decision making and behaviour to meet changing circumstances, implying timely decision making*". Lean, or lean management, is stated as "*get the right things to the right place at the right time, the first time, while minimizing waste and being open to change*", and, finally, "leagility" is a combination of these terms, to imply *"overall efficacy, effective and efficient, behaving in an agile and lean manner"*. We must also consider the lean product development paradigm, as espoused in a variety of books on lean product and process development [39, 40].

#### **22. The pedagogical production line**

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

their course in their own time, at their own location.

In [2], the scenario now facing individual universities includes significant competition from many different sources, with courses being available from 3rd party online providers, and the Internet enabling the extensive availability of e-learning materials, the most illustrious of which are so-called Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) offered by prestigious universities and world-leading lecturers, online. Udemy offers many and varied online courses, and it seems that this is a low-cost source of academic material, competing for enrolments, thereby being competition for traditional providers of educational material (https://www.udemy.com/). Also, our experience in selecting textbooks for subjects over 3 decades includes seeing offers by textbook publishers to provide a complete, "canned" curriculum, requiring the teaching academic merely to set up the projector and present the slides provided. Confronted with these situations, together with the extraordinary developments and advances in computing, information technology, and communications technology, by huge organisations such as Google, Amazon, Microsoft, Tesla, and Facebook *inter alia*, one can only wonder at what HEIs can, and must, do to remain viable and relevant, even to continue to exist in anything like their current form. Discussions published in many papers on or around this scenario [7] seem to be mostly concerned with improving the efficiency and effectiveness of the operational and administrative processes of HEIs as they currently operate, and do not address the actual education processes; the pedagogy. In our view. HEIs must make radical changes to their academic systems, what we have termed here as their pedagogical system. New ways to source curriculum materials, new ways to present those materials to students, new ways for students to access that material and learn,

For our purpose, I will define the product being produced by any HEI as "Knowledge", or, to give it a more "production line" relevant identity, the product being produced by HEIs is a "Knowledge Product" constituting the entirety of the knowledge gain designed into the course of study, or the "production line" activity, by way of the sub-assemblies, parts and components that we refer to as knowledge units, or, in simple terms, curriculum components. The "customers" of HEIs must be seen as being a part of the greater society, extending this to include not only the students, but also other important stakeholders in the education process, who include future employers, students' families, society at large, and government. By defining what is being produced by the HEI on the education production line as the knowledge product, and not the student or graduate as the product, allows the idea of the students themselves being active production line process workers, together with their teachers and other curriculum providers and participants. By providing a research-oriented environment, rather than a passive learning environment, students' research outcomes and inductive realisations can create students themselves as curriculum providers, or "production line workers". It also allows the knowledge product to be seen as the product that is designed, and produced by a process of adding sub-assemblies and component parts; the knowledge units, at each work station, which in today's conceptualisation is essentially the subject taught in a semester. In a LSCM-based pedagogical system, knowledge units will be much smaller, much more focused, and continuously available to the students passing along the pedagogical system "production line". A knowledge unit can be a 2-week intensive classroom or seminar situation, or an online e-learning video series, or an entire MOOC presentation, or YouTube video, or a 20-minute video on a particular topic. This definition provides the freedom to deliver curriculum content, or knowledge, in a variety of ways, and which can be sourced from anywhere, or developed in-house. Also, by offering knowledge units online, with AnyWhere/Anytime/ AnyDevice access, students remote from the university, or who reside in remote locations ad are not able to attend a campus, can access the content, thus pursuing

**210**

**Figure 2** illustrates the overall pedagogical production line, with incoming students, usually from secondary schools, proceeding through a course (along the production line) until graduation (finished product) and employment. **Figure 2** also includes illustrations of the equipment and tools available to the process line workers: the academics in charge of controlling the system and the students' activities, and indeed the students themselves. The tools (Office®, YouTube®, Linux, Open Office and so on, DBMSs, and a plethora of other Internet-based tools available for social interaction, information searching and extract, graphics; in fact, a vast number of tools. The figure also illustrates the variety of curriculum providers. So we see the incoming "raw material", the progress through the process line to the finished product, the graduates who are now the bearers of the knowledge product, who venture into the world, usually to gain employment.

**Figure 3** more readily illustrates the knowledge package along the pedagogical production line. The "brain" of course represents the knowledge product, first introduced by incoming students, developed in their past schooling. The knowledge product is then developed and extended by the addition of the knowledge units to ultimately result in the final knowledge product that meets the total knowledge requirements of the course of study.

**Figure 2.** *The pedagogical production line.*

### **23. Changing roles of teachers and students demanded in the twentyfirst century**

The roles of both "teachers" and "students" are changing; changes wrought by the need to deliver information in higher education institutions as cheaply and efficiently as possible, in what is now a highly competitive environment, and for students to pass successfully through their course as quickly and efficiently as possible. Internally, within the nation, education has developed into a significant cost to the national budget, and as an export industry, is now worth billions to many countries. Fast-track learning in a leagile pedagogical system is also of significant benefit, socially, economically and educationally, to students. Teachers must become mentors, curators of information sources, and learning leaders, and students become researchers and self-learners.

To summarise my view of the role of both teachers and students in the foreseeable future, I make the following recommendations:


**213**

the world".

*Leagility in Pedagogy: Applying Logistics and Supply Chain Management Thinking to Higher...*

6.Pedagogy terminology that should be understood and applied:

• "Hybrid learning", "technology-mediated instruction", "web-enhanced

(This is not a tutorial on each or any of these methods or terminology, but the reader should use these as keywords for a literature review of each of the concepts. You will be surprised at how much good information and research is available).

A recent article in [41] reported on the adoption of a fully digital approach to Teaching and Learning at a leading Thai university, King Mongkut's Institute of Technology Ladkrabang (KMITL). The following quotes are especially relevant in

"Classes today do not have to take place in classrooms—a back-end and centralised university network can significantly yield fruitful learning opportunities and

… students, school personnel and society as a whole have been tremendously and rapidly transformed with the actualisation of online learning, allowing modern-day students, particularly in universities, to study whenever and wherever the like as

"In the future, KMITL plans to offer total online courses so that its students, and students at KMITL's partnered universities, or agencies cooperating with KMITL can remotely attend classes from wherever internet is available in

simultaneously reduce the university's daily operation cost".

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85264*

• The flipped classroom,

• Scrum in the classroom,

• student centred learning,

• "Lean higher education"

• Student self-assessment

• Longitudinal assessment

• Formative assessment

instruction"

• Peer assessment

**24. The digital classroom**

the context of this proposal:

long as they can access learning sources.

• Connectivism theory

5.Blended teaching methods also include:

• Project-based teaching and learning,

• "Agile classrooms", "agile pedagogy",

7.For assessment practices, terminology includes:

*Leagility in Pedagogy: Applying Logistics and Supply Chain Management Thinking to Higher... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85264*

	- Project-based teaching and learning,
	- The flipped classroom,

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

**first century**

*The evolution of the knowledge product.*

**Figure 3.**

students become researchers and self-learners.

able future, I make the following recommendations:

ing teams to achieve these responsibilities.

both learning and teaching roles within the learning team.

**23. Changing roles of teachers and students demanded in the twenty-**

The roles of both "teachers" and "students" are changing; changes wrought by the need to deliver information in higher education institutions as cheaply and efficiently as possible, in what is now a highly competitive environment, and for students to pass successfully through their course as quickly and efficiently as possible. Internally, within the nation, education has developed into a significant cost to the national budget, and as an export industry, is now worth billions to many countries. Fast-track learning in a leagile pedagogical system is also of significant benefit, socially, economically and educationally, to students. Teachers must become mentors, curators of information sources, and learning leaders, and

To summarise my view of the role of both teachers and students in the foresee-

2.Students would work in learning teams for mutual learning support and adopt

3.Both teachers and students must achieve a very high level of digital literacy, sufficient to be able to adopt a significant set of digital resources and aids, and have the ability to proficiently teach the students these Internet-based skills and to be able to communicate between themselves and with students, especially remotely.

4.A high level of blended teaching and learning based first and foremost on Internet technology; e-learning and social media will become prominent, with traditional lectures and formal tutorials abandoned in favour of a substantially e-Teaching environment and the use of social media, with face-to-face learning between members of the teaching team and student project groups.

1.Teaching academics would be styled "Learning Leaders" with significant responsibility to ensure students achieve at a high level by constant monitoring, mentoring, assisting and evaluating students' progress by forming teach-

**212**


6.Pedagogy terminology that should be understood and applied:


7.For assessment practices, terminology includes:


(This is not a tutorial on each or any of these methods or terminology, but the reader should use these as keywords for a literature review of each of the concepts. You will be surprised at how much good information and research is available).

#### **24. The digital classroom**

A recent article in [41] reported on the adoption of a fully digital approach to Teaching and Learning at a leading Thai university, King Mongkut's Institute of Technology Ladkrabang (KMITL). The following quotes are especially relevant in the context of this proposal:

"Classes today do not have to take place in classrooms—a back-end and centralised university network can significantly yield fruitful learning opportunities and simultaneously reduce the university's daily operation cost".

"In the future, KMITL plans to offer total online courses so that its students, and students at KMITL's partnered universities, or agencies cooperating with KMITL can remotely attend classes from wherever internet is available in the world".

… students, school personnel and society as a whole have been tremendously and rapidly transformed with the actualisation of online learning, allowing modern-day students, particularly in universities, to study whenever and wherever the like as long as they can access learning sources.

