Teacher Development

[19] Low SP. The influence of Chinese philosophies on mediation and conciliation in the Far East. Journal of the Chartered Institute of Arbitrators.

Teacher Education in the 21st Century

and self-concept in Confucian and European countries. International Journal of Educational Research. 2013;

[30] Chang CLH. How to build an appropriate information ethics code for enterprises in Chinese cultural society. Computers in Human Behavior. 2012;

[31] Stankov L. Unforgiving Confucian culture: A breeding ground for high academic achievement, test anxiety and self-doubt? Learning and Individual Differences. 2010;20(6):555-563

[32] Hofstede G. Culture's

Behaviors, Institutions and Organizations Across Cultures. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; 2001

Consequences: Comparing Values,

[34] Oplatka I. Going beyond role expectations: Toward an understanding of the determinants and components of teacher organizational citizenship behavior. Educational Administration

Quarterly. 2006;42:385-423

[35] Somech A, Ron I. Promoting organizational citizenship behavior in schools: The impact of individual and

organizational characteristics.

Quarterly. 2011;22(5):851-862

McGraw-Hill; 1989

[37] Cascio W. Managing Human Resources: Productivity, Quality of Work Life, Profits. 2nd ed. New York:

Educational Administration Quarterly.

creativity in Chinese organizations: The role of group processes. The Leadership

[36] Zhang AY, Tsui AS, Wang DX. Leadership behaviors and group

[33] Tak SC, King AY. Righteousness and profitableness: The moral choices of contemporary Confucian entrepreneurs. Journal of Business Ethics. 2004;54:

58:79-96

28(2):420-433

245-260

2007;5:1-29

[20] Fiske AP, Kitayama S, Markus HR, Nisbett RE. The Handbook of Social Psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill;

[21] Markus HR, Kitayama S. Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological

Review. 1991;98(2):224-253

[22] Vogt JT. Three-dimensional

sampling method for characterizing ant mounds. Florida Entomologist. 2007;90:

[23] Miller RG. Simultaneous Statistical Inference. 2nd. ed. Springe: Singapore;

[24] Fritz CO, Morris PE, Richler JJ. Effect size estimates: Current use, calculations, and interpretation. Journal of Experimental Psychology. General.

[25] Cohen J. Statistical Power Analysis of the Behavioral Science. 2nd ed. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum; 1988

[26] Berry JW, Sam DL. Acculturation and adaptation. Needham Heights. 1997:

[27] Li L, Wegerif R. What does it mean to teach thinking in China? Challenging and developing notions of 'Confucian education'. Thinking Skills and Creativity. 2014;11:22-32

[28] Sue DW, Kirk BA. Psychological characteristics of Chinese-American students. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 1972;19:471-478

[29] Morony S, Kleitman S, Lee YP, Stankov L. Predicting achievement: Confidence vs self-efficacy, anxiety,

1996;61(1):16-20

1998. pp. 915-981

553-558

1981

2012;141(1):2-18

291-326

50

**53**

**Chapter 4**

**Abstract**

*Mona Holmqvist*

designed modules is presented.

**1. Introduction**

Lack of Qualified Teachers: A

A major challenge for teacher education in the twenty-first century is to provide society with qualified teachers to teach and prepare the next generation of citizens. The situation in, for example, Sweden and South Africa faces huge issues concerning an increased lack of teachers in the future, as well as difficulties with teacher attrition. Examples from the USA show that up to 50% of new teachers quit working as teachers within 5 years. The difficulties with knowledge transfer to new generations, are a global threat. In this chapter, the deficiency of examined teachers is addressed in Section 1. This is followed by an overview of two key aspects of teachers' professional development, namely bridging the gap between practice and theory to enhance teaching quality as well as the importance of practice-based professional development to maintain teachers to work as teacher in a long-term perspective. The results of a case study of students' views on theories are presented, showing a strong experienced dichotomy between theory and practice, and difficulties to see how theories could be used to better understand classroom situations. Finally, a proposal of how to bridge the gap between theory and practice with

**Keywords:** teacher education, teacher attrition, practice-based professional

UNESCO Institute of Statistic states that: "In the next 14 years, countries must

recruit 68.8 million teachers to provide every child with primary and secondary education: 24.4 million primary school teachers and 44.4 million secondary school teachers" [1]. Sweden and South Africa share a common societal challenge with many of other countries in the world, the risk of lack of qualified teachers to support societal knowledge development. In Sweden, in total, more than 45,000 teachers will end their employment within the next decade. Approximately 33% of the teachers who teach grades 10–12 will retire during the same time. More than half of all special educational needs (SEN) teachers in Sweden will retire within 10 years, and there will be an expected shortage of 60,000 teachers by 2019. In South Africa, there is a need of 20,000–30,000 new qualified teachers each year, and in 2011, only a third were produced. With efforts of the two national departments of education between 2009 and 2012, initial teacher education increased from 35,937

development, teacher program modules, teacher preservice training

Global Challenge for Future

Knowledge Development

#### **Chapter 4**

## Lack of Qualified Teachers: A Global Challenge for Future Knowledge Development

*Mona Holmqvist*

#### **Abstract**

A major challenge for teacher education in the twenty-first century is to provide society with qualified teachers to teach and prepare the next generation of citizens. The situation in, for example, Sweden and South Africa faces huge issues concerning an increased lack of teachers in the future, as well as difficulties with teacher attrition. Examples from the USA show that up to 50% of new teachers quit working as teachers within 5 years. The difficulties with knowledge transfer to new generations, are a global threat. In this chapter, the deficiency of examined teachers is addressed in Section 1. This is followed by an overview of two key aspects of teachers' professional development, namely bridging the gap between practice and theory to enhance teaching quality as well as the importance of practice-based professional development to maintain teachers to work as teacher in a long-term perspective. The results of a case study of students' views on theories are presented, showing a strong experienced dichotomy between theory and practice, and difficulties to see how theories could be used to better understand classroom situations. Finally, a proposal of how to bridge the gap between theory and practice with designed modules is presented.

**Keywords:** teacher education, teacher attrition, practice-based professional development, teacher program modules, teacher preservice training

#### **1. Introduction**

UNESCO Institute of Statistic states that: "In the next 14 years, countries must recruit 68.8 million teachers to provide every child with primary and secondary education: 24.4 million primary school teachers and 44.4 million secondary school teachers" [1]. Sweden and South Africa share a common societal challenge with many of other countries in the world, the risk of lack of qualified teachers to support societal knowledge development. In Sweden, in total, more than 45,000 teachers will end their employment within the next decade. Approximately 33% of the teachers who teach grades 10–12 will retire during the same time. More than half of all special educational needs (SEN) teachers in Sweden will retire within 10 years, and there will be an expected shortage of 60,000 teachers by 2019. In South Africa, there is a need of 20,000–30,000 new qualified teachers each year, and in 2011, only a third were produced. With efforts of the two national departments of education between 2009 and 2012, initial teacher education increased from 35,937

to 94,237, an increase of 160%. But there is still a significant shortage of foundation phase teachers and also a significant teacher shortage in key subjects [2].

Both Sweden and South Africa have declared the right to quality education for all without limitation, which is hard to achieve if they cannot provide schools with qualified teachers. Findings from the OECD Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS 2013) examine teachers' and school leaders' expressed experiences of learning environments in their schools [3]. The results show that "more than a third of teachers work in schools with significant staffing shortages of qualified teachers" (p. 19). When teachers do not have the necessary formal qualification for their tasks, feedback from school leaders and colleagues is of importance to ensure the quality of teaching. Despite the knowledge of the importance of feedback, the result from TALIS 2013 points out that 46–51% of the teachers report never having received feedback on their teaching from their school leader or other members of the school management. Finland and Sweden are two of the countries with the lowest report of feedback as more than 70% of the teachers in both countries report never having received any feedback. The teachers in the Nordic countries also differ significantly from other participating countries, as they report almost no opportunities to participate in mentoring activities. As the results point out that self-efficacy correlates with taking part in professional development on a regular basis (e.g., once a week) [3], it seems as the Nordic countries show shortcomings in professional development based on feedback, which is found to be an important aspect to decrease teacher attrition. Swedish teachers also reported having the lowest amount of job satisfaction. The importance of enhancing the amount of new teachers, as well as encouraging the active teachers to maintain working as teachers, has been recognized in several countries. Mashau et al. [4] report from a South African perspective the efforts to enhance professional development: "The DoE (2011) further states that at the same time, the department works to support the professional development of all teachers. As opportunities to observe and be observed are central to effective professional development, the government makes it clear that there is no '3-hour limit' on the amount of time a teacher can be observed."

Teachers, who have the opportunity to get constructive feedback in a "feedforward" way, develop their professional skills as well as increase self-efficacy. However, what kind of support they get is crucial for if and what become possible to develop. In Sweden, preservice training of teachers has become an academic education at university level. This strengthens the teachers' scientific ground, but what theoretical approaches are offered teachers? One problem is the waste amount of descriptive and interpretative research presented in the general educational sciences courses [5], which are mandatory for all teacher students in Sweden. Instead of providing teachers with research results made possible to use to predict and understand how to facilitate the students' learning, they study research on teachers' and students' acting or discussions in the classroom. This is of course also important for teachers to study, but necessarily not at the expense of research on how to teach and learn in the classroom. The large proportion of ground research presented in the teacher programs, in relation to the lack of research results of applied research to improve teaching and learning, results in leaving the teachers' development to themselves. They have to base their teaching on own experience and gradually understand how to design lessons and analyze the students' learning outcomes by trial and error. The circumstance with a lack of applied educational research results, in combination with the extensive research results based on descriptive and interpretative research results, might be one of the reasons for a gap between theory and practice. It might also be the reason for the diverse consults entering the school scene to guide teachers, often without real evidence for the methods introduced

**55**

normative.

what the teacher educator presents.

*Lack of Qualified Teachers: A Global Challenge for Future Knowledge Development*

turn to other "experts" outside school and academia to find support.

supposed to solve the schools' problems. As the teachers do not share the researchers' viewpoint of the importance of the theories provided during the program, they

The challenge of scientific-based teaching has to be elaborated further, to deepen the understanding of the difficulties. As mentioned above, the results from a national Swedish review of teacher education show that a completely dominant genre of research, which is a part of teacher education, is interpretative research, especially research from a sociocultural perspective [5]. The research that prospective teachers face therefore mainly focus on describing and interpreting the specific and does not aim to point to general patterns or results of classroom learning. The theoretical discussions become abstract, and the preservice students have difficulties transforming the approaches to their professional work as teachers. They feel the results are of little or no meaning for their classroom activities. Although the education is aiming to enhance teachers' competences to teach in a classroom, the research provided during their education is basic research, instead of applied research results saying something about the classroom teaching. The results do not provide the students with knowledge of how to predict or act in the classroom. The main research studied are instead observations of teachers' or students' behavior in the classroom, often not guiding or taking a stance for teachers or teaching recommendations. In fact, the opposite is desirable to avoid being understood as

The gap between theory and practice might be explained as a gap between the perspectives of research provided in relation to the goals of the vocational education for teachers. In a study on the "theory-practice divide" in teacher education, the results show that what the research teacher educators' find relevant to introduce for teacher students is rather determined by their own research interests than the students' needs [6]. What is relevant to educational theories, included in the program, is determined by the teacher educators. More than so, if the teacher educator is perceived to have an authority regarding "real classrooms," the associated theories are accepted. On the other hand, if the teacher educator does not have a legitimate power base, the associated theories are dismissed. So, it is not only how the theory is valued, the real experiences of classroom work affect the students' reliability on

The importance of real classroom experience can be integrated in the teacher program to enhance the preservice teachers' confidence in the teacher educator and the course moments in the program. It can also be used to make teacher educators without classroom experience, or old experiences, able to understand what theoretical approaches might be important introducing for the students. Further on, it can be used to apply the theoretical assumptions on, showing the students in what way theoretical perspectives can be as glasses put on to see situations from new perspec-

When teachers or other professionals are asked where they have learnt most skills needed in their profession, 70% report they have learned such skills outside the formal education [7]. The teachers' professional training at schools during their education

tives and analyze classroom activities based on theoretical assumptions.

**3. Preservice teachers' views on theory input**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83417*

**2. The gap between theory and practice**

supposed to solve the schools' problems. As the teachers do not share the researchers' viewpoint of the importance of the theories provided during the program, they turn to other "experts" outside school and academia to find support.

#### **2. The gap between theory and practice**

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

to 94,237, an increase of 160%. But there is still a significant shortage of foundation

Both Sweden and South Africa have declared the right to quality education for all without limitation, which is hard to achieve if they cannot provide schools with qualified teachers. Findings from the OECD Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS 2013) examine teachers' and school leaders' expressed experiences of learning environments in their schools [3]. The results show that "more than a third of teachers work in schools with significant staffing shortages of qualified teachers" (p. 19). When teachers do not have the necessary formal qualification for their tasks, feedback from school leaders and colleagues is of importance to ensure the quality of teaching. Despite the knowledge of the importance of feedback, the result from TALIS 2013 points out that 46–51% of the teachers report never having received feedback on their teaching from their school leader or other members of the school management. Finland and Sweden are two of the countries with the lowest report of feedback as more than 70% of the teachers in both countries report never having received any feedback. The teachers in the Nordic countries also differ significantly from other participating countries, as they report almost no opportunities to participate in mentoring activities. As the results point out that self-efficacy correlates with taking part in professional development on a regular basis (e.g., once a week) [3], it seems as the Nordic countries show shortcomings in professional development based on feedback, which is found to be an important aspect to decrease teacher attrition. Swedish teachers also reported having the lowest amount of job satisfaction. The importance of enhancing the amount of new teachers, as well as encouraging the active teachers to maintain working as teachers, has been recognized in several countries. Mashau et al. [4] report from a South African perspective the efforts to enhance professional development: "The DoE (2011) further states that at the same time, the department works to support the professional development of all teachers. As opportunities to observe and be observed are central to effective professional development, the government makes it clear that there is no

phase teachers and also a significant teacher shortage in key subjects [2].

'3-hour limit' on the amount of time a teacher can be observed."

Teachers, who have the opportunity to get constructive feedback in a "feedforward" way, develop their professional skills as well as increase self-efficacy. However, what kind of support they get is crucial for if and what become possible to develop. In Sweden, preservice training of teachers has become an academic education at university level. This strengthens the teachers' scientific ground, but what theoretical approaches are offered teachers? One problem is the waste amount of descriptive and interpretative research presented in the general educational sciences courses [5], which are mandatory for all teacher students in Sweden. Instead of providing teachers with research results made possible to use to predict and understand how to facilitate the students' learning, they study research on teachers' and students' acting or discussions in the classroom. This is of course also important for teachers to study, but necessarily not at the expense of research on how to teach and learn in the classroom. The large proportion of ground research presented in the teacher programs, in relation to the lack of research results of applied research to improve teaching and learning, results in leaving the teachers' development to themselves. They have to base their teaching on own experience and gradually understand how to design lessons and analyze the students' learning outcomes by trial and error. The circumstance with a lack of applied educational research results, in combination with the extensive research results based on descriptive and interpretative research results, might be one of the reasons for a gap between theory and practice. It might also be the reason for the diverse consults entering the school scene to guide teachers, often without real evidence for the methods introduced

**54**

The challenge of scientific-based teaching has to be elaborated further, to deepen the understanding of the difficulties. As mentioned above, the results from a national Swedish review of teacher education show that a completely dominant genre of research, which is a part of teacher education, is interpretative research, especially research from a sociocultural perspective [5]. The research that prospective teachers face therefore mainly focus on describing and interpreting the specific and does not aim to point to general patterns or results of classroom learning. The theoretical discussions become abstract, and the preservice students have difficulties transforming the approaches to their professional work as teachers. They feel the results are of little or no meaning for their classroom activities. Although the education is aiming to enhance teachers' competences to teach in a classroom, the research provided during their education is basic research, instead of applied research results saying something about the classroom teaching. The results do not provide the students with knowledge of how to predict or act in the classroom. The main research studied are instead observations of teachers' or students' behavior in the classroom, often not guiding or taking a stance for teachers or teaching recommendations. In fact, the opposite is desirable to avoid being understood as normative.