We may add [9, 10] here as references to two Australian universities with similar intentions displayed in their building design and teaching and learning spaces, and in their intent on the actualisation of online learning and the roles of modern-day students attending an HEI.

#### **25. The "roomless" class**

The "classroom" as we know it, with serried rows of desks or benches where students sit and listen to a "chalk and talk" lecture, or, in K-12 schools, the teacher at the blackboard, should now be abandoned.

Rooms that are learning spaces that are not used to present classes in the usual way are needed. Two news items from the ABC in Australia [9, 10] report on the situations that have arisen in two Australian universities. The provision of appropriate learning spaces benefits students' social interaction, allows them to advance their own knowledge gain at their own pace, meet their fellow learning team members, exchange views and information, quietly view online content which they have selected themselves for that period without being required to sit for 2 hours in a lecture hall to find out what they need to learn. Learning spaces have actually been provided in university libraries for decades, called carrels which, in my experience, were large enough for 4 students to get together and exchange ideas and work together. The twenty-first century learning spaces may need a large TV set, a fast Internet connection, devices for attaching to the Internet, for students who cannot afford their own, and licences for a variety of software products, or may just need a Wi-Fi connection. The teacher in the twenty-first century learning space needs to plan, coordinate, oversee and assess the students learning, relying heavily on Internet technology.

#### **26. Connectivism theory at work**

Connectivism has been described as "acquisition of actionable knowledge, where an understanding of where to find knowledge may be more important …", or "Connectivism provides insight into learning skills and tasks that are needed for learners to flourish in a digital era" [42], and when accurate, up-to-date knowledge is the aim of all connectivist learning activities [43]. Also, Connectivism relates to a community as being "the clustering of similar areas of interest that allows for interaction, sharing, dialoguing, and thinking together".

In [44], there is a description of a practical classroom activity illustrating connectivism theory in the classroom. The activity is considered to be a learner-centred teaching activity where the teacher introduces the topic to be studied and oversees the students at work, but the work is done by the students. The students work in groups (learning teams), each group required to conduct research (project-based learning), applying software tools such as PowerPoint or Prezi® for presentations (see Prezi.com for a software tool for preparing dynamic presentations, using a blogging platform such as Blogster, preparing a video using iMovie or similar technology, perhaps a video recorded on a smartphone.

I personally have contemplated the use of documentaries on TV as learning experiences. I have recently viewed a BBC documentary entitled "Wild Patagonia". As I watched, I saw the Andes Mountains (let us go and learn more about the mountain ranges of the world), I saw a chain of volcanoes (let us do a project on volcanoes), I was interested in the lush western areas and the dry eastern deserts (let us do a project on rain shadows and deserts of the world

**215**

product.

system.

*Leagility in Pedagogy: Applying Logistics and Supply Chain Management Thinking to Higher...*

and how they arose), I saw strange animals that evolved in that area (let us do a project on evolution). These look like excellent social studies and geography

Leipzig"/"Battle of the Nations") or documentaries on the Vietnam War, World War I and II, the Korean War, the American Civil War, make history come alive, and the lessons can be extended into political and social issues. Historical documentaries such as "The Tudors" and "Mary I of England" ("Bloody Mary") offer great opportunities for further research into British history, the Papacy, religion, albeit with a Euro-centric aspect, but there are also similar documentaries on Indian history,

Not all curriculum in all academic study areas can be learned in this way, but the principle is there. Knowledge units, Internet-based student-led research, project work, use of all kinds of media now allowed by the Internet and smartphones: these are examples of the application of connectivism theory, together with the flipped classroom paradigm, student-led learning, teachers as mentors, curriculum gathered from multiple sources (even learning the tools available on the Internet is

This chapter has been based very much on the personal opinions, experiences and anecdotal evidence gathered by the author. I refer readers to the literature that supports this approach as being an appropriate qualitative research approach, termed variously The-Teacher-as-Researcher, and Education Action Research [45,

Higher Education Institutions are commercial institutions in that they charge fees for a service that is provided to students. The service is provided in what is termed here the pedagogical system. The stakeholders in the pedagogical system include teachers, students, graduates, employers, students' families, curriculum providers and the government which has a political and financial stake in efficient and effective pedagogy. HEIs are subject to competitive pressures and accountabil-

As commercial organisations operating a process that needs to be agile and lean, or "leagile", HEIs need to look to LSCM processes in which agile, lean and leagile paradigms are now well entrenched, as they are in many industries that produce a

The Internet has proven to be both a major disruptive force and a significant enabler of research and education. It is now imperative that both teachers and students achieve a high level of digital literacy. Teachers need to become proficient at the use of a variety of Internet-based tools for searching, illustrating, communicating, developing educational materials, and applying these in the pedagogical

Movies depicting Napoleonic battles ("Austerlitz", or the "Battle of

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85264*

Japanese history, Dutch colonialism in Indonesia, etc.

**27. The teacher-as-researcher research paradigm**

46], and also Educational Action Research [47, 48].

ity in service provision as is any commercial organisation.

excellent practical education).

**28. Conclusion**

projects.

*Leagility in Pedagogy: Applying Logistics and Supply Chain Management Thinking to Higher... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85264*

and how they arose), I saw strange animals that evolved in that area (let us do a project on evolution). These look like excellent social studies and geography projects.

Movies depicting Napoleonic battles ("Austerlitz", or the "Battle of Leipzig"/"Battle of the Nations") or documentaries on the Vietnam War, World War I and II, the Korean War, the American Civil War, make history come alive, and the lessons can be extended into political and social issues. Historical documentaries such as "The Tudors" and "Mary I of England" ("Bloody Mary") offer great opportunities for further research into British history, the Papacy, religion, albeit with a Euro-centric aspect, but there are also similar documentaries on Indian history, Japanese history, Dutch colonialism in Indonesia, etc.

Not all curriculum in all academic study areas can be learned in this way, but the principle is there. Knowledge units, Internet-based student-led research, project work, use of all kinds of media now allowed by the Internet and smartphones: these are examples of the application of connectivism theory, together with the flipped classroom paradigm, student-led learning, teachers as mentors, curriculum gathered from multiple sources (even learning the tools available on the Internet is excellent practical education).

#### **27. The teacher-as-researcher research paradigm**

This chapter has been based very much on the personal opinions, experiences and anecdotal evidence gathered by the author. I refer readers to the literature that supports this approach as being an appropriate qualitative research approach, termed variously The-Teacher-as-Researcher, and Education Action Research [45, 46], and also Educational Action Research [47, 48].

#### **28. Conclusion**

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

students attending an HEI.

**25. The "roomless" class**

Internet technology.

**26. Connectivism theory at work**

interaction, sharing, dialoguing, and thinking together".

technology, perhaps a video recorded on a smartphone.

the blackboard, should now be abandoned.

We may add [9, 10] here as references to two Australian universities with similar intentions displayed in their building design and teaching and learning spaces, and in their intent on the actualisation of online learning and the roles of modern-day

The "classroom" as we know it, with serried rows of desks or benches where students sit and listen to a "chalk and talk" lecture, or, in K-12 schools, the teacher at

Rooms that are learning spaces that are not used to present classes in the usual way are needed. Two news items from the ABC in Australia [9, 10] report on the situations that have arisen in two Australian universities. The provision of appropriate learning spaces benefits students' social interaction, allows them to advance their own knowledge gain at their own pace, meet their fellow learning team members, exchange views and information, quietly view online content which they have selected themselves for that period without being required to sit for 2 hours in a lecture hall to find out what they need to learn. Learning spaces have actually been provided in university libraries for decades, called carrels which, in my experience, were large enough for 4 students to get together and exchange ideas and work together. The twenty-first century learning spaces may need a large TV set, a fast Internet connection, devices for attaching to the Internet, for students who cannot afford their own, and licences for a variety of software products, or may just need a Wi-Fi connection. The teacher in the twenty-first century learning space needs to plan, coordinate, oversee and assess the students learning, relying heavily on

Connectivism has been described as "acquisition of actionable knowledge, where an understanding of where to find knowledge may be more important …", or "Connectivism provides insight into learning skills and tasks that are needed for learners to flourish in a digital era" [42], and when accurate, up-to-date knowledge is the aim of all connectivist learning activities [43]. Also, Connectivism relates to a community as being "the clustering of similar areas of interest that allows for

In [44], there is a description of a practical classroom activity illustrating connectivism theory in the classroom. The activity is considered to be a learner-centred teaching activity where the teacher introduces the topic to be studied and oversees the students at work, but the work is done by the students. The students work in groups (learning teams), each group required to conduct research (project-based learning), applying software tools such as PowerPoint or Prezi® for presentations (see Prezi.com for a software tool for preparing dynamic presentations, using a blogging platform such as Blogster, preparing a video using iMovie or similar

I personally have contemplated the use of documentaries on TV as learning experiences. I have recently viewed a BBC documentary entitled "Wild Patagonia". As I watched, I saw the Andes Mountains (let us go and learn more about the mountain ranges of the world), I saw a chain of volcanoes (let us do a project on volcanoes), I was interested in the lush western areas and the dry eastern deserts (let us do a project on rain shadows and deserts of the world

**214**

Higher Education Institutions are commercial institutions in that they charge fees for a service that is provided to students. The service is provided in what is termed here the pedagogical system. The stakeholders in the pedagogical system include teachers, students, graduates, employers, students' families, curriculum providers and the government which has a political and financial stake in efficient and effective pedagogy. HEIs are subject to competitive pressures and accountability in service provision as is any commercial organisation.

As commercial organisations operating a process that needs to be agile and lean, or "leagile", HEIs need to look to LSCM processes in which agile, lean and leagile paradigms are now well entrenched, as they are in many industries that produce a product.

The Internet has proven to be both a major disruptive force and a significant enabler of research and education. It is now imperative that both teachers and students achieve a high level of digital literacy. Teachers need to become proficient at the use of a variety of Internet-based tools for searching, illustrating, communicating, developing educational materials, and applying these in the pedagogical system.

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

#### **Author details**

Roy I. Morien Graduate School, Naresuan University, Phitsanulok, Thailand

\*Address all correspondence to: roym@nu.ac.th

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**217**

18 January 2019]

*Leagility in Pedagogy: Applying Logistics and Supply Chain Management Thinking to Higher...*

[8] Doman MS. A new lean paradigm in higher education: A case study. Quality Assurance in Education.

[9] ABC News. Available from: http:// www.abc.net.au/news/2014-11-11/utsnew-business-school-building-defiesconvention/5883506?section=nsw [Accessed: 10 February 2019]

[10] ABC News. Available from: http:// www.abc.net.au/news/2016-02-18/ no-exams-lectures-or-nerds-inthe-tower-csu-engineering/7180538 [Accessed: 10 February 2019]

[11] Stanford University Teaching

Assessment. Available from: https:// teachingcommons.stanford.edu/

resources/teaching/evaluating-students/ assessing-student-learning/student-selfassessment [Accessed: 14 February 2019]

[12] Trinity College Dublin. Academic Practice and Elearning (Capsl) Resources, Guide to Peer-Assessment. Available from: https://www.tcd.ie/ CAPSL/assets/pdf/Academic%20 Practice%20Resources/Guide%20to%20 Student%20Peer%20Assessment.pdf

[Accessed: 14 February 2019]

March 2016

[13] Morien R. Proposal for a Radical Change to Teaching, Learning, and Assessment in the Department of Computer Science and Information Technology, Naresuan University; 28

[14] Çalişkan N, Mulgeci A. Waste Identification Lean Approach in Effective Education System Case of Albania, University. Available from: http://www.academicus.edu.al/nr12/ Academicus-MMXV-12-199-206.pdf

[Accessed: 2 February 2019]

[15] Skhmoth N. The 8 Wastes of Lean, The Lean Way. 2007. Available from:

Commons. Student Self-

2011;**19**(3):248-262

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85264*

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*Leagility in Pedagogy: Applying Logistics and Supply Chain Management Thinking to Higher... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85264*

#### **References**

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

**216**

**Author details**

Roy I. Morien

provided the original work is properly cited.

\*Address all correspondence to: roym@nu.ac.th

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

Graduate School, Naresuan University, Phitsanulok, Thailand

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Development: From Concept to Cash. Addison-Wesley Professional, 2006

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[20] Wikipedia. Lean Higher Education. Available from: https://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Lean\_higher\_education [Accessed: 20 January 2019]

[21] McKay S. Quality Improvement Approaches: Lean for Education, The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. 2017. Available from: https://www.

carnegiefoundation.org/blog/qualityimprovement-approaches-lean-foreducation/ [Accessed: 20 January 2019]

Approach to Education. 2019. Available from: https://bullseye.education/a-leanapproach [Accessed: 12 February 2019]

[23] Morien R. Pedagogical agility and agile methodologies in computer system development education. International Journal of Advanced Intelligence Paradigms. 2015;**11**(1/2):2018

[22] BullsEye Education. A Lean

[24] Morien R. Agile and agility in computer system development education. In: Proceedings of KSII

[18] Schwaber K, Beedle M. Agile Software Development with Scrum. Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA: Prentice

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[33] McKinsey & Company. The Keys to Organisational Agility. 2015. Available from: https://www.mckinsey.com/ business-functions/organization/ourinsights/the-keys-to-organizationalagility [Accessed: 20 January 2019]

[34] BusinessDictionary. Organizational Agility. Available from: http://www. businessdictionary.com/definition/ organizational-agility.html [Accessed: 19 January 2019

[35] Moura DA, Botter RC. Can a shipyard work towards lean shipbuilding or agile manufacturing? In: Rizzuto E, Guedes S, editors. Sustainable Maritime Transportation and Exploitation of Sea Resources. London: Taylor & Francis Group; 2012. ISBN 978-0-415-62081-9 [Accessed: 10 September 2018]

[36] Lean Enterprise Institution. What is Lean? Available from: https://www.lean. org/WhatsLean/ [Accessed: 19 January 2019]

[37] Husdal J. Lean + Agile = LeAgile: A Happy Marriage? 2009. Available from: http://www.husdal.com/2009/05/28/ lean-agile-leagile/ [Accessed: 19 January 2019]

[38] The Guardian. A University Education is not a Product to be Checked on gocompare.com, by Peter Scott. 2018. Available from: https:// www.theguardian.com/education/2018/ jul/03/university-education-notproduct-checked-gocomparecom. [Accessed: 19 January 2019]

[39] Ward AC. Lean Product and Process Development. 1st ed. Lean Enterprise Institute, Inc; 2007

[40] Ward AC, Sobek DK. Lean Product and Process Development. 2nd ed. Lean Enterprise Institute, Inc.; 2014. ISBN: 978-1-934109-43-4

[41] Tortermvasana K. Bangkok Post: Digital School Deal in the Works. Newspaper Section: Business. 2017 [Accessed: 16 September 2017]

[42] Siemens G. Connectivism: A learning theory for the digital age. International Journal of Instructional Technology & Distance Learning. 2005;**2**(1). Available from: http://www.itd.org/Journal/ Jan\_05/article01.htm. [Accessed: 2019-01-30]

[43] Goldie JGS. Connectivism: A knowledge learning theory for the digital age? Medical Teacher. 2016;**38**(10):1064-1069

[44] Rank P. Using connectivism theory in the classroom, teaching tips/notes. NACTA Journal. Available from: https://www.nactateachers. org/images/TeachingTips/004\_ Using\_Connectivism\_Theory\_in\_the\_ Classroom.pdf [Accessed: 2019-01-30]

[45] McRae P, Parsons J. Teachers as researchers. Alberta Teachers' Association Journal. 2007;**87**:2006-2007

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[47] Hammersley M. On the teacher as researcher. Educational Action Research. 1993;**1**(3):425-445. DOI: 10.1080/0965079930010308

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**221**

**Chapter 15**

*Kirsi Tirri*

**Abstract**

purposeful teaching.

**1. Introduction**

and freedom [4].

twenty-first century skills

The Purposeful Teacher

**Keywords:** purpose, purposeful teaching, teacher ethics, Finland,

The aim of this chapter is to discuss the importance of purpose in teachers' professional conduct. Many authors have emphasized the ethical and vocational nature of teaching profession [1, 2]. In this chapter, teaching is presented as both a profession with professional competencies and a vocation with personal meaningfulness. The discussion is presented in the context of Finnish teacher education, where teachers are ethical professionals [3]. Finland was the first Nordic country to establish the ethical codes for teachers in 1998. During the last 20 years, these codes have been revised and updated. In these codes, the basic values for teaching profession are established. These values are dignity, truthfulness, fairness, responsibility,

In 2017, Teachers' Union in Finland established the Comenius' Oath for teachers that would support teachers in their work and provide a concrete reminder of the ethical foundation of their profession [5]. Teachers in Finland are trusted and they can practice pedagogical freedom in their work if they observe the legislation and the curriculum guidelines. Also, the schools in Finland have a lot of freedom in curriculum development and pedagogical approaches. The Finnish principals and teachers rank among the most autonomous education professionals in Europe [6] who are responsible for supporting students' holistic development. The national core curriculum provides only the basic values and goals for schools to develop their own curricula and instructional approaches [*7*]. This kind of freedom can be

In this chapter, a purposeful teacher is introduced as a goal in teacher education for the twenty-first century. Purposeful teacher is defined as a teacher with moral purposes. Purposeful teachers are ethical professionals who have both freedom and responsibility to make pedagogical decisions in the best interest of their students. Purposeful teaching is discussed in the Finnish context with some examples of the current educational challenges. The purpose profiles of Finnish student teachers are presented to inform the needs for purpose education for future teachers. Different approaches to teach purpose in the teacher education and in schools are introduced with examples from different countries. The didactic approach used in moral education is presented as a case-example to teach purpose in teacher education. The aims of twenty-first century learning call for purposeful teachers who actualize and model lifelong learning in their profession. A growth mindset in learning and ethical skills is introduced as important assets in the professional growth toward

## **Chapter 15** The Purposeful Teacher

*Kirsi Tirri*

### **Abstract**

In this chapter, a purposeful teacher is introduced as a goal in teacher education for the twenty-first century. Purposeful teacher is defined as a teacher with moral purposes. Purposeful teachers are ethical professionals who have both freedom and responsibility to make pedagogical decisions in the best interest of their students. Purposeful teaching is discussed in the Finnish context with some examples of the current educational challenges. The purpose profiles of Finnish student teachers are presented to inform the needs for purpose education for future teachers. Different approaches to teach purpose in the teacher education and in schools are introduced with examples from different countries. The didactic approach used in moral education is presented as a case-example to teach purpose in teacher education. The aims of twenty-first century learning call for purposeful teachers who actualize and model lifelong learning in their profession. A growth mindset in learning and ethical skills is introduced as important assets in the professional growth toward purposeful teaching.