The gap between theory and practice might be explained as a gap between the perspectives of research provided in relation to the goals of the vocational education for teachers. In a study on the "theory-practice divide" in teacher education, the results show that what the research teacher educators' find relevant to introduce for teacher students is rather determined by their own research interests than the students' needs [6]. What is relevant to educational theories, included in the program, is determined by the teacher educators. More than so, if the teacher educator is perceived to have an authority regarding "real classrooms," the associated theories are accepted. On the other hand, if the teacher educator does not have a legitimate power base, the associated theories are dismissed. So, it is not only how the theory is valued, the real experiences of classroom work affect the students' reliability on what the teacher educator presents.

The importance of real classroom experience can be integrated in the teacher program to enhance the preservice teachers' confidence in the teacher educator and the course moments in the program. It can also be used to make teacher educators without classroom experience, or old experiences, able to understand what theoretical approaches might be important introducing for the students. Further on, it can be used to apply the theoretical assumptions on, showing the students in what way theoretical perspectives can be as glasses put on to see situations from new perspectives and analyze classroom activities based on theoretical assumptions.

#### **3. Preservice teachers' views on theory input**

When teachers or other professionals are asked where they have learnt most skills needed in their profession, 70% report they have learned such skills outside the formal education [7]. The teachers' professional training at schools during their education

is highly valued by the students [8] and by that an important part where preservice teachers develop professional skills in a formative way. The supervising in-service teachers have a great impact on how the students develop their skills, as they are mentors during the entire education. In mentoring discussions, emotional support and task assistance seem to be considered as most important feedback by the students [9].

Theoretical reflections on classroom practice during preservice teacher training are rarely studied. Results on students' learning from "guided reflection" during classroom practice found that the students gain of shared reflections of full lessons observations, if the reflection is related to theoretical notions [10]. Furthermore, studies have shown that preservice teachers value practice over theory when they enter the school contexts [11]. Findings also show how developing classroom management skills not always are trained to a desirable extent during teacher education [12]. The preservice teachers are to a great extent taking courses and discussing research at a very abstract level, difficult for them to base their work as teachers on. The gap between theory and practice might be a gap between the research approaches provided, as the majority of research offered seem to be far from teachers' daily work in classrooms.

One way to bridge the gap is to use action research to develop preservice teachers and teachers' theoretical understanding of their own practice [13]. Differences in focus of teaching, based on theoretical assumptions of what is the aim of education, have on impact of what affordances the teacher educators offer their students. In relation to the context at the school, where the students have their internship, those differences might also affect the teacher students' views of what is valuable knowledge for them. A longitudinal study, following preservice teachers' development into in-service teachers, shows how different cultural contexts (teachers from mainland China in Hong Kong) experience different focus when teaching [14]. While mainland teachers have a strong focus on teaching and learning, Hong Kong teachers focused more on reducing social problems in the classroom than knowledge development. Implicit differences of the aim of education affect the teachers' actions in the classroom and by that also what possibilities they give their pupils. To discern different approaches of what teaching and learning can be, requires a variation of theories presented and in what way they can be used as glasses to capture and explain patterns of classroom management. One difficulty is the lack of continuous in-service training for teachers at school, which results in limited possibilities to discuss the theoretical assumptions with supervising teachers at school.

In the Swedish teacher education, the internship period is examined by teacher educators from the university. One of the national goals is to analyze classroom situations based on theoretical assumptions, as teaching should be based both on scientific and empirical grounds. I was involved in a project, resulting in a case study at one teacher education program in one of the largest institutions for preservice training, on the examination of the students' vocational course. At the university, this is an oral examination at the school where the students have her/his internship. The unit of analysis was the meeting between the student, the supervising teacher at school, and the teacher educator from the university, a postlesson discussion about the student's teaching that the teacher educator has observed. Five such conversations were recorded, and the teaching situations have taken place in compulsory schools (student aged 13–16 years old).

#### **4. A study of teacher students' views of theory**

To create a scientific understanding of teacher students' views about theoretical studies during their education, a case study has been conducted. As the students' views

**57**

*Lack of Qualified Teachers: A Global Challenge for Future Knowledge Development*

are in focus, variation theory [15] has been used to capture what aspects the students' have discerned, and what aspects they have not yet discerned. Aspects of importance to understand teacher students' views about theoretical studies during their in-campus training are captured during the analysis of verbatim-transcribed video-recorded data. The aim of the case study [16] was to understand in what way performancebased oral assessment [17] of internship in teacher education contributes to teacher students' theoretical-based understanding of classroom instruction. Internship for preservice teachers is a key part of teacher education in Sweden, in total 20 weeks, which the students often value as the most important part of the 4–5 years of training. Performance-based assessments are performed at the end of each vocational

In this study, trialogue oral examinations, with teacher trainers from university, the mentoring teachers at the school, and the student are analyzed. The case study is based on a mixed-methodology approach [18]. The complete data collected consist of open-ended questionnaire answered by 33 teacher trainers from one faculty, questionnaire with closed questions answered by 27 teacher trainers from, and 5 recorded performance-based oral assessments, with preservice teachers, teacher trainers from the university, and the mentoring teachers at school. After completion of the course, the student should be able to reflect on his teacher role and professional development with relevant links to the theoretical studies. The questionnaire with close-ended questions was compiled and analyzed quantitatively, while the other questionnaire was analyzed qualitatively. The interviews were transcribed

The result of the quantitative analysis of the interviews shows how the talktime was distributed among the participants: 41% students, 37% teacher trainers at university, and 22% supervising in-service teachers at school. The durations of the oral assessment had a range between 22.63 and 47.3 minutes. The teacher student was the one who chaired the meeting, as a result of a framework that regulates how the meeting shall be implemented. By that, the students took a leading role in the discussions. The supervising school teacher was in all cases the person who had least talktime at the meetings. The qualitative analysis of the oral assessment shows a prominent trait regarding challenges connecting theory and practice. Students explain how difficult they find it to relate what they study at the university with what they do at their school placement. The dichotomy between theory and practice is expressed:

*Excerpt 1: (S – student, ST – supervising teacher, TE – Teacher educator)*

*TE: You have a very good connection to the theories and then get it together with …*

The student's difficulties to see how the classroom activities can be understood

*TE: But it should be visualized in practice and the big problem usually is that in practice you have practice and on the other hand you have the theory and you do* 

*S: Should I write "balances between theory and practice"*

*ST: Maybe dare to release the theories too (laughter)*

from a theoretical perspective are also described:

*ST: We'll work on it (laughter)*

*not get these two parts together.*

*S: "Working on it"*

*S: Mm*

*Excerpt 2:*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83417*

training period, managed by the teacher educators.

verbatim and analyzed qualitatively as well as quantitatively.

**4.1 The design and results of the case study**

#### *Lack of Qualified Teachers: A Global Challenge for Future Knowledge Development DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83417*

are in focus, variation theory [15] has been used to capture what aspects the students' have discerned, and what aspects they have not yet discerned. Aspects of importance to understand teacher students' views about theoretical studies during their in-campus training are captured during the analysis of verbatim-transcribed video-recorded data.

The aim of the case study [16] was to understand in what way performancebased oral assessment [17] of internship in teacher education contributes to teacher students' theoretical-based understanding of classroom instruction. Internship for preservice teachers is a key part of teacher education in Sweden, in total 20 weeks, which the students often value as the most important part of the 4–5 years of training. Performance-based assessments are performed at the end of each vocational training period, managed by the teacher educators.

#### **4.1 The design and results of the case study**

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

ers' daily work in classrooms.

compulsory schools (student aged 13–16 years old).

**4. A study of teacher students' views of theory**

To create a scientific understanding of teacher students' views about theoretical studies during their education, a case study has been conducted. As the students' views

is highly valued by the students [8] and by that an important part where preservice teachers develop professional skills in a formative way. The supervising in-service teachers have a great impact on how the students develop their skills, as they are mentors during the entire education. In mentoring discussions, emotional support and task assistance seem to be considered as most important feedback by the students [9]. Theoretical reflections on classroom practice during preservice teacher training are rarely studied. Results on students' learning from "guided reflection" during classroom practice found that the students gain of shared reflections of full lessons observations, if the reflection is related to theoretical notions [10]. Furthermore, studies have shown that preservice teachers value practice over theory when they enter the school contexts [11]. Findings also show how developing classroom management skills not always are trained to a desirable extent during teacher education [12]. The preservice teachers are to a great extent taking courses and discussing research at a very abstract level, difficult for them to base their work as teachers on. The gap between theory and practice might be a gap between the research approaches provided, as the majority of research offered seem to be far from teach-

One way to bridge the gap is to use action research to develop preservice teachers and teachers' theoretical understanding of their own practice [13]. Differences in focus of teaching, based on theoretical assumptions of what is the aim of education, have on impact of what affordances the teacher educators offer their students. In relation to the context at the school, where the students have their internship, those differences might also affect the teacher students' views of what is valuable knowledge for them. A longitudinal study, following preservice teachers' development into in-service teachers, shows how different cultural contexts (teachers from mainland China in Hong Kong) experience different focus when teaching [14]. While mainland teachers have a strong focus on teaching and learning, Hong Kong teachers focused more on reducing social problems in the classroom than knowledge development. Implicit differences of the aim of education affect the teachers' actions in the classroom and by that also what possibilities they give their pupils. To discern different approaches of what teaching and learning can be, requires a variation of theories presented and in what way they can be used as glasses to capture and explain patterns of classroom management. One difficulty is the lack of continuous in-service training for teachers at school, which results in limited possibilities to discuss the theoretical assumptions with supervising teachers at school. In the Swedish teacher education, the internship period is examined by teacher educators from the university. One of the national goals is to analyze classroom situations based on theoretical assumptions, as teaching should be based both on scientific and empirical grounds. I was involved in a project, resulting in a case study at one teacher education program in one of the largest institutions for preservice training, on the examination of the students' vocational course. At the university, this is an oral examination at the school where the students have her/his internship. The unit of analysis was the meeting between the student, the supervising teacher at school, and the teacher educator from the university, a postlesson discussion about the student's teaching that the teacher educator has observed. Five such conversations were recorded, and the teaching situations have taken place in

**56**

In this study, trialogue oral examinations, with teacher trainers from university, the mentoring teachers at the school, and the student are analyzed. The case study is based on a mixed-methodology approach [18]. The complete data collected consist of open-ended questionnaire answered by 33 teacher trainers from one faculty, questionnaire with closed questions answered by 27 teacher trainers from, and 5 recorded performance-based oral assessments, with preservice teachers, teacher trainers from the university, and the mentoring teachers at school. After completion of the course, the student should be able to reflect on his teacher role and professional development with relevant links to the theoretical studies. The questionnaire with close-ended questions was compiled and analyzed quantitatively, while the other questionnaire was analyzed qualitatively. The interviews were transcribed verbatim and analyzed qualitatively as well as quantitatively.

The result of the quantitative analysis of the interviews shows how the talktime was distributed among the participants: 41% students, 37% teacher trainers at university, and 22% supervising in-service teachers at school. The durations of the oral assessment had a range between 22.63 and 47.3 minutes. The teacher student was the one who chaired the meeting, as a result of a framework that regulates how the meeting shall be implemented. By that, the students took a leading role in the discussions. The supervising school teacher was in all cases the person who had least talktime at the meetings. The qualitative analysis of the oral assessment shows a prominent trait regarding challenges connecting theory and practice. Students explain how difficult they find it to relate what they study at the university with what they do at their school placement. The dichotomy between theory and practice is expressed:

*Excerpt 1: (S – student, ST – supervising teacher, TE – Teacher educator) S: Should I write "balances between theory and practice" ST: We'll work on it (laughter) S: "Working on it" TE: You have a very good connection to the theories and then get it together with … ST: Maybe dare to release the theories too (laughter) S: Mm*

The student's difficulties to see how the classroom activities can be understood from a theoretical perspective are also described:

#### *Excerpt 2:*

*TE: But it should be visualized in practice and the big problem usually is that in practice you have practice and on the other hand you have the theory and you do not get these two parts together.*

#### *ST: That's right*

*TE: It is often actually at the expense of the theory, but here it might have slipped over S: Yes, I've become more careful when I'm here because I've always got the theory that sits and giggles TE: But just being here and now, at the moment*

*S: Yes, exactly. But it is true that I have chosen a practical profession, more or less, so that the theory is where I can reflect on my practical occupation, but that's not what will guide me…*

The view of theory as something "that should not guide you" is far from what is stipulated in the course syllabus. Basing what happens in the classroom on theoretical assumptions, trying to predict and analyze what happened in the classroom, is far beyond this student's standpoint. Instead, the theoretical frameworks seem to hinder the student, and if the theories mainly are based on a methodological approach with observations and interpretations, theory can become an obstacle. It is impossible to "freeze" in a teaching situation, to take a step out of it, and to analyze it while it is ongoing. You have to be here and now, acting and responding to the students. This is yet another argument for using more practice-based theoretical frameworks, to guide the teachers' work with the students and provide with knowledge of different scenarios and their possible solutions.

#### *Excerpt 3:*

*S: I was actually thinking yesterday when I was planning the lesson, and then I sat thinking what I could relate to my theoretical studies … what I'm using here. Then I wrote 'the next developmental zone' and 'student response', then it stopped. I only "I do not know what can relate to" and I wrote to a friend who had helped me with planning and just said "what more?" Because it's really hard to see. Then I know that I've gone through a thousand concepts at least, but I can not … so I … but that's what I'm doing now but I can not express it.*

The difficulties for students to understand how theoretical studies can contribute to their classroom activities were confirmed by the results from the open-ended questionnaire, where the teacher trainers at university describe the difficulties for students to reflect upon their teaching from a theoretical perspective. Finally, the result of the close-ended questionnaire shows that teacher trainers estimate that the mentoring teachers at school do not have sufficient knowledge of theoretical perspectives of relevance for their occupational training (2.0 out of 5.0), while they estimate the students' knowledge higher (3.18 out of 5) and their own knowledge highest (4.18 out of 5). As the supervising in-service teacher has a prominent role as models for the students, a model for knowledge exchange between university teachers and supervising teachers at school, offering them more opportunities to develop their theoretical knowledge, might enhance the theoretical understanding, as well as the use of classroom recordings used in the campus courses. Making it possible for the teacher students' supervisors at school makes it possible to create "communities of practice" [19] where they together can share what the students are offered at their in-campus training.