**Keywords:** purpose, purposeful teaching, teacher ethics, Finland, twenty-first century skills

### **1. Introduction**

The aim of this chapter is to discuss the importance of purpose in teachers' professional conduct. Many authors have emphasized the ethical and vocational nature of teaching profession [1, 2]. In this chapter, teaching is presented as both a profession with professional competencies and a vocation with personal meaningfulness. The discussion is presented in the context of Finnish teacher education, where teachers are ethical professionals [3]. Finland was the first Nordic country to establish the ethical codes for teachers in 1998. During the last 20 years, these codes have been revised and updated. In these codes, the basic values for teaching profession are established. These values are dignity, truthfulness, fairness, responsibility, and freedom [4].

In 2017, Teachers' Union in Finland established the Comenius' Oath for teachers that would support teachers in their work and provide a concrete reminder of the ethical foundation of their profession [5]. Teachers in Finland are trusted and they can practice pedagogical freedom in their work if they observe the legislation and the curriculum guidelines. Also, the schools in Finland have a lot of freedom in curriculum development and pedagogical approaches. The Finnish principals and teachers rank among the most autonomous education professionals in Europe [6] who are responsible for supporting students' holistic development. The national core curriculum provides only the basic values and goals for schools to develop their own curricula and instructional approaches [*7*]. This kind of freedom can be

identified as a challenge, for example, related to curriculum integration, especially for the subject-teachers in Finland [8].

To be able to meet the challenges and requirements of ethical professionals, teachers need a long-term goal and commitment to teaching; in other words, they need to be purposeful in their work. The term "purpose" refers to "a stable and generalized intention to accomplish something that is both meaningful to the self and of intended consequence to the world beyond the self" [9]. In this definition, purpose can be conceptualized along three dimensions. The dimensions are intention, engagement, and prosocial reasoning [10]. All these dimensions are needed to fulfill the criteria of a purposeful teacher. Purposeful teachers are ethical professionals with long-term commitment to their students and educational goals they intend to meet in their teaching. In this work, they need to find meaningful purposes for themselves that at the same time go beyond themselves and serve their students and school communities.

The purposeful teacher is always an ethical teacher with moral purposes. Our research data with both Finnish elementary and secondary school teachers indicate that teachers share certain features in their pedagogical thinking and teaching practice [11]. We have identified these collective features in teachers' thinking to be field-invariant epistemological standards guiding their practical knowledge [12]. The sense of vocation provides teachers with a sense of personal identity and fulfillment referring to meaningful purpose in their work. Moreover, teachers have reported that they cannot separate personal and professional aspects in their practical reasoning. Their own moral character informs their moral reasoning, having an influence on how they interact with their pupils and providing long-term purposes in teaching. The professional rules and principles related to teachers' ethical codes also help them in their pedagogical practice with their students and colleagues. Our empirical studies with both elementary and secondary teachers indicate that teaching is both a vocation with a deep personal commitment and a profession with clear rational principles. Purposeful teachers are those who can combine the vocational and professional aspects in their work.

In the following subsections, the current challenges in teachers' work in Finland are discussed with the empirical findings on the purpose profiles of our future teachers. Some methods to teach purpose in teacher education and in schools are introduced with a more detailed example from Finnish teacher education. Finally, purposeful teacher is identified as a goal for teacher education in the twenty-first century.

#### **2. Purposeful teaching in Finnish context**

The Finnish education system and teacher education are internationally recognized as high-performing without control and standardized testing [13]. The status of the teaching profession is very high in Finland, and teachers are trusted and respected. Beginning in the 1970s, the professionalism of teaching has been supported by an academic university education, with more and more trust given to teachers during the 1980s and 1990s through the decentralized curricula.

The teaching profession also attracts good students year after year. This is a unique advantage to teacher education in Finland by comparison with other countries [3]. Teacher education in Finland has become increasingly research-based during the last 40 years. The master's degree given to both elementary and secondary teachers with thesis provides opportunities for teachers to continue their studies in the doctoral programs that Finnish universities have in their teacher education departments. The professors and lecturers in these programs teach future teachers

**223**

*The Purposeful Teacher*

teach in flexible ways [13].

saying "It takes a whole village to educate a child."

our time are required to have [14].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83437*

with scientific competence. They teach what they research and research what they teach. The results of their studies are published in leading international educational journals and monograph series. The faculty has pedagogical competence and most of them have been educated as teachers themselves. These developments have made Finnish teacher education very visible and competitive judged by international standards; for example, we have more international students applying to our doctoral programs than we can admit [3]. Lavonen lists several reasons why teaching is an attractive occupation in Finland. In addition to the academic status of teachers, they enjoy collaboration with and receive support from school leaders and communities. The strong culture of quality and the key role of teachers in assessment activities also support the professional ethos of teachers. Decentralization allows teachers to consider local contexts and to address diversity among the students they

Ethical sensitivity can be identified as a core competent for Finnish teachers in teacher-student relationships [4]. The best interest of a student is guiding the teacher to understand different needs of all kinds of learners and especially those who need special care and guidance. With the youngest learners, the teacher needs viewpoints from the other adults who know the child in need. This means that the teacher works together with the adults responsible for the child. Team-teaching, cooperation between home and school, and other experts are needed to meet the diverse educational needs of students. Many times, the needs require the view of a school psychologist or some other expert. These relationships make real the African

The professional attitude is present in the ethical codes in the teacher's relationship to his or her work [4]. Accordingly, teachers should attend to their tasks responsibly and develop their work and evaluate their own activities. Teachers are also supposed to accept their fallibility and to be ready to revise their viewpoints if needed. Lifelong learning is necessary also in the ethical domain. Teachers in Finland have the right and responsibility to personal development and care. Teachers are also expected to respect their colleagues as members of a profession. A constant challenge in their work involves finding the balance between personal autonomy and the work community. In schools, teachers are advised to rely on the principles of mutual aid and support, understanding, and accepting the individuality of their colleagues. Teachers work together with the home, the surrounding community, and the larger society. This means that teachers have a relationship to

the society in large and their work also guides the future of our society [4].

The current challenges in Finnish teacher education include the growing diversity among students in our schools and the expectations of teachers to meet the varied needs of diverse learners. This will demand high-level ethical and pedagogical skills to cope with these new challenges. Also, the learning environments are changing and teachers need to master the rapidly changing developments in information and communication technology to function in the same learning environments as their students. Teachers should also be able to prepare their students for the future by teaching them the twenty-first century skills. These skills can be defined as an integration of the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values that all young people of

In the Finnish national curriculum, seven areas of core competencies related to twenty-first century skills have been proposed, including: (1) thinking and learning to learn; (2) cultural competence, interaction, and self-expression; (3) taking care of oneself, managing daily life; (4) multi-literacy; (5) competence in information and communication technology; (6) working-life competence and entrepreneurship; and (7) participation, involvement, and building a sustainable future [7]. All these new learning goals call for purposeful teachers who have internalized the

#### *The Purposeful Teacher DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83437*

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

for the subject-teachers in Finland [8].

students and school communities.

and professional aspects in their work.

**2. Purposeful teaching in Finnish context**

identified as a challenge, for example, related to curriculum integration, especially

To be able to meet the challenges and requirements of ethical professionals, teachers need a long-term goal and commitment to teaching; in other words, they need to be purposeful in their work. The term "purpose" refers to "a stable and generalized intention to accomplish something that is both meaningful to the self and of intended consequence to the world beyond the self" [9]. In this definition, purpose can be conceptualized along three dimensions. The dimensions are intention, engagement, and prosocial reasoning [10]. All these dimensions are needed to fulfill the criteria of a purposeful teacher. Purposeful teachers are ethical professionals with long-term commitment to their students and educational goals they intend to meet in their teaching. In this work, they need to find meaningful purposes for themselves that at the same time go beyond themselves and serve their

The purposeful teacher is always an ethical teacher with moral purposes. Our research data with both Finnish elementary and secondary school teachers indicate that teachers share certain features in their pedagogical thinking and teaching practice [11]. We have identified these collective features in teachers' thinking to be field-invariant epistemological standards guiding their practical knowledge [12]. The sense of vocation provides teachers with a sense of personal identity and fulfillment referring to meaningful purpose in their work. Moreover, teachers have reported that they cannot separate personal and professional aspects in their practical reasoning. Their own moral character informs their moral reasoning, having an influence on how they interact with their pupils and providing long-term purposes in teaching. The professional rules and principles related to teachers' ethical codes also help them in their pedagogical practice with their students and colleagues. Our empirical studies with both elementary and secondary teachers indicate that teaching is both a vocation with a deep personal commitment and a profession with clear rational principles. Purposeful teachers are those who can combine the vocational

In the following subsections, the current challenges in teachers' work in Finland

are discussed with the empirical findings on the purpose profiles of our future teachers. Some methods to teach purpose in teacher education and in schools are introduced with a more detailed example from Finnish teacher education. Finally, purposeful teacher is identified as a goal for teacher education in the twenty-first

The Finnish education system and teacher education are internationally recognized as high-performing without control and standardized testing [13]. The status of the teaching profession is very high in Finland, and teachers are trusted and respected. Beginning in the 1970s, the professionalism of teaching has been supported by an academic university education, with more and more trust given to

The teaching profession also attracts good students year after year. This is a unique advantage to teacher education in Finland by comparison with other countries [3]. Teacher education in Finland has become increasingly research-based during the last 40 years. The master's degree given to both elementary and secondary teachers with thesis provides opportunities for teachers to continue their studies in the doctoral programs that Finnish universities have in their teacher education departments. The professors and lecturers in these programs teach future teachers

teachers during the 1980s and 1990s through the decentralized curricula.