#### **5. Modules merging theory and practice**

Based on the findings above, preservice teacher education provided to enhance the students' qualifications as teachers has to face the challenge of bridging the gap between theory and practice, as well as provide students with theoretical tools and

**59**

lead)

offering.

**Figure 1.**

*Lack of Qualified Teachers: A Global Challenge for Future Knowledge Development*

results of importance for their assignment as educators in classrooms. To bridge the gap, it might not only be of interest to give in-service training to supervising school teachers but also reflect on what the campus-based courses for future teachers are

The results of the case study has, together with other research findings, based the foundation for designing modules in the teacher training program aiming to enhance preservice teachers' understanding of how theoretical assumptions can be used to predict, analyze, and revise teaching situations. The modules are based on blended learning [20], as the students are provided by a web resource where they can find lectures from all authors of the course literature, as well as other learning resources, such as study material produced by the Swedish National Agency for Education or other trustworthy sources. Finally, video-recorded classroom situations are used in the final examination of the course to help students to understand

The outline of the module is presented in **Figure 1**, showing how one 6-week course (6 ETCS including 3 weeks for each course section) is designed. During the course-weeks, the focus on student performance develops, from students' development of knowledge and understanding, development of skills and abilities, and

During the course, the students have access to several different learning resources. First of all, the Learning Platform (Canvas) provides the students with course-specific texts, lectures, and learning researches. Besides that, a group of general capabilities are running like a track in all courses (e.g., academic literacy, new arrivals, library support). In all course sections, different form of work is intro-

• Student workshop for joint reading of literature or problem solving (student

how theoretical frameworks can be used as tools for teachers.

*Structure of a full-time 6-week module in general educational sciences (9 ETCS).*

finally focusing their evaluation ability and approach.

duced, such as the following:

• Individual reading of literature

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83417*

*Lack of Qualified Teachers: A Global Challenge for Future Knowledge Development DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83417*

**Figure 1.**

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

*TE: It is often actually at the expense of the theory, but here it might have slipped over S: Yes, I've become more careful when I'm here because I've always got the theory* 

*S: Yes, exactly. But it is true that I have chosen a practical profession, more or less, so that the theory is where I can reflect on my practical occupation, but that's not* 

The view of theory as something "that should not guide you" is far from what is stipulated in the course syllabus. Basing what happens in the classroom on theoretical assumptions, trying to predict and analyze what happened in the classroom, is far beyond this student's standpoint. Instead, the theoretical frameworks seem to hinder the student, and if the theories mainly are based on a methodological approach with observations and interpretations, theory can become an obstacle. It is impossible to "freeze" in a teaching situation, to take a step out of it, and to analyze it while it is ongoing. You have to be here and now, acting and responding to the students. This is yet another argument for using more practice-based theoretical frameworks, to guide the teachers' work with the students and provide with

*S: I was actually thinking yesterday when I was planning the lesson, and then I sat thinking what I could relate to my theoretical studies … what I'm using here. Then I wrote 'the next developmental zone' and 'student response', then it stopped. I only "I do not know what can relate to" and I wrote to a friend who had helped me with planning and just said "what more?" Because it's really hard to see. Then I know that I've gone through a thousand concepts at least, but I can not … so I … but that's* 

The difficulties for students to understand how theoretical studies can contribute to their classroom activities were confirmed by the results from the open-ended questionnaire, where the teacher trainers at university describe the difficulties for students to reflect upon their teaching from a theoretical perspective. Finally, the result of the close-ended questionnaire shows that teacher trainers estimate that the mentoring teachers at school do not have sufficient knowledge of theoretical perspectives of relevance for their occupational training (2.0 out of 5.0), while they estimate the students' knowledge higher (3.18 out of 5) and their own knowledge highest (4.18 out of 5). As the supervising in-service teacher has a prominent role as models for the students, a model for knowledge exchange between university teachers and supervising teachers at school, offering them more opportunities to develop their theoretical knowledge, might enhance the theoretical understanding, as well as the use of classroom recordings used in the campus courses. Making it possible for the teacher students' supervisors at school makes it possible to create "communities of practice" [19] where they together can share what the students are offered at

Based on the findings above, preservice teacher education provided to enhance the students' qualifications as teachers has to face the challenge of bridging the gap between theory and practice, as well as provide students with theoretical tools and

*ST: That's right*

*that sits and giggles*

*what will guide me…*

*Excerpt 3:*

their in-campus training.

**5. Modules merging theory and practice**

*TE: But just being here and now, at the moment*

knowledge of different scenarios and their possible solutions.

*what I'm doing now but I can not express it.*

**58**

*Structure of a full-time 6-week module in general educational sciences (9 ETCS).*

results of importance for their assignment as educators in classrooms. To bridge the gap, it might not only be of interest to give in-service training to supervising school teachers but also reflect on what the campus-based courses for future teachers are offering.

The results of the case study has, together with other research findings, based the foundation for designing modules in the teacher training program aiming to enhance preservice teachers' understanding of how theoretical assumptions can be used to predict, analyze, and revise teaching situations. The modules are based on blended learning [20], as the students are provided by a web resource where they can find lectures from all authors of the course literature, as well as other learning resources, such as study material produced by the Swedish National Agency for Education or other trustworthy sources. Finally, video-recorded classroom situations are used in the final examination of the course to help students to understand how theoretical frameworks can be used as tools for teachers.

The outline of the module is presented in **Figure 1**, showing how one 6-week course (6 ETCS including 3 weeks for each course section) is designed. During the course-weeks, the focus on student performance develops, from students' development of knowledge and understanding, development of skills and abilities, and finally focusing their evaluation ability and approach.

During the course, the students have access to several different learning resources. First of all, the Learning Platform (Canvas) provides the students with course-specific texts, lectures, and learning researches. Besides that, a group of general capabilities are running like a track in all courses (e.g., academic literacy, new arrivals, library support). In all course sections, different form of work is introduced, such as the following:


Below, examples of the design are presented to give a view of how the parts of the module strive to enhance both theoretical and professional development preservice teachers by merging theory and practice during the course moments.

#### **5.1 Section 1**

During the first 2 weeks of the module, the students' knowledge and understanding, mainly of core concepts and frameworks used, is focused to create a shared knowledge base for further studies. One session of the students' own seminars could be designed as follows:

#### *Wednesday xx/x*

*08.15-12.00 Student seminar*

*Study the Teachers' Movie (28 minutes) about leadership in the classroom and discuss how the theoretical assumptions highlighted in the course literature are expressed in the discussion of why leadership in the classroom is necessary: http://urskola.se/Produkter/196528-Larlabbet-student-Ledarskap-i-klassrummet. Compare your own examples of situations, and in what way you would act differently today if you had the knowledge that you are expected to develop within the course.*

After this brief practice-based task, the students are supposed to watch the lecture of the author of the first course book. Whenever the students want to watch, the prerecorded lecture is uploaded to the web platform and can be watched several times, also together with supervising teachers at school. After this part, the students meet the teacher educators to deepen the discussions of the course book, in relation to the authors' lecture and the other learning resources.

#### *1315-16 Post lecture-seminar*

*At this seminar, which is a teacher lead, you are going to discuss how knowledge about leadership, communication and conflicts in school has been developed in relation to the course objective, identify and describe various key concepts and perspectives in pedagogical leadership, social relations and conflict management. In what way has the course literature contributed to a theoretical understanding of the theoretical perspectives that can be tools to better understand and predict what is happening in the classroom? What situations do you feel you have more preparedness to handle in future school situations?*

During a week, the students in total have at least four seminars including preand postseminars adjacent to the video-recorded lectures. Each period of 2 weeks ends with a smaller examination, in which during the first section, the students are supposed to show their conceptual knowledge of the content in focus. This is important to create a joint understanding of the theoretical approaches presented and forms the basis for the continued work.

**61**

*Lack of Qualified Teachers: A Global Challenge for Future Knowledge Development*

The second section of the module aims to develop the students' skills and abilities. The design of the work is similar to the previous section; however, during these 2 weeks, the students are expected to show their skills in relation to the theoretical approaches in focus. During the seminars, the students are expected to be more active than in the first part. They have to show examples of how to put the theoreti-

*Before this seminar you should have read the report "Learning from the best: an ESO report on Swedish school in an international research perspective" by Åman (2011), as well as prepare 3-5 questions based on the literature in order to get a deeper understanding of the content. What are the similarities and differences between today's school in Sweden and other countries? Does the report give you good prospects for meeting the learning objective: "Analyze the school's activities in a national and international perspective"? The seminar is led by teacher educators.*

*This lecture is linked to the report "Learning from the best: an ESO report on Swedish school in an international research perspective" by Åman (2011).*

*At this seminar, which is led by a teacher educators, how scientific and evidence based knowledge has been developed on the basis of relevant governing documents is discussed. At this seminar you will discuss in particular whether you have developed your knowledge in relation to the objective "Analyze the relationship between* 

The section ends with an examination, designed to show the students' skills by doing a smaller school development project to be analyzed from a theoretical

In the final section of the course, the students' abilities to value and ethical approach in relation to their professional development as teachers. By that, this third step finalizes the students' understanding of the theme of the module, for example, classroom leadership and management. Based on their conceptual knowledge of the field, they have shown proof of their skills in relation to their profession. In this last step, they are supposed to value their knowledge and skills to examine them in an ethical perspective, which is practiced in different kind of activities.

*Before this seminar, you have to study the module on the learning platform about writing a short information text based on proven experience and scientific basis for informing parents about the school's value base (included in the academic literacy* 

The lectures are followed up by postseminars where teacher educators, related to the goals in the syllabus, deepen the discussions to enhance the students' knowledge

*1300-1530 Sweden's school in an international perspective*

*research and empirical based knowledge for the profession".*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83417*

**5.2 Section 2**

development.

perspective.

**5.3 Section 3**

*Monday xx/x*

*10.15-12.00 Student seminar*

*13.15-16 Post-seminar*

cal knowledge to abilities.

*Tuesday xx/x*

*10.15-12.00 Pre-seminar*

*Lack of Qualified Teachers: A Global Challenge for Future Knowledge Development DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83417*

#### **5.2 Section 2**

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

cators, pod)

• Student seminars

seminars could be designed as follows:

*08.15-12.00 Student seminar*

*1315-16 Post lecture-seminar*

*Wednesday xx/x*

*course.*

**5.1 Section 1**

• Prerecorded lectures at web platform (the authors of the literature, teacher edu-

Below, examples of the design are presented to give a view of how the parts of the module strive to enhance both theoretical and professional development preser-

During the first 2 weeks of the module, the students' knowledge and understanding, mainly of core concepts and frameworks used, is focused to create a shared knowledge base for further studies. One session of the students' own

*Study the Teachers' Movie (28 minutes) about leadership in the classroom and discuss how the theoretical assumptions highlighted in the course literature are expressed in the discussion of why leadership in the classroom is necessary:* 

*http://urskola.se/Produkter/196528-Larlabbet-student-Ledarskap-i-klassrummet. Compare your own examples of situations, and in what way you would act differently today if you had the knowledge that you are expected to develop within the* 

After this brief practice-based task, the students are supposed to watch the lecture of the author of the first course book. Whenever the students want to watch, the prerecorded lecture is uploaded to the web platform and can be watched several times, also together with supervising teachers at school. After this part, the students meet the teacher educators to deepen the discussions of the course book, in relation

*At this seminar, which is a teacher lead, you are going to discuss how knowledge about leadership, communication and conflicts in school has been developed in relation to the course objective, identify and describe various key concepts and perspectives in pedagogical leadership, social relations and conflict management. In what way has the course literature contributed to a theoretical understanding of the theoretical perspectives that can be tools to better understand and predict what is happening in the classroom? What situations do you feel you have more prepared-*

During a week, the students in total have at least four seminars including preand postseminars adjacent to the video-recorded lectures. Each period of 2 weeks ends with a smaller examination, in which during the first section, the students are supposed to show their conceptual knowledge of the content in focus. This is important to create a joint understanding of the theoretical approaches presented

to the authors' lecture and the other learning resources.

*ness to handle in future school situations?*

and forms the basis for the continued work.

• Prerecorded panel discussions (course leader, teacher, and student)

vice teachers by merging theory and practice during the course moments.

• Teacher-led seminars to further develop students' learning

**60**

The second section of the module aims to develop the students' skills and abilities. The design of the work is similar to the previous section; however, during these 2 weeks, the students are expected to show their skills in relation to the theoretical approaches in focus. During the seminars, the students are expected to be more active than in the first part. They have to show examples of how to put the theoretical knowledge to abilities.

#### *Tuesday xx/x*

*10.15-12.00 Pre-seminar*

*Before this seminar you should have read the report "Learning from the best: an ESO report on Swedish school in an international research perspective" by Åman (2011), as well as prepare 3-5 questions based on the literature in order to get a deeper understanding of the content. What are the similarities and differences between today's school in Sweden and other countries? Does the report give you good prospects for meeting the learning objective: "Analyze the school's activities in a national and international perspective"? The seminar is led by teacher educators.*

*1300-1530 Sweden's school in an international perspective This lecture is linked to the report "Learning from the best: an ESO report on Swedish school in an international research perspective" by Åman (2011).*

The lectures are followed up by postseminars where teacher educators, related to the goals in the syllabus, deepen the discussions to enhance the students' knowledge development.

#### *13.15-16 Post-seminar*

*At this seminar, which is led by a teacher educators, how scientific and evidence based knowledge has been developed on the basis of relevant governing documents is discussed. At this seminar you will discuss in particular whether you have developed your knowledge in relation to the objective "Analyze the relationship between research and empirical based knowledge for the profession".*

The section ends with an examination, designed to show the students' skills by doing a smaller school development project to be analyzed from a theoretical perspective.

#### **5.3 Section 3**

In the final section of the course, the students' abilities to value and ethical approach in relation to their professional development as teachers. By that, this third step finalizes the students' understanding of the theme of the module, for example, classroom leadership and management. Based on their conceptual knowledge of the field, they have shown proof of their skills in relation to their profession. In this last step, they are supposed to value their knowledge and skills to examine them in an ethical perspective, which is practiced in different kind of activities.

*Monday xx/x 10.15-12.00 Student seminar Before this seminar, you have to study the module on the learning platform about writing a short information text based on proven experience and scientific basis for informing parents about the school's value base (included in the academic literacy* 

*module). To develop your skills, you will practice your ability to value and ethical review, which will be tested in exam three. You will also have access to classroom movies to analyze regarding the school's value base.*

The examination of the students' evaluation and ethical review abilities are made close to their professional role as becoming teacher. The examination is based on the theoretical frameworks studied in the course and through course literature.

#### *Examination 3*

*Analysis of classroom situations based on human rights and child convention by a video-recorded classroom situation. The analysis should be based on the conceptions and theoretical perspectives studied in the course. Valuate and make an ethical review of the situation analyzed. Max 2 pages, excluding references, should be uploaded on the learning platform within a time limit of 4 hours after the lesson has been released on the learning platform.*

#### **5.4 Final remarks**

The design of general educational courses in the teacher program is always a challenge. There are more topics of interest for teachers than could possibly be included in the training, so how to choose what is most important? The risk is that always these courses tend to be fragmented, with several small parts different to connect to each other. Making the content both coherent within a theme and connecting the theoretical parts with the preservice teachers' professional role in the future is another challenge. This is a humble try to overcome these challenges, and by that provide teacher students with knowledge they can understand both on a theoretical and practice-based level.

#### **6. Conclusion**

The challenge to provide society with qualified teachers is global, and the interest to begin teacher education studies is low in many countries. In, for example, Sweden, teacher education has become a university program. This guarantees the scientific quality of the courses given, which hopefully gives the students a basic scientific knowledge of teaching and learning. But has it provided teachers with better skills about teaching and learning in the classroom? There is of course no easy answer to give, but it highly depends on the interest and quality of teacher educators. When teacher education was a professional education, it was provided by teacher education colleges instead of universities. The lecturers had a strong relation to schools and experience as being teachers by themselves. This can of course be problematic for the development and critical stance, which enables changes of how school should be working. On the other hand, there is also a risk of quality decrease if the theoretical approaches provided for preservice teachers are descriptive and interpretative, leaving the teachers without any answers of how to act in the classroom. In combination with teacher educators at universities, without own experience of teaching outside university who determine what is of importance for teachers to learn, the gap between theory and practice can easily be insurmountable. Then it does not help how qualified the teacher educators are regarding scientific knowledge or how qualified they are to teach at university level. The importance to provide teacher students with applied research results and to give them scientifically substantiated results guiding them to enhance teaching and learning in schools is crucial for the quality of teacher education. Changes are

**63**

**Author details**

Mona Holmqvist

provided the original work is properly cited.

\*Address all correspondence to: mona.holmqvist@mau.se

Malmö University, Malmö, Sweden

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

*Lack of Qualified Teachers: A Global Challenge for Future Knowledge Development*

needed to attract young adults wanting to become teachers. In countries where teacher education is situated at universities, the teacher students might lack the opportunity to meet teacher educators who have a background as teachers before being researchers. Then they do not meet role models they can identify with before they are on internship and meet teachers. The expression that schools are "the real world" and university is "a fictive world" is in not difficult to understand from

This study has been supported by Malmö University, which I am grateful for. I would also acknowledge my researchers and colleagues Roger Johansson, Lund University and Bertil Rosenberg, Kristianstad University, for fruitful discussions and collaborative work during the pilot studies made at our respective universities.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83417*

teacher students' perspective.

**Acknowledgements**

*Lack of Qualified Teachers: A Global Challenge for Future Knowledge Development DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83417*

needed to attract young adults wanting to become teachers. In countries where teacher education is situated at universities, the teacher students might lack the opportunity to meet teacher educators who have a background as teachers before being researchers. Then they do not meet role models they can identify with before they are on internship and meet teachers. The expression that schools are "the real world" and university is "a fictive world" is in not difficult to understand from teacher students' perspective.

#### **Acknowledgements**

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

*Examination 3*

**5.4 Final remarks**

**6. Conclusion**

*module). To develop your skills, you will practice your ability to value and ethical review, which will be tested in exam three. You will also have access to classroom* 

The examination of the students' evaluation and ethical review abilities are made close to their professional role as becoming teacher. The examination is based on the theoretical frameworks studied in the course and through course literature.

*Analysis of classroom situations based on human rights and child convention by a video-recorded classroom situation. The analysis should be based on the conceptions and theoretical perspectives studied in the course. Valuate and make an ethical review of the situation analyzed. Max 2 pages, excluding references, should be uploaded on the learning platform within a time limit of 4 hours after the lesson* 

The design of general educational courses in the teacher program is always a challenge. There are more topics of interest for teachers than could possibly be included in the training, so how to choose what is most important? The risk is that always these courses tend to be fragmented, with several small parts different to connect to each other. Making the content both coherent within a theme and connecting the theoretical parts with the preservice teachers' professional role in the future is another challenge. This is a humble try to overcome these challenges, and by that provide teacher students with knowledge they can understand both on a

The challenge to provide society with qualified teachers is global, and the interest to begin teacher education studies is low in many countries. In, for example, Sweden, teacher education has become a university program. This guarantees the scientific quality of the courses given, which hopefully gives the students a basic scientific knowledge of teaching and learning. But has it provided teachers with better skills about teaching and learning in the classroom? There is of course no easy answer to give, but it highly depends on the interest and quality of teacher educators. When teacher education was a professional education, it was provided by teacher education colleges instead of universities. The lecturers had a strong relation to schools and experience as being teachers by themselves. This can of course be problematic for the development and critical stance, which enables changes of how school should be working. On the other hand, there is also a risk of quality decrease if the theoretical approaches provided for preservice teachers are descriptive and interpretative, leaving the teachers without any answers of how to act in the classroom. In combination with teacher educators at universities, without own experience of teaching outside university who determine what is of importance for teachers to learn, the gap between theory and practice can easily be insurmountable. Then it does not help how qualified the teacher educators are regarding scientific knowledge or how qualified they are to teach at university level. The importance to provide teacher students with applied research results and to give them scientifically substantiated results guiding them to enhance teaching and learning in schools is crucial for the quality of teacher education. Changes are

*movies to analyze regarding the school's value base.*

*has been released on the learning platform.*

theoretical and practice-based level.

**62**

This study has been supported by Malmö University, which I am grateful for. I would also acknowledge my researchers and colleagues Roger Johansson, Lund University and Bertil Rosenberg, Kristianstad University, for fruitful discussions and collaborative work during the pilot studies made at our respective universities.

#### **Author details**

Mona Holmqvist Malmö University, Malmö, Sweden

\*Address all correspondence to: mona.holmqvist@mau.se

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

#### **References**

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*Lack of Qualified Teachers: A Global Challenge for Future Knowledge Development*

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& Sons; 2010. pp. 69-132

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[18] Creswell JW. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. Thousand Oaks, Kalifornien, USA: Sage Publications;

[19] Wenger E, McDermott RA, Snyder W. Cultivating Communities of Practice: A Guide to Managing Knowledge. Massachusetts, USA: Harvard Business Press; 2002

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*Lack of Qualified Teachers: A Global Challenge for Future Knowledge Development DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83417*

[17] Wei RC, Pecheone RL. Assessment for learning in preservice teacher education: Performance-based assessments. In: Teacher Assessment and the Quest for Teacher Quality: A Handbook. New York, USA: John Wiley & Sons; 2010. pp. 69-132

[18] Creswell JW. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. Thousand Oaks, Kalifornien, USA: Sage Publications; 2013

[19] Wenger E, McDermott RA, Snyder W. Cultivating Communities of Practice: A Guide to Managing Knowledge. Massachusetts, USA: Harvard Business Press; 2002

[20] Halverson LR, Graham CR, Spring KJ, Drysdale JS, Henrie CR. A thematic analysis of the most highly cited scholarship in the first decade of blended learning research. The Internet and Higher Education. 2014;**20**:20-34

**64**

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

[1] Fact sheet, no. 39. 2016. Available

[9] Crasborn F, Hennissen P, Brouwer N, Korthagen F, Bergen T. Exploring a two-dimensional model of mentor teacher roles in mentoring dialogues. Teaching and Teacher Education.

[10] Orland-Barak L, Yinon H. When theory meets practice: What student teachers learn from guided reflection on their own classroom discourse. Teaching and Teacher Education.

[11] Allen JM. Valuing practice over theory: How beginning teachers

[12] Freeman J, Simonsen B, Briere DE, MacSuga-Gage AS. Pre-service teacher training in classroom management: A review of state accreditation policy and teacher preparation programs. Teacher Education and Special Education.

[13] Zeynep Mugaloglu E, Doganca Z. Fulfilling the "missing link" between university and authentic workplace in teacher training. Journal of Workplace

Learning. 2009;**21**(6):455-464

[14] Gu MM. From pre-service to in-service teachers: A longitudinal investigation of the professional development of English language teachers in secondary schools.

Educational Studies. 2013;**39**(5):503-521

[15] Marton F. Necessary Conditions of Learning. London: Routledge; 2014

[16] Yin RK. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods. Thousand Oaks, Kalifornien, USA: Sage

Publications; 2017

re-orient their practice in the transition from the university to the workplace. Teaching and Teacher Education.

2011;**27**(2):320-331

2007;**23**(6):957-969

2009;**25**(5):647-654

2014;**37**(2):106-120

Stellenbosch University, Department of Economics Working Paper; 2015. p. 15

from: http://on.unesco.org/

[2] Van Broekhuizen H. Teacher Supply in South Africa: A Focus on Initial Teacher Education Graduate Production. Vol. 7. Stellenbosch:

[3] Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. TALIS 2013 Results: An International Perspective on Teaching and Learning.

[4] Mashau TS, Mutshaeni HN, Kone LR. Teacher education: The South African context. International Journal of Educational Sciences.

[5] Wahlström N, Alvunger D.

lärarutbildningen: Delrapport från SKOLFORSK-projektet. Stockholm:

[6] McGarr O, O'Grady E, Guilfoyle L. Exploring the theory-practice gap in initial teacher education: Moving beyond questions of relevance to issues of power and authority. Journal of Education for Teaching.

[7] Tynjälä P, Heikkinen HL. Beginning teachers' transition from pre-service education to working life. Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft. 2011;**14**(1):11

[8] Dixon L, Jennings A, Orr K, Tummons J. Dominant discourses of pre-service teacher education and the exigencies of the workplace: An ethnographic study from English further education. Journal of Vocational Education and Training.

Paris: OECD; 2014

2016;**14**(1-2):167-173

Forskningsbasering av

Vetenskapsrådet; 2015

2017;**43**(1):48-60

2010;**62**(4):381-393

teachers-map

**References**

**67**

**Chapter 5**

**Abstract**

*Mamsi Ethel Khuzwayo*

construction, engagement

**1. Introduction**

Prospective Teachers' Role in

the Construction of Authentic

Pedagogical Content Knowledge

The views and experiences presented in this chapter highlight the initiative of the teacher educator to adapt ideas that characterise twenty-first century teachers. An emerging trend in teacher education and training pioneers critical thinking and reflective classroom practice which are considered to be pillars for the development of competent teachers who are equipped with theoretical and applied competences. The foundations of conceptual ideas shared in this work are: 'engagement scholarship' and 'critical reflections', which propose the discourse in the education and training. Critical analysis of these two broad concepts provides a conceptual framework to articulate techniques and strategies to engage prospective teachers in collaborative learning activities. The observations of engagement and critical reflective collaborations of students were analysed. The findings of the action research contribute to the practical knowledge of engagement scholarship and development of critical reflective practitioners. This chapter upholds the perception that the shift from traditional practices and strategies entails analysis of the needs of teachers in a democratic, open and non-discriminatory society. The findings of the action research prove that prospective teachers have the potential to develop pedagogical content knowledge, which is relevant to real-life classroom experience.

**Keywords:** pedagogical content knowledge, authentic, prospective teachers,

Researchers of the department of basic education point out that teachers who are trained at universities are frequently too theoretically oriented and are often unable to adjust to the curriculum innovations brought about by new government in 1994 and the iterations of CAPS since that date. This finding suggests that effective change towards learner-centred instruction cannot be brought about by governmental fiat or promulgation of policy or other directive from on high. For real change to take place, it requires the willing cooperation of enlightened practitioners who comprehend the need to move towards constructivist priorities embedded in OBE and its later manifestation in CAPS. The fact that university-trained teachers are demonstrably unable to adopt and adapt to the notions of a learner-centred classroom suggests that training, which is overly theoretical, prevents the application of new approaches and flexible adjustment to change. Research proves that there is no reliable correlation between highest professional or academic qualification and effective teaching and learning in classrooms. This paper is situated against

#### **Chapter 5**

## Prospective Teachers' Role in the Construction of Authentic Pedagogical Content Knowledge

*Mamsi Ethel Khuzwayo*

#### **Abstract**

The views and experiences presented in this chapter highlight the initiative of the teacher educator to adapt ideas that characterise twenty-first century teachers. An emerging trend in teacher education and training pioneers critical thinking and reflective classroom practice which are considered to be pillars for the development of competent teachers who are equipped with theoretical and applied competences. The foundations of conceptual ideas shared in this work are: 'engagement scholarship' and 'critical reflections', which propose the discourse in the education and training. Critical analysis of these two broad concepts provides a conceptual framework to articulate techniques and strategies to engage prospective teachers in collaborative learning activities. The observations of engagement and critical reflective collaborations of students were analysed. The findings of the action research contribute to the practical knowledge of engagement scholarship and development of critical reflective practitioners. This chapter upholds the perception that the shift from traditional practices and strategies entails analysis of the needs of teachers in a democratic, open and non-discriminatory society. The findings of the action research prove that prospective teachers have the potential to develop pedagogical content knowledge, which is relevant to real-life classroom experience.

**Keywords:** pedagogical content knowledge, authentic, prospective teachers, construction, engagement

#### **1. Introduction**

Researchers of the department of basic education point out that teachers who are trained at universities are frequently too theoretically oriented and are often unable to adjust to the curriculum innovations brought about by new government in 1994 and the iterations of CAPS since that date. This finding suggests that effective change towards learner-centred instruction cannot be brought about by governmental fiat or promulgation of policy or other directive from on high. For real change to take place, it requires the willing cooperation of enlightened practitioners who comprehend the need to move towards constructivist priorities embedded in OBE and its later manifestation in CAPS. The fact that university-trained teachers are demonstrably unable to adopt and adapt to the notions of a learner-centred classroom suggests that training, which is overly theoretical, prevents the application of new approaches and flexible adjustment to change. Research proves that there is no reliable correlation between highest professional or academic qualification and effective teaching and learning in classrooms. This paper is situated against the broad political landscape of educational change: milestones of the path to liberal values and practice are discernible in the course of the argument.

The incapacity of teachers to implement curriculum changes has been scrutinised from various perspectives in South Africa and the United States of America. In South Africa, academics accused the state of adopting radical curriculum changes without adequately preparing teachers [1]. Researchers in America draw attention to the concept of 'back to basics' which emanated from difficulties that teachers encountered in implementing the progressive principles underpinning the post-1994 curriculum. Proponents of contemporary progressive philosophies uphold the belief that educational change is not an event but a process that requires collaborative effort from academic institutions, society, the state and students to find solutions pertaining to the demands and challenges facing local and international societies. This work pioneers the view that if change is to be a reality, student teachers in their initial education and training ought to be provided the space to make their own contributions. The students are the future work force and practitioners in classrooms; they should build intellectual muscles to partake in finding solutions to the problems of classroom practice. The principle of work-integrated learning should not be a ritual in teacher training but actual engagement with authentic experience of the work place.

Critical reflections on the practice or implementation of ideas in practice are essential in ensuring that the results or outcomes are achieved [2, 3]. Teachers in any country are considered to be important agents in educational change and the obligation for transforming the society through education rests with teachers [2]. Carl [4] argued that for teachers to be a valuable resource in society, it is necessary to allow them to play an active role in the construction of knowledge; rather than being recipients of ready structured knowledge. In the context of curriculum development, Carl [4] points out that teachers should demonstrate competence in selecting and sequencing content knowledge according to the socio-cultural and economic needs and cognitive capabilities of learners. Twenty-first century teachers, according to Fejes and Nicoll [2], should be proactive, lifelong learners, critical, creative and innovative thinkers, altruistic and reflective. These ideas beg the question 'how?' The 'how' question invites teacher educators internationally to seek mechanisms and techniques through which to envisage twenty-first century teachers' preparation. This study shares a perspective of South African teacher educator's experiences of the students in the initial teacher qualification programme contributions to the development of pedagogical content knowledge.