**222**

century.

with scientific competence. They teach what they research and research what they teach. The results of their studies are published in leading international educational journals and monograph series. The faculty has pedagogical competence and most of them have been educated as teachers themselves. These developments have made Finnish teacher education very visible and competitive judged by international standards; for example, we have more international students applying to our doctoral programs than we can admit [3]. Lavonen lists several reasons why teaching is an attractive occupation in Finland. In addition to the academic status of teachers, they enjoy collaboration with and receive support from school leaders and communities. The strong culture of quality and the key role of teachers in assessment activities also support the professional ethos of teachers. Decentralization allows teachers to consider local contexts and to address diversity among the students they teach in flexible ways [13].

Ethical sensitivity can be identified as a core competent for Finnish teachers in teacher-student relationships [4]. The best interest of a student is guiding the teacher to understand different needs of all kinds of learners and especially those who need special care and guidance. With the youngest learners, the teacher needs viewpoints from the other adults who know the child in need. This means that the teacher works together with the adults responsible for the child. Team-teaching, cooperation between home and school, and other experts are needed to meet the diverse educational needs of students. Many times, the needs require the view of a school psychologist or some other expert. These relationships make real the African saying "It takes a whole village to educate a child."

The professional attitude is present in the ethical codes in the teacher's relationship to his or her work [4]. Accordingly, teachers should attend to their tasks responsibly and develop their work and evaluate their own activities. Teachers are also supposed to accept their fallibility and to be ready to revise their viewpoints if needed. Lifelong learning is necessary also in the ethical domain. Teachers in Finland have the right and responsibility to personal development and care. Teachers are also expected to respect their colleagues as members of a profession. A constant challenge in their work involves finding the balance between personal autonomy and the work community. In schools, teachers are advised to rely on the principles of mutual aid and support, understanding, and accepting the individuality of their colleagues. Teachers work together with the home, the surrounding community, and the larger society. This means that teachers have a relationship to the society in large and their work also guides the future of our society [4].

The current challenges in Finnish teacher education include the growing diversity among students in our schools and the expectations of teachers to meet the varied needs of diverse learners. This will demand high-level ethical and pedagogical skills to cope with these new challenges. Also, the learning environments are changing and teachers need to master the rapidly changing developments in information and communication technology to function in the same learning environments as their students. Teachers should also be able to prepare their students for the future by teaching them the twenty-first century skills. These skills can be defined as an integration of the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values that all young people of our time are required to have [14].

In the Finnish national curriculum, seven areas of core competencies related to twenty-first century skills have been proposed, including: (1) thinking and learning to learn; (2) cultural competence, interaction, and self-expression; (3) taking care of oneself, managing daily life; (4) multi-literacy; (5) competence in information and communication technology; (6) working-life competence and entrepreneurship; and (7) participation, involvement, and building a sustainable future [7]. All these new learning goals call for purposeful teachers who have internalized the

ethical nature of their profession and who find personal meaning in meeting the needs of their students.

Finnish teacher education has been mostly influenced by the German tradition and lately more and more influences have been drawn from Anglo-American thinkers [15]. Hopmann defines "The German Didaktik" with the idea that any given matter or subject in school can represent many different meanings, and many different matters or subjects in school context can open any given meaning. But there is no matter or subject without meaning, and no meaning without matter or subject [16]. Meaning is created when the content is presented in a classroom with some pedagogical method the teacher has decided to use; meaning making becomes possible for students when teachers provide room for their pupils to reflect upon what is meaningful to them, and how the issues presented relate to their aims and goals in life. In this pedagogical process, the goals of each student are addressed with the pedagogical aim to foster purpose development.

The goal of Finnish teacher education is to educate pedagogically thinking teachers who can teach the contents of the curriculum and at the same time reflect on the meaningfulness of their teaching. Teachers should be able to take the perspective of their students and ask if their teaching is helping their students to find purpose in their studies and in their lives. We know that in Finland, both in-service teachers and student teachers find similar purposes in their teaching, regardless of the subject they teach [15, 17]. Finnish teachers are ethical professionals who want to make sure that their students master the basic knowledge of the subjects they teach. Moreover, they are responsible for the holistic development of their students, with the aim to educate moral citizens.

The Finnish studies on teachers' purpose [18] among the student teachers (N = 372) indicate that most of them (N = 144, 39%) can be called as *dabblers*, teachers who have some kinds of ideas related to purpose in teaching, but they have not found anything permanent that would inspire them in their teaching and they are still searching for that. According to Damon, these kinds of teachers do not think about teaching with the future perspective. They are not committed to any goals with a long-term involvement. They try different teaching methods and educational philosophies without deep reflection on the goals and purposes of their teaching. They do not have a long-term or steady plan in their work that could function as a framework for purposeful teaching. In Damon's youth studies, majority of American young people belonged to this group [19]. The open attitude among this big group of student teachers provides opportunities for teacher educators to discuss and reflect on purpose with them and support them in finding long-term purposes for their teaching.

The second profile (N = 90, 24%) among the Finnish student teachers was the *purposeful*. These were teachers who had found a long-term goal and commitment in teaching [18]. According to Damon, purposeful teachers are those who have clear goals for their teaching; the goals are long-term ones and give meaning to themselves, and the teachers can reflect on the goals and explain the reasons for them. These goals inspire the teachers in their everyday life and sustain them in the teaching profession. These teachers also have clear educational visions they have actualized in their teaching. The amount of purposeful student teachers in Finland is a very encouraging finding. It reflects the high quality of the student population in Finland admitted to teacher education departments. Most of this group viewed teaching both as an ethical profession and as a calling [1, 2].

The teachers who expressed neither purpose to their teaching nor showed any signs that they were seeking purpose were *disengaged* (N = 84, 23%). Like the disengaged group in the American studies, some of these Finnish teachers might be detached, while others confine their interests to hedonic or ego-boosting pursuits

**225**

*The Purposeful Teacher*

purposeful teaching [18].

than their students rated them [27].

**3. How can purposeful teachers be educated?**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83437*

that show little concern for the world beyond the self. We also found some differences among different teachers. The student teachers of religious education most often demonstrated a purposeful profile, while student teachers of mathematics and science were mostly profiled as disengaged, indicating that they had no strong purpose-related visions, activities, or confidence in teaching purpose [18, 19]. The smallest group (N = 54, 15%) among the student teachers in our study was the *dreamers*, who were still searching for their teaching purpose. The dreamers in Damon's definition are teachers with ideas about purposes that they could have, for example, innovative teaching methods, but they have never put their ideas into practice. They can be very idealistic in their thinking, but they have never done anything in life to test those ideas in their teaching. The teacher educators should acknowledge these kinds of teachers and guide them to actualize their ideas toward

Teachers all over the world need education in the specific competencies that make purposeful and purpose-oriented teaching possible. In a comparative study among youth, both American (N = 386) and Finnish (N = 336) students (13–19 years of age) acknowledged their need for teachers' support in finding purpose in their studies and in their lives [20]. A special issue on purposeful teaching around the world presents several articles from different countries on this topic giving concrete examples on culture-specific approaches to purpose education [21, 22]. For example, in Brazil, action research approaches are adapted with student teachers by using problem-based and design thinking methods to promote purposeful teaching [23]. In American context, service-learning is regarded as one of the most promising pedagogical approach for supporting purpose development of student teachers [24]. Also, in Korea, service-learning approaches are used in colleges to enhance purpose education among their students [25]. In a comparative study comparing Iranian and Finnish teachers' competence to teach purpose, the Iranian teachers taught their students reflection on purpose in life and plans, whereas Finnish teachers emphasized the importance and consequences of one's actions and decisions. In Finland, teachers' own purposefulness was related to their competence for teaching purpose [26]. Teachers in Finland, Iran and China all rated their competence to teach purpose highly, but Chinese teachers rated their competence much higher

In her book, Malin argues that purpose can be taught in the classroom when the curriculum is responsive to students' questions and interests. She identifies purposeful projects as pedagogical tools to engage students in deeper learning about topics that are intrinsically motivating and personally meaningful to them. According to her, projects are meaningful when the content and activities are responsive to students' questions and curiosities. Projects become meaningful as students engage intentionally with the questions, ideas, or materials posed by the teacher, and the teacher shapes the project according to student's emerging ideas and interests as they take shape. Purposeful projects have the following characteristics: they are inquiry-driven, they are sustained over time, they involve reflection throughout, they are collaborative and community building, they elevate students'

Tirri and Kuusisto [28] present a case-study approach to promote purposeful teaching in teacher education. The core of purposeful teaching in the classroom context is based on the didactic relationship between the teacher and the student's relation to content. To be able to create a didactic relation in learning, a teacher

social awareness, and they set high expectations for students [24].