#### **2. Background**

The conceptual framework established through the critical synthesis of literature enabled me to identify certain key observations and perceptions gathered from the study. The conceptual understanding of active participation, social interaction in learning and constructions of knowledge is framed within the philosophical views about teaching advocated by Foucault, Freirean and Deleuze and Guattarian school of thoughts highlighted by Fejes and Nicoll [2] and Semetsky and Masny [5]. Freirean idea of praxis in learning points out that knowledge construction should focus on daily-life experiences of the learners, and learning processes should develop problem-solving skills which enable learners to manipulate authentic life experiences. In the same narrative, Foucault scholars Fejes and Nicoll [2] express the view that construction of meaningful knowledge requires active involvement of learners which means that learners are not supposed to be recipients of already crafted ideas contained in textbooks. Heller and Kaufman [6] encourage learners to navigate knowledge through inquiry- and problem-based knowledge construction which enables students to develop competences of critical reflection, logical reasoning, creative and innovative thinking ([5], p. 2). The repertoire of ideas gathered

**69**

*Prospective Teachers' Role in the Construction of Authentic Pedagogical Content Knowledge*

from these philosophical views and the critical pedagogy of the Freirean school of thought provided the study with a conceptual base to explore the possibilities of engaging pre-service teachers in activities which revealed students' perspectives

The importance of these ideas to learning in teacher education and training enables students to work deductively, from their own concrete experiences and observation of classroom practice. The search for alternative practices is informed by the experiences from the authentic work place observations. The concrete experiences provided students in the study with the terms of references in their argumentative dialogues and discussions. The critical reflections and logical thinking were based on actual examples; they were able to substantiate their contestations for a theoretical base for an alternative pedagogical content knowledge. Four groups identified their own philosophical and theoretical foundations for their pedagogical content knowledge, which encompasses: (i) nature of the learner in a cosmopolitan and democratic society; (ii) knowledge construction; (iii) teaching methodology and (iv) classroom environment. The first concept that I need to define is 'prospective teachers' which is used in the title of this chapter. Observation of the culture of teacher education and training in South Africa brought to my attention that some students find themselves in the teaching qualification programme not by choice or vocation but due to various other often pragmatic or pecuniary reasons. Informal inquiry from students about the high dropout rates of students after the school-based teaching practice, the responses to the question highlighted to me that students do share their concerns about the pressure they experience from parents regarding career choices. It became clear to me on the basis of the information gathered from students that most of the students who do not come back after the 2 weeks of school-based teaching practice fall under this category. The assumption was made that not all students enrolled in the teaching qualification programme could cope with the challenges and demands of the classroom environment and practices of the democratic and human rights dispensation. The concept of 'prospective teachers' in this study is used to identify students who demonstrated a passion and aspiration to become teachers; no matter what it takes. The rational for the study is to enquire into the value of opening a space for students to evaluate the knowledge taught to them in their qualification programme. The design of this study was motivated by the various questions that students asked regarding the relevance of theoretical and philosophical knowledge in the education

Where is the knowledge of these theories applicable; from classroom practice, we have not seen teachers applying this knowledge? Why then are we taught about

The study was undertaken to address the concerns of prospective teachers regarding the content of the course I teach in the qualification questions programme. The philosophical foundations for curriculum changes in higher education in South Africa advocate student-centred learning which is underpinned by cross-field exit outcomes which indicate the competences to be demonstrated by students at various levels of learning progression in education and training gazetted by the South African Qualification Authority (SAQA) 2001 and Higher Education Qualification Framework (HEQF) [7]. Coupled with the exit-level outcomes, teacher education and training encapsulate in the learning programmes the development of professional expertise in prospective teachers to perform six roles stipulated in the Minimum Requirement for Teacher Qualification (MRTEQ ) 2015. This study was part of an exploration of techniques and strategies; to shift

theories and philosophies that have no relevance to our practice?

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84289*

course. Examples of questions are:

**3. Context of the study**

of professional practices for the changing society.

#### *Prospective Teachers' Role in the Construction of Authentic Pedagogical Content Knowledge DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84289*

from these philosophical views and the critical pedagogy of the Freirean school of thought provided the study with a conceptual base to explore the possibilities of engaging pre-service teachers in activities which revealed students' perspectives of professional practices for the changing society.

The importance of these ideas to learning in teacher education and training enables students to work deductively, from their own concrete experiences and observation of classroom practice. The search for alternative practices is informed by the experiences from the authentic work place observations. The concrete experiences provided students in the study with the terms of references in their argumentative dialogues and discussions. The critical reflections and logical thinking were based on actual examples; they were able to substantiate their contestations for a theoretical base for an alternative pedagogical content knowledge. Four groups identified their own philosophical and theoretical foundations for their pedagogical content knowledge, which encompasses: (i) nature of the learner in a cosmopolitan and democratic society; (ii) knowledge construction; (iii) teaching methodology and (iv) classroom environment.

The first concept that I need to define is 'prospective teachers' which is used in the title of this chapter. Observation of the culture of teacher education and training in South Africa brought to my attention that some students find themselves in the teaching qualification programme not by choice or vocation but due to various other often pragmatic or pecuniary reasons. Informal inquiry from students about the high dropout rates of students after the school-based teaching practice, the responses to the question highlighted to me that students do share their concerns about the pressure they experience from parents regarding career choices. It became clear to me on the basis of the information gathered from students that most of the students who do not come back after the 2 weeks of school-based teaching practice fall under this category. The assumption was made that not all students enrolled in the teaching qualification programme could cope with the challenges and demands of the classroom environment and practices of the democratic and human rights dispensation. The concept of 'prospective teachers' in this study is used to identify students who demonstrated a passion and aspiration to become teachers; no matter what it takes.

The rational for the study is to enquire into the value of opening a space for students to evaluate the knowledge taught to them in their qualification programme. The design of this study was motivated by the various questions that students asked regarding the relevance of theoretical and philosophical knowledge in the education course. Examples of questions are:

Where is the knowledge of these theories applicable; from classroom practice, we have not seen teachers applying this knowledge? Why then are we taught about theories and philosophies that have no relevance to our practice?

#### **3. Context of the study**

The study was undertaken to address the concerns of prospective teachers regarding the content of the course I teach in the qualification questions programme. The philosophical foundations for curriculum changes in higher education in South Africa advocate student-centred learning which is underpinned by cross-field exit outcomes which indicate the competences to be demonstrated by students at various levels of learning progression in education and training gazetted by the South African Qualification Authority (SAQA) 2001 and Higher Education Qualification Framework (HEQF) [7]. Coupled with the exit-level outcomes, teacher education and training encapsulate in the learning programmes the development of professional expertise in prospective teachers to perform six roles stipulated in the Minimum Requirement for Teacher Qualification (MRTEQ ) 2015. This study was part of an exploration of techniques and strategies; to shift

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

the broad political landscape of educational change: milestones of the path to liberal

The incapacity of teachers to implement curriculum changes has been scrutinised from various perspectives in South Africa and the United States of America. In South Africa, academics accused the state of adopting radical curriculum changes without adequately preparing teachers [1]. Researchers in America draw attention to the concept of 'back to basics' which emanated from difficulties that teachers encountered in implementing the progressive principles underpinning the post-1994 curriculum. Proponents of contemporary progressive philosophies uphold the belief that educational change is not an event but a process that requires collaborative effort from academic institutions, society, the state and students to find solutions pertaining to the demands and challenges facing local and international societies. This work pioneers the view that if change is to be a reality, student teachers in their initial education and training ought to be provided the space to make their own contributions. The students are the future work force and practitioners in classrooms; they should build intellectual muscles to partake in finding solutions to the problems of classroom practice. The principle of work-integrated learning should not be a ritual in teacher training but

values and practice are discernible in the course of the argument.

actual engagement with authentic experience of the work place.

Critical reflections on the practice or implementation of ideas in practice are essential in ensuring that the results or outcomes are achieved [2, 3]. Teachers in any country are considered to be important agents in educational change and the obligation for transforming the society through education rests with teachers [2]. Carl [4] argued that for teachers to be a valuable resource in society, it is necessary to allow them to play an active role in the construction of knowledge; rather than being recipients of ready structured knowledge. In the context of curriculum development, Carl [4] points out that teachers should demonstrate competence in selecting and sequencing content knowledge according to the socio-cultural and economic needs and cognitive capabilities of learners. Twenty-first century teachers, according to Fejes and Nicoll [2], should be proactive, lifelong learners, critical, creative and innovative thinkers, altruistic and reflective. These ideas beg the question 'how?' The 'how' question invites teacher educators internationally to seek mechanisms and techniques through which to envisage twenty-first century teachers' preparation. This study shares a perspective of South African teacher educator's experiences of the students in the initial teacher qualification programme contributions to the development of pedagogical content knowledge.

The conceptual framework established through the critical synthesis of literature enabled me to identify certain key observations and perceptions gathered from the study. The conceptual understanding of active participation, social interaction in learning and constructions of knowledge is framed within the philosophical views about teaching advocated by Foucault, Freirean and Deleuze and Guattarian school of thoughts highlighted by Fejes and Nicoll [2] and Semetsky and Masny [5]. Freirean idea of praxis in learning points out that knowledge construction should focus on daily-life experiences of the learners, and learning processes should develop problem-solving skills which enable learners to manipulate authentic life experiences. In the same narrative, Foucault scholars Fejes and Nicoll [2] express the view that construction of meaningful knowledge requires active involvement of learners which means that learners are not supposed to be recipients of already crafted ideas contained in textbooks. Heller and Kaufman [6] encourage learners to navigate knowledge through inquiry- and problem-based knowledge construction which enables students to develop competences of critical reflection, logical reasoning, creative and innovative thinking ([5], p. 2). The repertoire of ideas gathered

**68**

**2. Background**

the perception of learners that lecturers are the ones who should lead the process of their learning and to prescribe content to be covered for test and examination.

#### **4. Theoretical framework**

It is critical to highlight the theoretical principles that were used to guide the process of designing the study, the methodology and analysis of the finding. The interrogation of Mezirow's theory of transformative learning provided an understanding that learning for adult learners differs from that of young learners Mezirow [8]. Transformative theory advocates that adult learners should play an active role in their learning and be responsible for their own learning. Proponents of this theory [9] commend transformative learning in promoting self-reflection, inquiry, problem-solving and empirical-analytic strategies or action research as main strategies for exploring new ideas and for re-framing different perspectives. Mezirow proposed that adult learners are expected to demonstrate meta-cognitive abilities, which are the highest levels in the hierarchy of cognitive development of an individual. In this view, meta-cognitive abilities are evident in adult learning when students are able to manipulate knowledge skilfully and competently to meet the challenges of real-life experiences posed by the new environment. Synchrony was established from the synthesis of the views offered by proponents of meta-cognition and transformative learning [10] which assert that adult learners should be provided a space to analyse critically and examine perspectives; so as to find out the causes and effects or rationale underlying knowledge learned [11, 12].

#### **5. Research design and data collection procedures**

This study was planned upon the premise of the qualitative research paradigm and methodology which implies that data collection procedures adopted for the empirical research focused on eliciting perceptions and views; based on the personal experiences of the students who participated in the groups discussions. The study targeted prospective teachers in the second year of the bachelor of education professional degree who participated in classroom observations and performed classroom practices under the supervision of the mentors in high schools in diverse socio-economic environment. It is compulsory for students in their initial teacher education and training to be placed in school for work-integrated learning and experiential learning. The criteria used in the selection process of the sample were: students should participate voluntarily, be willing to share experiences and to engage in all activities and should have experience of a private or public schooling in South Africa as learners and student teachers.

The design of the study adopted the following patterns. First, students formed four groups of five individuals each. The philosophies covered were: idealism, realism, existentialism and pragmatism and coupled with these philosophies were theories of learning, behaviourism, cognitivism, constructivism and social constructivism.

The model called dialogical argumentative instructional model (DAIM) was used in designing the activities for cooperative learning. The groups aligned their choice of philosophy with the theory of learning which in their view could assist them to understand the classroom practices of the democratic and human rights dispensation. Ethics were considered in the presentation of students' comments and examples of the verbatim expressions. It was this purpose that pseudonyms are used in this piece of work. The students organised themselves in the following groupings:

**71**

**Figure 1.**

*Prospective Teachers' Role in the Construction of Authentic Pedagogical Content Knowledge*

Group D: existentialist and social constructivist theory.

Group B: focused on realist philosophies and cognitive and cognitive construc-

Group C: focused on pragmatist philosophies and social constructivist theory.

Evidence 1: students develop the factual and conceptual knowledge and presented

Evidence 2: students organised discussion where they critically reflect on their notes and present interpretations. These discussions took place during times convenient for students; they were recorded and the videos were submitted as proof of the discussion. Evidence 3: Verbal presentations of arguments and debates were conducted in plenary sessions. Groups took turns presenting during the question and answer sessions.

The data gathered as perceptions and perspectives from students' written texts and verbal arguments in the phases illustrated in the diagram in **Figure 1** were analysed through qualitative means. The data were categorised and identified themes

**Table 1** presents the analysis of data gathered from group A under the key themes that address pedagogical content knowledge from idealist and behaviourist perspective.

*The phases and the evidence produced by students in their cooperative engagement in the process of developing* 

*pedagogical content knowledge for prospective teachers' education and training.*

Task: students were to review literature from online sources, for example, journal articles and books, to collect perspectives of scholars about the philosophies

notes in a power point computer programme. The presentation covered three key areas of pedagogical content knowledge indicated in the article by Killen ([13], p. 31) and these are (i) knowledge about the content, (ii) knowledge about learning and

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84289*

tivist theory.

and theories of learning.

**6. Data analysis**

were highlighted and noted.

**6.1 The contributions of groups A and B**

(iii) knowledge about teaching.

Group A: decided to focus on idealist philosophies and cognitive theory.

*Prospective Teachers' Role in the Construction of Authentic Pedagogical Content Knowledge DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84289*

Group B: focused on realist philosophies and cognitive and cognitive constructivist theory.

Group C: focused on pragmatist philosophies and social constructivist theory. Group D: existentialist and social constructivist theory.

Task: students were to review literature from online sources, for example, journal articles and books, to collect perspectives of scholars about the philosophies and theories of learning.

Evidence 1: students develop the factual and conceptual knowledge and presented notes in a power point computer programme. The presentation covered three key areas of pedagogical content knowledge indicated in the article by Killen ([13], p. 31) and these are (i) knowledge about the content, (ii) knowledge about learning and (iii) knowledge about teaching.

Evidence 2: students organised discussion where they critically reflect on their notes and present interpretations. These discussions took place during times convenient for students; they were recorded and the videos were submitted as proof of the discussion.

Evidence 3: Verbal presentations of arguments and debates were conducted in plenary sessions. Groups took turns presenting during the question and answer sessions.

#### **6. Data analysis**

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

**4. Theoretical framework**

the perception of learners that lecturers are the ones who should lead the process of their learning and to prescribe content to be covered for test and examination.

It is critical to highlight the theoretical principles that were used to guide the process of designing the study, the methodology and analysis of the finding. The interrogation of Mezirow's theory of transformative learning provided an understanding that learning for adult learners differs from that of young learners Mezirow [8]. Transformative theory advocates that adult learners should play an active role in their learning and be responsible for their own learning. Proponents of this theory [9] commend transformative learning in promoting self-reflection, inquiry, problem-solving and empirical-analytic strategies or action research as main strategies for exploring new ideas and for re-framing different perspectives. Mezirow proposed that adult learners are expected to demonstrate meta-cognitive abilities, which are the highest levels in the hierarchy of cognitive development of an individual. In this view, meta-cognitive abilities are evident in adult learning when students are able to manipulate knowledge skilfully and competently to meet the challenges of real-life experiences posed by the new environment. Synchrony was established from the synthesis of the views offered by proponents of meta-cognition and transformative learning [10] which assert that adult learners should be provided a space to analyse critically and examine perspectives; so as to find out the causes

This study was planned upon the premise of the qualitative research paradigm and methodology which implies that data collection procedures adopted for the empirical research focused on eliciting perceptions and views; based on the personal experiences of the students who participated in the groups discussions. The study targeted prospective teachers in the second year of the bachelor of education professional degree who participated in classroom observations and performed classroom practices under the supervision of the mentors in high schools in diverse socio-economic environment. It is compulsory for students in their initial teacher education and training to be placed in school for work-integrated learning and experiential learning. The criteria used in the selection process of the sample were: students should participate voluntarily, be willing to share experiences and to engage in all activities and should have experience of a private or public schooling

The design of the study adopted the following patterns. First, students formed four groups of five individuals each. The philosophies covered were: idealism, realism, existentialism and pragmatism and coupled with these philosophies were theories of learning, behaviourism, cognitivism, constructivism and social

The model called dialogical argumentative instructional model (DAIM) was used in designing the activities for cooperative learning. The groups aligned their choice of philosophy with the theory of learning which in their view could assist them to understand the classroom practices of the democratic and human rights dispensation. Ethics were considered in the presentation of students' comments and examples of the verbatim expressions. It was this purpose that pseudonyms are used in this piece of work. The students organised themselves in the following groupings: Group A: decided to focus on idealist philosophies and cognitive theory.

and effects or rationale underlying knowledge learned [11, 12].

**5. Research design and data collection procedures**

in South Africa as learners and student teachers.

**70**

constructivism.

The data gathered as perceptions and perspectives from students' written texts and verbal arguments in the phases illustrated in the diagram in **Figure 1** were analysed through qualitative means. The data were categorised and identified themes were highlighted and noted.

#### **6.1 The contributions of groups A and B**

**Table 1** presents the analysis of data gathered from group A under the key themes that address pedagogical content knowledge from idealist and behaviourist perspective.

#### **Figure 1.**

*The phases and the evidence produced by students in their cooperative engagement in the process of developing pedagogical content knowledge for prospective teachers' education and training.*


#### **Table 1.**

*The analysis of data reflecting students' thought that was aligned discussion with absolutists' philosophies and pedagogical theories.*

#### *6.1.1 Finding and interpretations from written texts*

The effort demonstrated by students in searching ideas and competence in creating arguments based on strong conceptual understanding of the idealism philosophy and behaviourism theory was phenomenal. The relevance of the analytical comparison between idealist and behaviourism in the context of classroom practices in the democratic and human rights dispensation was noted. The findings developed the perceptions that students need a space to apply critical thinking skills and critical reflection about the learning they construct. The text presented by students was evidence of independent thinking and abilities to conduct critical reflections on the observations of classroom practices during their school-based work-integrated learning. Interpretation of conceptual knowledge in the context of socio-economic and political changes was an indication of the ability of students to manipulate knowledge in relation to the reality in real-life experiences. The intended outcomes of the learning process were achieved and the evidence was the students' ability to work out the rationale for having certain philosophical foundations and theoretical knowledge being part of the content for educating and training of prospective teachers. Students made their own recommendations about how views of the idealist could be crafted into the pedagogical content knowledge in the process of preparing teachers for democratic and human rights educational dispensation.

**73**

*Prospective Teachers' Role in the Construction of Authentic Pedagogical Content Knowledge*

*Knowledge about the learner:*

them about their surrounding *Knowledge about teaching*

teachers' interpretations.

upon by someone else. *Knowledge about environment*

*Knowledge about content knowledge*

resonates with learners' experiences.

which our peers of idealism referred to.

*The analysis of data that indicate congruence in the views and perception regarding philosophies and theories* 

theory was:

abilities.

Students perspective of the learner from the philosophy and learning

Learners are unique and independent individual in terms of interest and

Learners are by nature active and desire freedom to pursue their own interests. They are eager to participate in activities that make meaning to

Approaches to teaching ought to be democratic in order to give learners opportunities to debate and critique the book knowledge or even the

Constructivist teacher and pragmatic inclined teaching methods promote cooperative and collaborative teaching. Our views about classroom teaching are influenced by pragmatics philosophy. We believe in an atmosphere that promotes freedom to ask questions and challenge opinions

Paulo Frere was correct to advocate construction of knowledge that

Freedom to choice context for learning could enable learners in high school to discuss real-life world issue instead of structured topic decided

Knowledge construction cannot be delinked from the environment and everyday life experiences of the learners in their communities. Problemsolving and inquiry-based learning should enable learners to unleash ideas

**6.3 Divergence views and perspectives gathered from students' verbal** 

Group B and A members' comments supporting principles of realism and cognitive theory in conceptualisation of pedagogical content knowledge for initial teacher training in the democratic and human rights dispensation are captured as in

*Student Xabiso: Realist ideas are about teaching towards the essence of knowledge and its purpose in the real life world. Teachers who are imbued with the ideas or influenced by the realist idea will know that learning is about exploring reality in order to adjust environment or change the environment. Reality could be the diverse encounters that form barriers or problem, which require careful analysis and examination in order to create something to address those problems or challenges. Student V: The implication of the realist view and cognitive theory in the* 

**presentation during plenary sessions**

the paragraph below:

Jerome Bruner

and experiences

**Table 2.**

*of learning.*

Similarly, the existentialist ideas advocate freedom to choose, development of subjective knowledge, recognition of interest, beliefs

Analysis of data identified congruence between the views and perceptions based on the conceptual knowledge they gathered from sources regarding philosophies

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84289*

**6.2 Contribution of groups C and D**

**Pragmatism/existentialism perspectives**

**Congruence in the perspectives and interpretations**

**Conceptual knowledge Interpretations and views**

and learning theories (**Table 2**).

The ideas of pragmatist promote values of democracy in education. Education is an active and constructive phenomenon. Education is productive and progressive and not reproductive (John Dewey) Constructivism and cognitive learning theory promotes active participation, engagement of learners in construction knowledge through problem-solving, inquiry and discussions. Cognitive theory emphasises acquisition of skills for cognitive development according to Blooms Taxonomy (low-order and high-order cognitive skills) Jean Piaget and *Prospective Teachers' Role in the Construction of Authentic Pedagogical Content Knowledge DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84289*

#### **6.2 Contribution of groups C and D**

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

**Idealism/realism and behaviourism**

Man is born with innate ideas Human mind develops through abstract

Ability to think deductively and inductively facilitate generation of ideas Truth is arrived at through reasoning

Behaviourism theory was generated by conducting experiments in animals such as rats, pigeons and dogs

Factual knowledge is based on abstract

Realism considered knowledge as real and concrete evidence based on the

thinking and speculation Knowledge is absolute truth and universal. Moral and values are the basic foundation of truth

laws of nature.

*pedagogical theories.*

**Table 1.**

Question-and-answer method Deductive methods and inductive Teacher in still moral and ethical

thinking

and questioning

virtues in learner

**Conceptual knowledge Interpretation and view**

*Knowledge about the learner:*

abilities to think.

*Knowledge about teaching:*

*Knowledge about teaching*

environment through senses.

democratic society. *Knowledge about environment*

Freedom of learners is possible through recognition of their

Freedom and liberation of the learners is in the opportunities to explore the world through deductive methods in order to

Learners have a variety of ideas which could be actualized

Teaching is about programming what to be learned. Our observations of teaching in classroom taught us the teacher is in charge. Teachers decide on the content and teaching methods. Teachers are the authority of knowledge and they spend more teaching time maintaining order and discipline. Teachers are undemocratic and not considerate of the leaders freedom to explore and to generate their own ideas from the programmed content

Freedom and democracy promote contestation and debates. Promotion of the idea that knowledge of infallible has no space in

Knowledge and environment are inseparable. Realist is of the view that learning is about get to know and understand

Subject knowledge should be what learners generate from what they see, touch, experience from their surroundings and come up with ideas based on real and tangible evidence from reality.

discover their cognitive, intellectual potential.

through logic and critical reasoning.

*6.1.1 Finding and interpretations from written texts*

The effort demonstrated by students in searching ideas and competence in creating arguments based on strong conceptual understanding of the idealism philosophy and behaviourism theory was phenomenal. The relevance of the analytical comparison between idealist and behaviourism in the context of classroom practices in the democratic and human rights dispensation was noted. The findings developed the perceptions that students need a space to apply critical thinking skills and critical reflection about the learning they construct. The text presented by students was evidence of independent thinking and abilities to conduct critical reflections on the observations of classroom practices during their school-based work-integrated learning. Interpretation of conceptual knowledge in the context of socio-economic and political changes was an indication of the ability of students to manipulate knowledge in relation to the reality in real-life experiences. The intended outcomes of the learning process were achieved and the evidence was the students' ability to work out the rationale for having certain philosophical foundations and theoretical knowledge being part of the content for educating and training of prospective teachers. Students made their own recommendations about how views of the idealist could be crafted into the pedagogical content knowledge in the process of preparing

*The analysis of data reflecting students' thought that was aligned discussion with absolutists' philosophies and* 

teachers for democratic and human rights educational dispensation.

**72**

Analysis of data identified congruence between the views and perceptions based on the conceptual knowledge they gathered from sources regarding philosophies and learning theories (**Table 2**).


#### **Table 2.**

*The analysis of data that indicate congruence in the views and perception regarding philosophies and theories of learning.*

#### **6.3 Divergence views and perspectives gathered from students' verbal presentation during plenary sessions**

Group B and A members' comments supporting principles of realism and cognitive theory in conceptualisation of pedagogical content knowledge for initial teacher training in the democratic and human rights dispensation are captured as in the paragraph below:

*Student Xabiso: Realist ideas are about teaching towards the essence of knowledge and its purpose in the real life world. Teachers who are imbued with the ideas or influenced by the realist idea will know that learning is about exploring reality in order to adjust environment or change the environment. Reality could be the diverse encounters that form barriers or problem, which require careful analysis and examination in order to create something to address those problems or challenges. Student V: The implication of the realist view and cognitive theory in the* 

*mediating process is for teachers to first package subject content knowledge under various contexts in which learning should be focus. This approach will enable learners in the subject to relate the knowledge acquired and the processes used to arrive at understanding it with the real world beyond the classroom.*

*Student Paul: Principles underpinning acquisition of skills and conceptual knowledge from the cognitive view point indicate that learning is a stratified process, meaning that it develops in a continuum from low order and high order abilities that determine maturity which is emphasised by Cognitive theorist such as Jerome Bloom.*

*Students Morgan: In our view, the school curriculum should not be time and assessment driven, for the reasons that learning of knowledge and skill development takes time and it depends on the learners' levels of maturity. The development of knowledge and skill development, in our view is not possible if teaching and learning is confined by time schedules of thirty minutes.*

*6.3.1 Comments and argument of students in groups C and D in defence of their views and perspective on pragmatism and cognitive constructivism and social constructivism*

Prospective teachers who formed this category firmly believed that a transforming society which upholds the values of democracy and freedom should adopt views and ideas of the pragmatist philosophy. In their own convictions and reflections of pragmatism and social constructivism, they argued:

*Student Sebastian: The principles and values of the democratic society could be better promoted if teaching, learning, classroom environment and subject content knowledge could be directed by the views and ideas of the pragmatist principles. We have concluded that teachers in a democratic society should be open to criticism, debates and argument about learning content and accept contestations and diverse perspectives, from colleagues and learners. The classroom should be viewed by teachers, learners and school managers as an environment of freedom to explore new ideas, invent new knowledge and to verify or critique views in knowledge that promote hegemony, inequality, social injustices and exclusion and bias and prejudices.*

*Student Hluma: The education and training in this philosophy could mean identification of areas from the society that need to be critiqued and verified. Investigations and explorations are considered by the group as vehicles for acquisition of ideas, facts and views which constitute the conceptual, factual, theoretical and procedural knowledge about the disciplinary knowledge. Whereas the alignment of skills should enable learners to apply, test, experiment and verify factual knowledge in order to construct new knowledge. The testing and verification should be provided contexts based on learners real life experiences or physical world. These practices should be driven by learners' free will and interest.*

*Student Rumber: Active participation should not be a slogan to us during our training but if we are influenced by these views and ideas nothing can stop us from bringing change in the classroom practice to make democracy a reality for learners in classrooms.*

*Student Tozi: Prospective teachers' choice of philosophy and theory was influenced by their critical review of existentialist philosophy and social constructivism theory. Their reflections highlighted the following views about the pedagogical content knowledge required for preparing teachers for the transforming society.*

**75**

*Prospective Teachers' Role in the Construction of Authentic Pedagogical Content Knowledge*

The arguments and comments of students in both the written texts and during the plenary session were summarised and the following issues were identified about engaging students in the development of pedagogical content knowledge for initial

**7.1 Implementation of competence-based teaching and learning in higher** 

The study highlighted the prospect of success in integrating learning, teaching and assessment. The role played by the lecturer in the entire process of learning was minimal. Through cooperative work, students identified their own philosophies and learning theories. The formation of groups was driven by their perspectives and interests. The role of the lecturer was only to collect evidence of learning per stage in the process and provide qualitative feedback on the work produced by groups. The lecturer was more of the overseer and the mentor. The assessment part was to observe and to monitor the development of meta-cognitive skills and competences, for example, developing of conceptual knowledge through intense consulting sources, guard against plagiarism, development of skills of analysis and synthesis as students reflected on their school-based experiences and conceptual knowledge. The other skills and competences that were assessed were: communication and academic literacy skills, as students presented their arguments and contested their peers' ideas in plenary session. The assessment of the competences was based on the criteria proposed in MRTEQ: 2015 to measure vertical progression in the development of competences in higher education. These criteria complement the performance levels asserted in SAQA for curriculum development in higher education institutions. Identification of the outcomes for learning the development of the task and alignment of these with the assessed criteria is recommended in Biggs's constructive alignment theory. The study served the purpose of testing the practi-

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84289*

teacher education.

**education**

**7. Interpretation of findings and discussions**

*7.1.1 Integration of teaching, learning and assessment*

cability of implementing the principles of this theory as well.