#### *The Purposeful Teacher DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83437*

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

the aim to educate moral citizens.

purposes for their teaching.

needs of their students.

ethical nature of their profession and who find personal meaning in meeting the

Finnish teacher education has been mostly influenced by the German tradition and lately more and more influences have been drawn from Anglo-American thinkers [15]. Hopmann defines "The German Didaktik" with the idea that any given matter or subject in school can represent many different meanings, and many different matters or subjects in school context can open any given meaning. But there is no matter or subject without meaning, and no meaning without matter or subject [16]. Meaning is created when the content is presented in a classroom with some pedagogical method the teacher has decided to use; meaning making becomes possible for students when teachers provide room for their pupils to reflect upon what is meaningful to them, and how the issues presented relate to their aims and goals in life. In this pedagogical process, the goals of each student are addressed

The goal of Finnish teacher education is to educate pedagogically thinking teachers who can teach the contents of the curriculum and at the same time reflect on the meaningfulness of their teaching. Teachers should be able to take the perspective of their students and ask if their teaching is helping their students to find purpose in their studies and in their lives. We know that in Finland, both in-service teachers and student teachers find similar purposes in their teaching, regardless of the subject they teach [15, 17]. Finnish teachers are ethical professionals who want to make sure that their students master the basic knowledge of the subjects they teach. Moreover, they are responsible for the holistic development of their students, with

The Finnish studies on teachers' purpose [18] among the student teachers (N = 372) indicate that most of them (N = 144, 39%) can be called as *dabblers*, teachers who have some kinds of ideas related to purpose in teaching, but they have not found anything permanent that would inspire them in their teaching and they are still searching for that. According to Damon, these kinds of teachers do not think about teaching with the future perspective. They are not committed to any goals with a long-term involvement. They try different teaching methods and educational philosophies without deep reflection on the goals and purposes of their teaching. They do not have a long-term or steady plan in their work that could function as a framework for purposeful teaching. In Damon's youth studies, majority of American young people belonged to this group [19]. The open attitude among this big group of student teachers provides opportunities for teacher educators to discuss and reflect on purpose with them and support them in finding long-term

The second profile (N = 90, 24%) among the Finnish student teachers was the *purposeful*. These were teachers who had found a long-term goal and commitment in teaching [18]. According to Damon, purposeful teachers are those who have clear goals for their teaching; the goals are long-term ones and give meaning to themselves, and the teachers can reflect on the goals and explain the reasons for them. These goals inspire the teachers in their everyday life and sustain them in the teaching profession. These teachers also have clear educational visions they have actualized in their teaching. The amount of purposeful student teachers in Finland is a very encouraging finding. It reflects the high quality of the student population in Finland admitted to teacher education departments. Most of this group viewed

The teachers who expressed neither purpose to their teaching nor showed any signs that they were seeking purpose were *disengaged* (N = 84, 23%). Like the disengaged group in the American studies, some of these Finnish teachers might be detached, while others confine their interests to hedonic or ego-boosting pursuits

teaching both as an ethical profession and as a calling [1, 2].

with the pedagogical aim to foster purpose development.

**224**

that show little concern for the world beyond the self. We also found some differences among different teachers. The student teachers of religious education most often demonstrated a purposeful profile, while student teachers of mathematics and science were mostly profiled as disengaged, indicating that they had no strong purpose-related visions, activities, or confidence in teaching purpose [18, 19]. The smallest group (N = 54, 15%) among the student teachers in our study was the *dreamers*, who were still searching for their teaching purpose. The dreamers in Damon's definition are teachers with ideas about purposes that they could have, for example, innovative teaching methods, but they have never put their ideas into practice. They can be very idealistic in their thinking, but they have never done anything in life to test those ideas in their teaching. The teacher educators should acknowledge these kinds of teachers and guide them to actualize their ideas toward purposeful teaching [18].

#### **3. How can purposeful teachers be educated?**

Teachers all over the world need education in the specific competencies that make purposeful and purpose-oriented teaching possible. In a comparative study among youth, both American (N = 386) and Finnish (N = 336) students (13–19 years of age) acknowledged their need for teachers' support in finding purpose in their studies and in their lives [20]. A special issue on purposeful teaching around the world presents several articles from different countries on this topic giving concrete examples on culture-specific approaches to purpose education [21, 22]. For example, in Brazil, action research approaches are adapted with student teachers by using problem-based and design thinking methods to promote purposeful teaching [23]. In American context, service-learning is regarded as one of the most promising pedagogical approach for supporting purpose development of student teachers [24]. Also, in Korea, service-learning approaches are used in colleges to enhance purpose education among their students [25]. In a comparative study comparing Iranian and Finnish teachers' competence to teach purpose, the Iranian teachers taught their students reflection on purpose in life and plans, whereas Finnish teachers emphasized the importance and consequences of one's actions and decisions. In Finland, teachers' own purposefulness was related to their competence for teaching purpose [26]. Teachers in Finland, Iran and China all rated their competence to teach purpose highly, but Chinese teachers rated their competence much higher than their students rated them [27].

In her book, Malin argues that purpose can be taught in the classroom when the curriculum is responsive to students' questions and interests. She identifies purposeful projects as pedagogical tools to engage students in deeper learning about topics that are intrinsically motivating and personally meaningful to them. According to her, projects are meaningful when the content and activities are responsive to students' questions and curiosities. Projects become meaningful as students engage intentionally with the questions, ideas, or materials posed by the teacher, and the teacher shapes the project according to student's emerging ideas and interests as they take shape. Purposeful projects have the following characteristics: they are inquiry-driven, they are sustained over time, they involve reflection throughout, they are collaborative and community building, they elevate students' social awareness, and they set high expectations for students [24].

Tirri and Kuusisto [28] present a case-study approach to promote purposeful teaching in teacher education. The core of purposeful teaching in the classroom context is based on the didactic relationship between the teacher and the student's relation to content. To be able to create a didactic relation in learning, a teacher

needs to illuminate the meaning of the subjects she teaches to her students [17]. Purposeful teaching takes place when a teacher creates conditions for learning that help students to find personal meaning from the contents and subjects taught. The practical case method for purposeful teaching, the didactic approach, is modified from the methods used in moral education [29].

This specific case method has been used as part of a course in didactics, which is taught at the University of Helsinki at the beginning of all student teachers' (approximately N = 600) pedagogical education. The student teachers who take this course include kindergarten teachers, elementary and secondary school teachers, and adult education teachers with different subject specialization. The process starts with the writing task in which the student teachers write a story of a personally meaningful teaching or learning experience from their school years or university classes, the most significant one they can remember. The aim of the writing task is to help the student teachers to remember a personally meaningful case related to teaching and engage them in reflecting on it. Students' reflection is assisted with concrete questions related to the real-life teaching or learning experience they described. The emotions and situational details should be recalled with the help of questions to be able to relive them as authentic as possible.

The writing task is followed by a group work in which the students reflect on their purposeful teaching or learning experiences more systematically. The aim of this group work is to guide the student teachers to pay attention to the content and meaning of teaching. They should also think the ways a teacher used to illustrate the meaning of the contents. After that, students share their experiences and discuss situational factors and relational characteristics of the case. Helpful questions are provided to help the students in their analysis and reflection on the case. Following this phase, the student teachers discuss together all the purposeful teaching and learning experiences identified and issues related to them. The individual work is widened to collective reconstruction and argumentation of the cases with peers and teacher educators. This would help the students to deepen their arguments and gain a broader understanding of the cases presented. Other student teachers' experiences help individual students to build a holistic understanding of the case and situate it in a wider pedagogical and educational context. In best circumstances, some new understanding of the case emerges. The group work is followed by a reflective essay written individually by the students which is returned to the teacher educator. A case example of one teacher's reflection on her purposeful teaching experience is reported in details in [28].

#### **4. The needs of twenty-first century learners**

The purposeful teacher needs to adapt to the needs of twenty-first century learners. One of the twenty-first century skills students should learn in school is competence in information and communication technology. Finland has taken an active role since 1990 in implementing information and communication technology (ICT) in schools and educating teachers for their pedagogical use [3]. In the twentyfirst century, Finnish education is emphasizing digital teaching and learning even more and investing in improving our teachers in this area [13]. This new emphasis is a challenge for many Finnish teachers and students. A purposeful teacher pays attention to her students' abilities, gender, prior knowledge, motives, and expectations to make learning meaningful for them. The skills related to information and communication technology differ a lot among students and teachers. Some of the students are more advanced in their use of information and communication technology than the teacher and others might not have any prior experience in this

**227**

teacher.

**Notes**

*The Purposeful Teacher*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83437*

point for teacher's search for purposeful teaching.

learning and creative thinking [31].

University of Eastern Finland in June 13th, 2018.

**5. Purposeful teachers for the twenty-first century**

area. The teacher needs to find new pedagogical approaches to teach technology for the diversity of learners and differentiate teaching according to students' abilities. The teacher might need in-service education to update her knowledge and skills and find purpose in learning new twenty-first century skills herself. The new information and communication technology has the potential to make learning more meaningful to some students, for example boys who do not have the patience to follow traditional teaching in classrooms or for talented students, who can advance faster in their studies. The needs for twenty-first century learners are the starting

The twenty-first century curricula in Finnish schools continue the trend of individualism and make room for purpose education for diverse learners in all school subjects. Education for purpose can be included for the school-based curricula integration projects in all grade levels. In teacher education, we want to educate teachers who can reflect on the educational purposefulness of their teaching from different points of views and help their students to find a purpose in their lives [20]. Lifelong learning is one of the aims for twenty-first century teaching and teachers need to find a meaning in their work that would be sustainable for the years to come. In the search of long-term purpose for teaching, teachers can profit from the growth mindset identified by Dweck [30]. Mindsets are beliefs that teachers hold about their most basic qualities and abilities. In a growth mindset thinking, a teacher believes that her cognitive skills, teaching competencies, and personal strengths can be improved. A teacher believes that purposeful teaching is possible with hard work and effort and she is ready to invest her time to reach that goal. A teacher with a fixed mindset thinking believes that her cognitive skills and teaching competencies cannot be improved and her personal strengths are also static. This kind of thinking prevents the teacher from finding a long-term purpose for teaching that would sustain in the changing world. Growth mindset is a key to lifelong

The twenty-first century skills include an open-minded attitude from a teacher, a growth mindset, to learning to make it possible to be continually challenged to learn new things and guide the students in their search for purposeful learning. Purpose and growth mindset in learning needs to be complemented with ethical skills to combine excellence with ethics [32]. The ethical nature of teaching profession and the values underlying teachers' ethical conduct provide excellent ground for teachers' professional development with the goal of growing to be a purposeful

The earlier version of this chapter was presented as a keynote talk at the Sixth Biennial Conference of EARLI SIG19 Religious and Spiritual Education in the

#### *The Purposeful Teacher DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83437*

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

from the methods used in moral education [29].

questions to be able to relive them as authentic as possible.

needs to illuminate the meaning of the subjects she teaches to her students [17]. Purposeful teaching takes place when a teacher creates conditions for learning that help students to find personal meaning from the contents and subjects taught. The practical case method for purposeful teaching, the didactic approach, is modified

This specific case method has been used as part of a course in didactics, which is taught at the University of Helsinki at the beginning of all student teachers' (approximately N = 600) pedagogical education. The student teachers who take this course include kindergarten teachers, elementary and secondary school teachers, and adult education teachers with different subject specialization. The process starts with the writing task in which the student teachers write a story of a personally meaningful teaching or learning experience from their school years or university classes, the most significant one they can remember. The aim of the writing task is to help the student teachers to remember a personally meaningful case related to teaching and engage them in reflecting on it. Students' reflection is assisted with concrete questions related to the real-life teaching or learning experience they described. The emotions and situational details should be recalled with the help of

The writing task is followed by a group work in which the students reflect on their purposeful teaching or learning experiences more systematically. The aim of this group work is to guide the student teachers to pay attention to the content and meaning of teaching. They should also think the ways a teacher used to illustrate the meaning of the contents. After that, students share their experiences and discuss situational factors and relational characteristics of the case. Helpful questions are provided to help the students in their analysis and reflection on the case. Following this phase, the student teachers discuss together all the purposeful teaching and learning experiences identified and issues related to them. The individual work is widened to collective reconstruction and argumentation of the cases with peers and teacher educators. This would help the students to deepen their arguments and gain a broader understanding of the cases presented. Other student teachers' experiences help individual students to build a holistic understanding of the case and situate it in a wider pedagogical and educational context. In best circumstances, some new understanding of the case emerges. The group work is followed by a reflective essay written individually by the students which is returned to the teacher educator. A case example of one teacher's reflection on her purposeful teaching experience is

The purposeful teacher needs to adapt to the needs of twenty-first century learners. One of the twenty-first century skills students should learn in school is competence in information and communication technology. Finland has taken an active role since 1990 in implementing information and communication technology (ICT) in schools and educating teachers for their pedagogical use [3]. In the twentyfirst century, Finnish education is emphasizing digital teaching and learning even more and investing in improving our teachers in this area [13]. This new emphasis is a challenge for many Finnish teachers and students. A purposeful teacher pays attention to her students' abilities, gender, prior knowledge, motives, and expectations to make learning meaningful for them. The skills related to information and communication technology differ a lot among students and teachers. Some of the students are more advanced in their use of information and communication technology than the teacher and others might not have any prior experience in this

**226**

reported in details in [28].

**4. The needs of twenty-first century learners**

area. The teacher needs to find new pedagogical approaches to teach technology for the diversity of learners and differentiate teaching according to students' abilities. The teacher might need in-service education to update her knowledge and skills and find purpose in learning new twenty-first century skills herself. The new information and communication technology has the potential to make learning more meaningful to some students, for example boys who do not have the patience to follow traditional teaching in classrooms or for talented students, who can advance faster in their studies. The needs for twenty-first century learners are the starting point for teacher's search for purposeful teaching.

#### **5. Purposeful teachers for the twenty-first century**

The twenty-first century curricula in Finnish schools continue the trend of individualism and make room for purpose education for diverse learners in all school subjects. Education for purpose can be included for the school-based curricula integration projects in all grade levels. In teacher education, we want to educate teachers who can reflect on the educational purposefulness of their teaching from different points of views and help their students to find a purpose in their lives [20].

Lifelong learning is one of the aims for twenty-first century teaching and teachers need to find a meaning in their work that would be sustainable for the years to come. In the search of long-term purpose for teaching, teachers can profit from the growth mindset identified by Dweck [30]. Mindsets are beliefs that teachers hold about their most basic qualities and abilities. In a growth mindset thinking, a teacher believes that her cognitive skills, teaching competencies, and personal strengths can be improved. A teacher believes that purposeful teaching is possible with hard work and effort and she is ready to invest her time to reach that goal. A teacher with a fixed mindset thinking believes that her cognitive skills and teaching competencies cannot be improved and her personal strengths are also static. This kind of thinking prevents the teacher from finding a long-term purpose for teaching that would sustain in the changing world. Growth mindset is a key to lifelong learning and creative thinking [31].

The twenty-first century skills include an open-minded attitude from a teacher, a growth mindset, to learning to make it possible to be continually challenged to learn new things and guide the students in their search for purposeful learning. Purpose and growth mindset in learning needs to be complemented with ethical skills to combine excellence with ethics [32]. The ethical nature of teaching profession and the values underlying teachers' ethical conduct provide excellent ground for teachers' professional development with the goal of growing to be a purposeful teacher.

#### **Notes**

The earlier version of this chapter was presented as a keynote talk at the Sixth Biennial Conference of EARLI SIG19 Religious and Spiritual Education in the University of Eastern Finland in June 13th, 2018.

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

### **Author details**

Kirsi Tirri Helsinki Collegium for Advanced Studies and Department of Education, University of Helsinki, Finland

\*Address all correspondence to: kirsi.tirri@helsinki.fi

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**229**

*The Purposeful Teacher*

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Press; 2003

Finland; 2010

November 21, 2018]

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83437*

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[12] Tirri K, Husu J, Kansanen P. The epistemological stance between the knower and the known. Teaching and Teacher Education. 1999;**15**:911-922

[13] Lavonen J. Yehudith Weinberger and Zipora Libman, Educating Professional Teachers in Finland through the Continuous Improvement of Teacher Education Programmes, Contemporary Pedagogies in Teacher Education and Development. IntechOpen; 2018. DOI:

[14] Wang Y, Lavonen J, Tirri K. Aims for learning 21st century competencies in national primary science curricula in China and Finland. EURASIA Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education. 2018;**14**(6):2082. DOI:

10.5772/intechopen.77979

10.29333/ejmste/86363

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[15] Tirri K. The core of school pedagogy: Finnish teachers' views on the educational purpusefulness of their teaching. In: Niemi H, Toom A, Kallioniemi A, editors. Miracle of Education: The Principles and Practices of Teaching and Learning in Finnish Schools. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers;

[16] Hopmann S. Restrained teaching: The common core of Didaktik.

[17] Tirri K, Ubani M. Education of Finnish student teachers for purposeful teaching. Journal of Education for Teaching. 2013;**39**(1):21-29. DOI:

10.1080/02607476.2012.733188

European Educational Research Journal. 2007;**6**(2):109-124. DOI: 10.2304/

Publishing; 2000

[2] Hansen D. The Call to Teach. New York: Teachers College Press; 1995

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[3] Tirri K. The last 40 years in Finnish teacher education. Journal of Education for Teaching. 2014;**40**(5):600-609. DOI:

[4] Code of Ethics for Finnish Teachers. Helsinki: Trade Union of Education in

[5] Comenius' Oath. 2017. Available from: https://www.oaj.fi/contentassets/ 31548b52f43348c69e1c6ef4f7ece0ab/ comeniuksen\_vala\_eng.pdf [Accessed:

[6] OECD. Talis 2013 Results: An International Perspective on Teaching and Learning. PISA: OECD Publishing; 2014. DOI: 10.1787/9789264196261

[7] Finnish National Board of Education. The National Core Curriculum for Basic Education. Helsinki: Finnish National Board of Education; 2016. Available from: http://www.oph.fi/ops2016

[8] Niemelä MA, Tirri K. Teachers' knowledge of curriculum integration: A current challenge for Finnish subject teachers. In: Weinberger Y, Libman Z, editors. Contemporary Pedagogies in Teacher Education and Development. London: IntechOpen; 2018. pp. 119-132.

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development of purpose during adolescence. Applied Developmental

[10] Moran S. Purpose: Giftedness in intrapersonal intelligence. High Ability Studies. 2009;**20**(2):143-159. DOI: 10.1080/13598130903358501

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[9] Damon W, Menon DJ, Bronk KC. The

### **References**

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

**228**

**Author details**

University of Helsinki, Finland

Kirsi Tirri

provided the original work is properly cited.