First, reflections of students on their experiences during school-based classroom observation and practices indicated that students were committed to inquire about the link between theoretical knowledge and practice. The undertaking of the study to engage students in the activities was inspired and also capitalised on their desire to know. The policy on the Minimum Requirement for Teacher Qualification (MRTEQ ) in South Africa proposed the blending of theoretical and applied competences into the initial professional education and training of teachers in South Africa. The purpose of this integration or blending is to enable prospective teachers to be critical practitioners, and to enable teachers to manipulate curriculum and educational changes. Integration gives teacher educators a mandate to re-think and to re-conceptualise teacher education and training to prepare teachers who are competitive in the world. The findings of this study provide evidence about the possibility of integration of theoretical competences and applied competence. Concerns of the students about teaching from the learner textbook highlighted the ability of students to reflect on the practice of classroom practices: 'the reason for boredom and dislike of classroom by learners we experienced during our work integrated learning could be linked to the beliefs of teachers demonstrated in their approaches of classroom

*7.1.2 Theoretical and applied competences*

*Prospective Teachers' Role in the Construction of Authentic Pedagogical Content Knowledge DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84289*

#### **7. Interpretation of findings and discussions**

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

*constructivism*

*mediating process is for teachers to first package subject content knowledge under various contexts in which learning should be focus. This approach will enable learners in the subject to relate the knowledge acquired and the processes used to* 

*Student Paul: Principles underpinning acquisition of skills and conceptual knowledge from the cognitive view point indicate that learning is a stratified process, meaning that it develops in a continuum from low order and high order abilities that determine maturity which is emphasised by Cognitive theorist such as Jerome Bloom.*

*Students Morgan: In our view, the school curriculum should not be time and assessment driven, for the reasons that learning of knowledge and skill development takes time and it depends on the learners' levels of maturity. The development of knowledge and skill development, in our view is not possible if teaching and learn-*

*6.3.1 Comments and argument of students in groups C and D in defence of their* 

*views and perspective on pragmatism and cognitive constructivism and social* 

Prospective teachers who formed this category firmly believed that a transforming society which upholds the values of democracy and freedom should adopt views and ideas of the pragmatist philosophy. In their own convictions and reflections of

*Student Sebastian: The principles and values of the democratic society could be better promoted if teaching, learning, classroom environment and subject content knowledge could be directed by the views and ideas of the pragmatist principles. We have concluded that teachers in a democratic society should be open to criticism, debates and argument about learning content and accept contestations and diverse perspectives, from colleagues and learners. The classroom should be viewed by teachers, learners and school managers as an environment of freedom to explore new ideas, invent new knowledge and to verify or critique views in knowledge that promote hegemony, inequality, social injustices and exclusion and bias and prejudices.*

*Student Hluma: The education and training in this philosophy could mean identification of areas from the society that need to be critiqued and verified. Investigations and explorations are considered by the group as vehicles for acquisition of ideas, facts and views which constitute the conceptual, factual, theoretical and procedural knowledge about the disciplinary knowledge. Whereas the alignment of skills should enable learners to apply, test, experiment and verify factual knowledge in order to construct new knowledge. The testing and verification should be provided contexts based on learners real life experiences or physical world. These practices* 

*Student Rumber: Active participation should not be a slogan to us during our training but if we are influenced by these views and ideas nothing can stop us from bringing change in the classroom practice to make democracy a reality for learners in classrooms.*

*Student Tozi: Prospective teachers' choice of philosophy and theory was influenced by their critical review of existentialist philosophy and social constructivism theory. Their reflections highlighted the following views about the pedagogical content knowledge required for preparing teachers for the transforming society.*

*ing is confined by time schedules of thirty minutes.*

pragmatism and social constructivism, they argued:

*should be driven by learners' free will and interest.*

*arrive at understanding it with the real world beyond the classroom.*

**74**

The arguments and comments of students in both the written texts and during the plenary session were summarised and the following issues were identified about engaging students in the development of pedagogical content knowledge for initial teacher education.

#### **7.1 Implementation of competence-based teaching and learning in higher education**

#### *7.1.1 Integration of teaching, learning and assessment*

The study highlighted the prospect of success in integrating learning, teaching and assessment. The role played by the lecturer in the entire process of learning was minimal. Through cooperative work, students identified their own philosophies and learning theories. The formation of groups was driven by their perspectives and interests. The role of the lecturer was only to collect evidence of learning per stage in the process and provide qualitative feedback on the work produced by groups. The lecturer was more of the overseer and the mentor. The assessment part was to observe and to monitor the development of meta-cognitive skills and competences, for example, developing of conceptual knowledge through intense consulting sources, guard against plagiarism, development of skills of analysis and synthesis as students reflected on their school-based experiences and conceptual knowledge. The other skills and competences that were assessed were: communication and academic literacy skills, as students presented their arguments and contested their peers' ideas in plenary session. The assessment of the competences was based on the criteria proposed in MRTEQ: 2015 to measure vertical progression in the development of competences in higher education. These criteria complement the performance levels asserted in SAQA for curriculum development in higher education institutions. Identification of the outcomes for learning the development of the task and alignment of these with the assessed criteria is recommended in Biggs's constructive alignment theory. The study served the purpose of testing the practicability of implementing the principles of this theory as well.

#### *7.1.2 Theoretical and applied competences*

First, reflections of students on their experiences during school-based classroom observation and practices indicated that students were committed to inquire about the link between theoretical knowledge and practice. The undertaking of the study to engage students in the activities was inspired and also capitalised on their desire to know. The policy on the Minimum Requirement for Teacher Qualification (MRTEQ ) in South Africa proposed the blending of theoretical and applied competences into the initial professional education and training of teachers in South Africa. The purpose of this integration or blending is to enable prospective teachers to be critical practitioners, and to enable teachers to manipulate curriculum and educational changes. Integration gives teacher educators a mandate to re-think and to re-conceptualise teacher education and training to prepare teachers who are competitive in the world. The findings of this study provide evidence about the possibility of integration of theoretical competences and applied competence. Concerns of the students about teaching from the learner textbook highlighted the ability of students to reflect on the practice of classroom practices: 'the reason for boredom and dislike of classroom by learners we experienced during our work integrated learning could be linked to the beliefs of teachers demonstrated in their approaches of classroom

practice'. This argument overwhelmed the plenary session when students proposed that as the new generation of teachers, it is incumbent upon them to ensure that practices of teaching and learning in classroom are relevant to the forces of democratic changes. The proposal advocated liberating learners from textbook knowledge to a more open curriculum which will enable them to explore world knowledge. The views and opinions expressed by students reflected critical thinking based on the philosophical ideas of Paulo Freire, Dueleze and Guattari and John Dewey of the open curriculum or praxis. The strong criticism of structured knowledge in chapters for schools was noted. To students, the relevant pedagogy for the changing times is the one that promotes exploration, critical thinking, and creative thinking, inquiry and self-discovery knowledge. Findings of the study confirmed the views pioneered by Carl of empowerment of teachers through curriculum development.

#### *7.1.3 Evidence-based transformative learning through dialogical argumentative instructions*

The shift in the students' thinking patterns after the task was evident in the comments and in reflections such as the following:

Active participation and enthusiasm demonstrated by students in generating arguments through reflective thinking was based on what they decided upon to be the core ideas about each philosophy and theory was remarkable. This experience revealed the unfairness of our delivery of disciplinary and pedagogical content knowledge to our students through lectures. The abilities and skilfulness of students in collaborative work through all the stages of the task indicated to me that in the period of 10 years, I have been suppressing students' creativity and critical thinking skills through the preaching of knowledge in podiums in lecture theatres and treating learners as my audience. The plenary sessions organised by students depicted the conference meeting where scholars quote ideas of the renowned proponents of philosophical ideas to support their arguments.

My observation of the altruistic disposition of students in debates and discussion propelled by their own choice of content and context confirmed Mezirow's views about transformative learning which advocated that adult learners should be perceived differently from school learners in that to them learning should enable them to manipulate knowledge to solve problem and challenges in the real-life world. This assertion by Mezirow was evident in the manner in which students transferred conceptual knowledge of philosophies and theories into the conceptual understanding of the professional practice in the evolving world of educational practice. The attitude of the students of being negative about the teaching of various philosophical ideas about education and its practice was noted in the verbal presentations and as they answer questions posed by their peers. The critical reflections and inquiry learning were the main learning strategies which transformed the pre-engagement activity perceptions and attitudes. Students found it pleasing to discover things on their own without being given notes to read. Reciprocally, I derived encouragement from the commitment and enthusiasm demonstrated by the students to take their own initiative to understand the relevance of theoretical and philosophical knowledge in the pedagogical content knowledge for teachers.

#### *7.1.4 Reflections and comments of group A during plenary sessions*

*Student Buya: It is advocated in idealism that every individual is born with ideas. Ideas are generated in the mind. The ideas are revealed through inductive and deductive process. The human mind has an ability to operate with concepts that are not found in the real world, which eventually can manifest through creativity to be* 

**77**

*Prospective Teachers' Role in the Construction of Authentic Pedagogical Content Knowledge*

*learner to be inquisitive about things in their environment.*

*economic and political systems in their societies.*

*solve problem and to be self-reliant citizens.*

*levels of maturity of their abilities.*

*real and physical. These ideas about the nature of humans should be entrenched in all theoretical content knowledge about who a learner is. The description of a learner from this perspective rejects the perception that learners are empty vessels. The view of the idealist is that individuals are born with the ability to think abstractly which implies that teachers should accept that it is in the nature of the* 

*Students Kombi: In the context of pedagogical content knowledge this idealist perspective implies that as teachers we should not influence or imbue learners with the book knowledge but to use knowledge related to learners' interest as the point of departure to assist learners to use the mind to develop abilities that could enable them to think creatively, logical and critical. In that approach learners could question anything they found interesting by: asking questions—working out relevant assumptions—deciding on methods to arrive to the solution or truth. Abstract thinking through deductive and inductive methods of Socrates learners of the democratic and human rights dispensation could identify injustices in the social,* 

*Student Zingi: Our own reflections on idealism and cognitive theory is that they both focus on the development of the abilities of the mind to think from an abstract realm and to create models that present the images of such mental models. To use an idealism philosophical principle in teaching assists learners to use their minds to verify what they see, touch, and experience from the physical world, and to develop new ideas as they work in a deductive manner (creating hypothesis and testing or verifying the known truth). Adopting the principles and methods of idealism and cognitive principles could enable us, prospective teachers to develop intellectuals who are independent and creative thinkers. Learners will not reproduce what is known but instead they will use such knowledge as a springboard for further research. Application of these principles in classroom teaching could make every subject content knowledge taught to learners meaningful and relevant to them to* 

*Student Zuleigha: According to Piaget, the principles of cognitive theory are that learners are unique so they have different capabilities. Every learner is born with potentialities which through the process of actualisation mature to become abilities. Self-realization is the output of the process of actualisation. The teacher's role in the classroom activities has to be minimal to allow the learner to self-actualise, which is termed maturity or self-realisation. The role of the teachers in the mediating process in our view is to prepare activities based on the learners' interest and the* 

*7.1.5 Integrated learning (situational, pedagogical and disciplinary learning)*

The collaborative engagement in the dialogical argumentative instruction activities with the skill of working out a synchronic synthesis of real classroom practice in South African schools was significant. The influences of the knowledge about contesting views of philosophies about what teaching and learning ought to be enabled students to analyse issues which they considered impaired the advancement of their abilities and competences in understanding subject content knowledge. The teaching of knowledge out of real-life contexts was described by the student as the main disabler in the learning process [13]. The other factors that came under serious scrutiny were the techniques and strategies of teaching which in their view, teachers

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84289*

*Prospective Teachers' Role in the Construction of Authentic Pedagogical Content Knowledge DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84289*

*real and physical. These ideas about the nature of humans should be entrenched in all theoretical content knowledge about who a learner is. The description of a learner from this perspective rejects the perception that learners are empty vessels. The view of the idealist is that individuals are born with the ability to think abstractly which implies that teachers should accept that it is in the nature of the learner to be inquisitive about things in their environment.*

*Students Kombi: In the context of pedagogical content knowledge this idealist perspective implies that as teachers we should not influence or imbue learners with the book knowledge but to use knowledge related to learners' interest as the point of departure to assist learners to use the mind to develop abilities that could enable them to think creatively, logical and critical. In that approach learners could question anything they found interesting by: asking questions—working out relevant assumptions—deciding on methods to arrive to the solution or truth. Abstract thinking through deductive and inductive methods of Socrates learners of the democratic and human rights dispensation could identify injustices in the social, economic and political systems in their societies.*

*Student Zingi: Our own reflections on idealism and cognitive theory is that they both focus on the development of the abilities of the mind to think from an abstract realm and to create models that present the images of such mental models. To use an idealism philosophical principle in teaching assists learners to use their minds to verify what they see, touch, and experience from the physical world, and to develop new ideas as they work in a deductive manner (creating hypothesis and testing or verifying the known truth). Adopting the principles and methods of idealism and cognitive principles could enable us, prospective teachers to develop intellectuals who are independent and creative thinkers. Learners will not reproduce what is known but instead they will use such knowledge as a springboard for further research. Application of these principles in classroom teaching could make every subject content knowledge taught to learners meaningful and relevant to them to solve problem and to be self-reliant citizens.*

*Student Zuleigha: According to Piaget, the principles of cognitive theory are that learners are unique so they have different capabilities. Every learner is born with potentialities which through the process of actualisation mature to become abilities. Self-realization is the output of the process of actualisation. The teacher's role in the classroom activities has to be minimal to allow the learner to self-actualise, which is termed maturity or self-realisation. The role of the teachers in the mediating process in our view is to prepare activities based on the learners' interest and the levels of maturity of their abilities.*

#### *7.1.5 Integrated learning (situational, pedagogical and disciplinary learning)*

The collaborative engagement in the dialogical argumentative instruction activities with the skill of working out a synchronic synthesis of real classroom practice in South African schools was significant. The influences of the knowledge about contesting views of philosophies about what teaching and learning ought to be enabled students to analyse issues which they considered impaired the advancement of their abilities and competences in understanding subject content knowledge. The teaching of knowledge out of real-life contexts was described by the student as the main disabler in the learning process [13]. The other factors that came under serious scrutiny were the techniques and strategies of teaching which in their view, teachers

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

*instructions*

practice'. This argument overwhelmed the plenary session when students proposed that as the new generation of teachers, it is incumbent upon them to ensure that practices of teaching and learning in classroom are relevant to the forces of democratic changes. The proposal advocated liberating learners from textbook knowledge to a more open curriculum which will enable them to explore world knowledge. The views and opinions expressed by students reflected critical thinking based on the philosophical ideas of Paulo Freire, Dueleze and Guattari and John Dewey of the open curriculum or praxis. The strong criticism of structured knowledge in chapters for schools was noted. To students, the relevant pedagogy for the changing times is the one that promotes exploration, critical thinking, and creative thinking, inquiry and self-discovery knowledge. Findings of the study confirmed the views pioneered by

Carl of empowerment of teachers through curriculum development.

comments and in reflections such as the following:

philosophical ideas to support their arguments.