\*Address all correspondence to: kirsi.tirri@helsinki.fi

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

Helsinki Collegium for Advanced Studies and Department of Education,

[1] Campbell E. The Ethical Teacher. Maidenhead, UK: Open University Press; 2003

[2] Hansen D. The Call to Teach. New York: Teachers College Press; 1995

[3] Tirri K. The last 40 years in Finnish teacher education. Journal of Education for Teaching. 2014;**40**(5):600-609. DOI: 10.1080/02607476.2014.956545

[4] Code of Ethics for Finnish Teachers. Helsinki: Trade Union of Education in Finland; 2010

[5] Comenius' Oath. 2017. Available from: https://www.oaj.fi/contentassets/ 31548b52f43348c69e1c6ef4f7ece0ab/ comeniuksen\_vala\_eng.pdf [Accessed: November 21, 2018]

[6] OECD. Talis 2013 Results: An International Perspective on Teaching and Learning. PISA: OECD Publishing; 2014. DOI: 10.1787/9789264196261

[7] Finnish National Board of Education. The National Core Curriculum for Basic Education. Helsinki: Finnish National Board of Education; 2016. Available from: http://www.oph.fi/ops2016

[8] Niemelä MA, Tirri K. Teachers' knowledge of curriculum integration: A current challenge for Finnish subject teachers. In: Weinberger Y, Libman Z, editors. Contemporary Pedagogies in Teacher Education and Development. London: IntechOpen; 2018. pp. 119-132. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.75870

[9] Damon W, Menon DJ, Bronk KC. The development of purpose during adolescence. Applied Developmental Science. 2003;**7**(3):119-128

[10] Moran S. Purpose: Giftedness in intrapersonal intelligence. High Ability Studies. 2009;**20**(2):143-159. DOI: 10.1080/13598130903358501

[11] Kansanen P, Tirri K, Meri M, Krokfors L, Husu J, Jyrhämä R. Teachers' Pedagogical Thinking: Theoretical Landscapes, Practical Challenges. New York: Peter Lang Publishing; 2000

[12] Tirri K, Husu J, Kansanen P. The epistemological stance between the knower and the known. Teaching and Teacher Education. 1999;**15**:911-922

[13] Lavonen J. Yehudith Weinberger and Zipora Libman, Educating Professional Teachers in Finland through the Continuous Improvement of Teacher Education Programmes, Contemporary Pedagogies in Teacher Education and Development. IntechOpen; 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.77979

[14] Wang Y, Lavonen J, Tirri K. Aims for learning 21st century competencies in national primary science curricula in China and Finland. EURASIA Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education. 2018;**14**(6):2082. DOI: 10.29333/ejmste/86363

[15] Tirri K. The core of school pedagogy: Finnish teachers' views on the educational purpusefulness of their teaching. In: Niemi H, Toom A, Kallioniemi A, editors. Miracle of Education: The Principles and Practices of Teaching and Learning in Finnish Schools. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers; 2016. pp. 57-68

[16] Hopmann S. Restrained teaching: The common core of Didaktik. European Educational Research Journal. 2007;**6**(2):109-124. DOI: 10.2304/ eerj.2007.6.2.109

[17] Tirri K, Ubani M. Education of Finnish student teachers for purposeful teaching. Journal of Education for Teaching. 2013;**39**(1):21-29. DOI: 10.1080/02607476.2012.733188

[18] Tirri K, Kuusisto E. Finnish student teachers' perceptions on the role of purpose in teaching. Journal of Education for Teaching. 2016;**42**(5):532-540. DOI: 10.1080/02607476.2016.1226552

[19] Damon W. The Path to Purpose: Helping our Children Find Their Calling in Life. New York: Simon & Schuster; 2008

[20] Bundick MJ, Tirri K. Teacher support and competencies for fostering youth purpose and psychological well-being: Perspectives from two countries. Applied Developmental Science. 2014;**18**(3):148-162. DOI: 10.1080/10888691.2014.924357

[21] Tirri K, Moran S, Menon Mariano J. Introduction to education for purposeful teaching around the world. Journal of Education for Teaching. 2016;**42**(5). DOI: 10.1080/02607476.2016.1226551

[22] Tirri K, Moran S, Mariano J, editors. Purposeful Teaching Around the World. London: Routledge; 2018

[23] Araujo UF, Arantes VA, Danza HC, Pinheiro VPG, Garbin M. Principles and methods to guide education for purpose: A Brazilian experience. Journal of Education for Teaching. 2016;**42**(5):556-564. DOI: 10.1080/02607476.2016.1226554

[24] Malin H. Teaching for Purpose: Preparing Students for Lives of Meaning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press; 2018

[25] Shin J, Kim MS, Hwang H, Lee BY. Effects of motivation and feedback in service-learning programs on the development of college students' life purpose. Journal of Moral Education. 2018;**47**(2):159-174. DOI: 10.1080/03057240.2017.1419943

[26] Kuusisto E, Gholami K, Tirri K. Finnish and Iranian teachers' competence for teaching purpose. Journal of Education for Teaching. 2016;**42**(5):541-555. DOI: 10.1080/02607476.2016.1226553

[27] Jiang F, Lin S, Mariano MJ. The influence of Chinese college teachers' competence for purpose support on students' purpose development. The Journal of Education for Teaching. 2016;**42**(5):565-581. DOI: 10.1080/02607476.2016.1226555

[28] Tirri K, Kuusisto E. How can purpose be taught? Journal of Religious Education. 2016;**64**:101-112. DOI: 10.1007/s40839-017-0035-7

[29] Toom A, Husu J, Tirri K. Cultivating student teachers' moral competencies in teaching during teacher education. In: Craig C, Orland-Barak L, editors. International Teacher Education: Promising Pedagogies. Vol. 3. Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited; 2015. pp. 13-13

[30] Dweck CS. Mindset: The New Psychology of Success. New York: Ballantine Books; 2016

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*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

[18] Tirri K, Kuusisto E. Finnish student teachers' perceptions on the role of purpose in teaching. Journal of Education for Teaching. teachers' competence for teaching purpose. Journal of Education for Teaching. 2016;**42**(5):541-555. DOI: 10.1080/02607476.2016.1226553

[27] Jiang F, Lin S, Mariano MJ. The influence of Chinese college teachers' competence for purpose support on students' purpose development. The Journal of Education for Teaching. 2016;**42**(5):565-581. DOI: 10.1080/02607476.2016.1226555

[28] Tirri K, Kuusisto E. How can purpose be taught? Journal of Religious Education. 2016;**64**:101-112. DOI: 10.1007/s40839-017-0035-7

2015. pp. 13-13

Ballantine Books; 2016

Quest. 2009;**38**(2):8-9

2016. pp. 101-110

[31] Dweck CS. Who will the

[29] Toom A, Husu J, Tirri K. Cultivating student teachers' moral competencies in teaching during teacher education. In: Craig C, Orland-Barak L, editors. International Teacher Education: Promising Pedagogies. Vol. 3. Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited;

[30] Dweck CS. Mindset: The New Psychology of Success. New York:

21st-century leaners be? Knowledge

[32] Tirri K. Holistic perspectives on gifted education for the 21st century. In: Ambrose D, Sternberg R, editors. Giftedness and Talents in the 21st Century. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers;

[19] Damon W. The Path to Purpose: Helping our Children Find Their Calling in Life. New York: Simon & Schuster;

[20] Bundick MJ, Tirri K. Teacher support and competencies for fostering youth purpose and psychological well-being: Perspectives from two countries. Applied Developmental Science. 2014;**18**(3):148-162. DOI: 10.1080/10888691.2014.924357

[21] Tirri K, Moran S, Menon Mariano J. Introduction to education for purposeful teaching around the world. Journal of Education for Teaching. 2016;**42**(5). DOI: 10.1080/02607476.2016.1226551

[22] Tirri K, Moran S, Mariano J, editors. Purposeful Teaching Around the World.

[23] Araujo UF, Arantes VA, Danza HC,

[24] Malin H. Teaching for Purpose: Preparing Students for Lives of Meaning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard

[25] Shin J, Kim MS, Hwang H, Lee BY. Effects of motivation and feedback in service-learning programs on the development of college students' life purpose. Journal of Moral Education. 2018;**47**(2):159-174. DOI: 10.1080/03057240.2017.1419943

London: Routledge; 2018

Pinheiro VPG, Garbin M. Principles and methods to guide education for purpose: A Brazilian experience. Journal of Education for Teaching. 2016;**42**(5):556-564. DOI: 10.1080/02607476.2016.1226554

Education Press; 2018

[26] Kuusisto E, Gholami K, Tirri K. Finnish and Iranian

2016;**42**(5):532-540. DOI: 10.1080/02607476.2016.1226552

2008

**230**

### *Edited by Reginald Botshabeng Monyai*

A learner-centred curriculum provides space for the learner to be actively involved in knowledge production and learning. Such can only happen if the learner's confidence is boosted by a feeling of control and ability to manage his or her progress towards acquiring a qualification. The twenty-first century teacher must create an environment that not only supports the Four Pillars of Learning but also leads to learners being allowed a voice to ask pertinent questions. The teacher should be able to guide the student to full physical and mental maturity and should help to develop critical thinking, and the students should be encouraged to practice the truth and have selfrespect and respect for other people. This can happen if the learner is afforded the opportunity to self-accept. If the learners fail to do so, they are likely to have lack of confidence, which will lead to lack of independence.

Published in London, UK © 2019 IntechOpen © yulyao / iStock

Teacher Education in the 21st Century

Teacher Education

in the 21st Century

*Edited by Reginald Botshabeng Monyai*