*7.1.4 Reflections and comments of group A during plenary sessions*

*Student Buya: It is advocated in idealism that every individual is born with ideas. Ideas are generated in the mind. The ideas are revealed through inductive and deductive process. The human mind has an ability to operate with concepts that are not found in the real world, which eventually can manifest through creativity to be* 

*7.1.3 Evidence-based transformative learning through dialogical argumentative* 

The shift in the students' thinking patterns after the task was evident in the

Active participation and enthusiasm demonstrated by students in generating arguments through reflective thinking was based on what they decided upon to be the core ideas about each philosophy and theory was remarkable. This experience revealed the unfairness of our delivery of disciplinary and pedagogical content knowledge to our students through lectures. The abilities and skilfulness of students in collaborative work through all the stages of the task indicated to me that in the period of 10 years, I have been suppressing students' creativity and critical thinking skills through the preaching of knowledge in podiums in lecture theatres and treating learners as my audience. The plenary sessions organised by students depicted the conference meeting where scholars quote ideas of the renowned proponents of

My observation of the altruistic disposition of students in debates and discussion propelled by their own choice of content and context confirmed Mezirow's views about transformative learning which advocated that adult learners should be perceived differently from school learners in that to them learning should enable them to manipulate knowledge to solve problem and challenges in the real-life world. This assertion by Mezirow was evident in the manner in which students transferred conceptual knowledge of philosophies and theories into the conceptual understanding of the professional practice in the evolving world of educational practice. The attitude of the students of being negative about the teaching of various philosophical ideas about education and its practice was noted in the verbal presentations and as they answer questions posed by their peers. The critical reflections and inquiry learning were the main learning strategies which transformed the pre-engagement activity perceptions and attitudes. Students found it pleasing to discover things on their own without being given notes to read. Reciprocally, I derived encouragement from the commitment and enthusiasm demonstrated by the students to take their own initiative to understand the relevance of theoretical and philosophical knowledge in the pedagogical content knowledge for teachers.

**76**

unwittingly or wittingly used to indoctrinate them with meaningless factual knowledge which does not resonate with their choice of future careers nor to equip them with relevant skills to make adjustment in the changing world.

*Student Vuyani: to support the view of the abstract and contradictory factual knowledge in the field of Science: "during my school days I was puzzled by the fact taught in Physical Science and Geography about universe. The sun is said to be at the centre of the universe and the paradox to me is; the very sun that is I am told does not move is said to be rising from the east and sets in the west. I asked my teacher about this mystery and fallacy but instead of engaging with me I was told to know this as indisputable reality"*

The students, who were inspired by the realism school of philosophy and cognitive theory of learning, critiqued learning of knowledge which does not make meaningful sense and teaching methods that suppress learners' inquisitiveness about their surroundings or environment. To this group of students, teaching and learning should assist learners to unlock reality through first-hand experience.

*Student Dora: The perception we developed through our reflection is that it cannot be true that learners are ignorant about what is happening in socio-political, economic and environmental changes that are witnessed globally. Learners of the millennium era are exposed to multimedia and as a result they could not be indoctrinated with views that are remote from what they experience in their surroundings. This implies that learner in contemporary times should not be treated as inactive spectators of what is taking place. In our view behaviourist theory is relevant in as far as moral and value generation is concerns for example: discipline and conduct which is required for effective learning and maintenance of order in classroom.*

*Student Kula: The operant conditioning of Pavlov and Skinner are outdated because they conducted in animals which cannot think and reason like humans. Learners are inconstant engagement with life around them so therefore it could not be true that they do not have ideas to contribute towards improvement of their lives and space.*

The emphasis on context-based teaching and learning in students' plenary session shed light onto what students insinuate in their arguments about the nature of content knowledge and environment. The student reflections which pointed directly to what would underpin their own philosophy of classroom practice were captured. These views provided guidelines on what supervisors of work integrated learning will be likely to witness in these students' classroom practice.

#### *7.1.6 Analysis of concept of a 'learner' with the twenty-first century teachers*

The students' dialogical arguments pointed to the knowledge explosion and the revolution in the technological advancement in the global village as the context to be used to define the twenty-first century learners.

*Student Erica: The twenty first learners are characterised by: freedom of choice and self-driven learning, the former describes the learners as individual who should be considered as active participants in the learning environment. The freedom of choice, in the students view, should be the principle that underpins curriculum development and its delivery in classrooms. Further, this principle allows learners to part take in the selection and organising of learning content and the choosing* 

**79**

*Prospective Teachers' Role in the Construction of Authentic Pedagogical Content Knowledge*

*of techniques or strategies of teaching and learning. The self-driven learning was explained in the context of the argument in terms of knowledge construction, whereby learners identify real life experiences which they consider significant and interesting to know. This learning is made possible through advanced technological* 

The critical description of a twenty-first century learner by the students was evidence of the importance of engaging them in the development of a theoretical knowledge for meaningful education and training. The repertoire of theoretical knowledge for pedagogical content knowledge developed through argumentative engagement of students proved to be relevant to the issues of classroom practice, such as classroom management, discipline and mediation processes. The views and experiences of diverse classroom practices were unleashed during discussions and arguments. These activities enabled students who came from different socioeconomic background to address stereotypes and ethnocentric knowledge they

The argumentation afforded students to gather first-hand information as they questioned one another about the experiences and their communities' world view. Questions such as: how did you manage to learn in a school environment where there is no electricity and Internet or Wi-Fi? Are learners still learning under those circumstances? Notably, these questions were asked by students who grew up in townships and urban areas; for these students, it was difficult to figure out a

The group of students who came from rural schools confessed that to cope with the technological developments they experience in the urban life style is a challenge to them. They realised that to adjust to the experiences of their urban counterparts, they needed to be pro-active and develop their own techniques and strategies to adapt to the twenty-first century culture. One student said: 'it is really an advantage to be in this environment because besides academic courses I have developed my own courses driven by interest and passion to know my world'. Another honest student reflected on her own circumstances of having attended school in remote countryside in South Africa. This candid student admitted that as a student from such an isolated environment, there is nothing that teachers did to expose her to the broader world of experience through teaching. She felt embarrassed when she identified huge gaps in her knowledge about the national and

*Student Royan: I will teach in rural areas after completing my qualification for the purpose of expanding the worldview of my learners." Asked about how he will plan this, the student highlighted that the first thing is to link his teaching to technology such as You Tube videos in order to bring realities such as laboratories, industrial activities, manufacturing industries and in the main technology and processing into* 

The patterns of thought developed by students were not based much on theories of Pavlov, Skinner and Thorndike per se, but they came up with their own description of the twenty-first century which encapsulated the needs of the contemporary learners. The description highlighted the twenty-first century learners' styles of thinking are driven by knowledge explosion which is made possible by technology. Learners of the technological advancement are facing a demand to adjust to the fast developing world of electronic devices. Therefore, the acquisition of knowledge and skills in high-school learning ought to enable learners to adjust to the environment and the demands of life beyond the school or institution's premises. These factors

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84289*

generated from hearsay.

international world.

*remote contexts.*

*devices such as i-phones, internet and computers.*

classroom environment in a remote school in a countryside.

*Prospective Teachers' Role in the Construction of Authentic Pedagogical Content Knowledge DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84289*

*of techniques or strategies of teaching and learning. The self-driven learning was explained in the context of the argument in terms of knowledge construction, whereby learners identify real life experiences which they consider significant and interesting to know. This learning is made possible through advanced technological devices such as i-phones, internet and computers.*

The critical description of a twenty-first century learner by the students was evidence of the importance of engaging them in the development of a theoretical knowledge for meaningful education and training. The repertoire of theoretical knowledge for pedagogical content knowledge developed through argumentative engagement of students proved to be relevant to the issues of classroom practice, such as classroom management, discipline and mediation processes. The views and experiences of diverse classroom practices were unleashed during discussions and arguments. These activities enabled students who came from different socioeconomic background to address stereotypes and ethnocentric knowledge they generated from hearsay.

The argumentation afforded students to gather first-hand information as they questioned one another about the experiences and their communities' world view. Questions such as: how did you manage to learn in a school environment where there is no electricity and Internet or Wi-Fi? Are learners still learning under those circumstances? Notably, these questions were asked by students who grew up in townships and urban areas; for these students, it was difficult to figure out a classroom environment in a remote school in a countryside.

The group of students who came from rural schools confessed that to cope with the technological developments they experience in the urban life style is a challenge to them. They realised that to adjust to the experiences of their urban counterparts, they needed to be pro-active and develop their own techniques and strategies to adapt to the twenty-first century culture. One student said: 'it is really an advantage to be in this environment because besides academic courses I have developed my own courses driven by interest and passion to know my world'. Another honest student reflected on her own circumstances of having attended school in remote countryside in South Africa. This candid student admitted that as a student from such an isolated environment, there is nothing that teachers did to expose her to the broader world of experience through teaching. She felt embarrassed when she identified huge gaps in her knowledge about the national and international world.

*Student Royan: I will teach in rural areas after completing my qualification for the purpose of expanding the worldview of my learners." Asked about how he will plan this, the student highlighted that the first thing is to link his teaching to technology such as You Tube videos in order to bring realities such as laboratories, industrial activities, manufacturing industries and in the main technology and processing into remote contexts.*

The patterns of thought developed by students were not based much on theories of Pavlov, Skinner and Thorndike per se, but they came up with their own description of the twenty-first century which encapsulated the needs of the contemporary learners. The description highlighted the twenty-first century learners' styles of thinking are driven by knowledge explosion which is made possible by technology. Learners of the technological advancement are facing a demand to adjust to the fast developing world of electronic devices. Therefore, the acquisition of knowledge and skills in high-school learning ought to enable learners to adjust to the environment and the demands of life beyond the school or institution's premises. These factors

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

*know this as indisputable reality"*

*and space.*

unwittingly or wittingly used to indoctrinate them with meaningless factual knowledge which does not resonate with their choice of future careers nor to equip them

*Student Vuyani: to support the view of the abstract and contradictory factual knowledge in the field of Science: "during my school days I was puzzled by the fact taught in Physical Science and Geography about universe. The sun is said to be at the centre of the universe and the paradox to me is; the very sun that is I am told does not move is said to be rising from the east and sets in the west. I asked my teacher about this mystery and fallacy but instead of engaging with me I was told to* 

The students, who were inspired by the realism school of philosophy and cognitive theory of learning, critiqued learning of knowledge which does not make meaningful sense and teaching methods that suppress learners' inquisitiveness about their surroundings or environment. To this group of students, teaching and learning should assist learners to unlock reality through first-hand experience.

*Student Dora: The perception we developed through our reflection is that it cannot be true that learners are ignorant about what is happening in socio-political, economic and environmental changes that are witnessed globally. Learners of the millennium era are exposed to multimedia and as a result they could not be indoctrinated with views that are remote from what they experience in their surroundings. This implies that learner in contemporary times should not be treated as inactive spectators of what is taking place. In our view behaviourist theory is relevant in as far as moral and value generation is concerns for example: discipline and conduct which is required for effective learning and maintenance of order in classroom.*

*Student Kula: The operant conditioning of Pavlov and Skinner are outdated because they conducted in animals which cannot think and reason like humans. Learners are inconstant engagement with life around them so therefore it could not be true that they do not have ideas to contribute towards improvement of their lives* 

The emphasis on context-based teaching and learning in students' plenary session shed light onto what students insinuate in their arguments about the nature of content knowledge and environment. The student reflections which pointed directly to what would underpin their own philosophy of classroom practice were captured. These views provided guidelines on what supervisors of work integrated

The students' dialogical arguments pointed to the knowledge explosion and the revolution in the technological advancement in the global village as the context to

*Student Erica: The twenty first learners are characterised by: freedom of choice and self-driven learning, the former describes the learners as individual who should be considered as active participants in the learning environment. The freedom of choice, in the students view, should be the principle that underpins curriculum development and its delivery in classrooms. Further, this principle allows learners to part take in the selection and organising of learning content and the choosing* 

learning will be likely to witness in these students' classroom practice.

*7.1.6 Analysis of concept of a 'learner' with the twenty-first century teachers*

be used to define the twenty-first century learners.

with relevant skills to make adjustment in the changing world.

**78**

were raised by students in their arguments indicated to me that the generation of prospective teachers should be part of the construction of knowledge about what they perceive to be the meaningful practice in the classroom. They are the generation of teachers who are from schools under the current dispensation: they have ideas to share about what they think teachers should have done to cope and comprehend real-life experiences. All the ideas shared by students informed the designing and development of the booklet for work-integrated learning. The outcomes of the study conducted for this chapter endorse the views expressed by Fejes and Nicoll ([2], p. 68) that 'the teachers own professional practice should be the platform of knowledge production designed by teachers themselves'. The preparation of teachers for the current and future dispensation requires a radical but realistic paradigm shift in the fundamental point of departure in conceptualising teachers in the context of curriculum development in South Africa. Societies such as South Africa's that are overwhelmed by issues of joblessness, poverty and social injustices need transformative and reflective teachers.

#### **8. Conclusion**

The main conclusions drawn from the findings presented in this chapter are summarised as follows: first, the evidence-based teacher education and training and transformative learning solicited by the study appeared to be a high point in the outcomes of the study. The views and experiences shared in this study contribute to trends of thought in teacher education and training. Second, collaborative engagement of students proved to be an effective approach for competence-based learning; however, guidelines and facilitation of the process of learning are critical in ensuring that students do not lose track of the pre-determined learning outcomes and assessment criteria. Third, the idea of allowing students to select philosophies and theories of knowledge they consider to be of meaningful influence to their conceptualising of professional practice appeared to be an effective mechanism for development of multiple skills and competences. Fourth, alignment of learning outcomes, the task and assessment criteria and continuous feedback to students' performance was possible as engagement in the task continued.

Lastly, the change of disposition and worldviews of students was transformative as witnessed in the competences demonstrated in students' elevated critical thinking, critical reflections and in constructing views about the pedagogical content knowledge for themselves. The application of conceptual knowledge in arguments enabled students to develop their own professional identity that is informed by their own choice of philosophical and theoretical knowledge. The reality of the matter is that prospective teachers are the agents of transformation in the societies; this view of the teacher implies that abilities of prospective teachers' to reflect and construct ideas about what ought be an effective and ideal professional practice to implement societal change and transformation should be nurtured during their initial education and training.

#### **Acknowledgements**

I would like to express my deepest appreciation to all those who provided me the courage to complete this chapter. A special appreciation I give to my colleague Professor Herbert Kuzwayo, whose contributions in stimulating suggestions and encouragement helped me in writing this chapter.

**81**

**Author details**

Mamsi Ethel Khuzwayo

provided the original work is properly cited.

Cape Peninsula University of Technology, South Africa

\*Address all correspondence to: kuzwayom@cput.ac.za

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

*Prospective Teachers' Role in the Construction of Authentic Pedagogical Content Knowledge*

I wish to express my gratitude to my students who participated in the activities for their selfless commitment, cooperation and enthusiasm. I appreciated my colleagues and my doctoral students who encouraged me to share these ideas in this piece of work. My gratitude also is to Dr. Matthew Andrew Curr for editing

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84289*

**Notes/thanks/other declarations**

my work.

*Prospective Teachers' Role in the Construction of Authentic Pedagogical Content Knowledge DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84289*

#### **Notes/thanks/other declarations**

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

transformative and reflective teachers.

engagement in the task continued.

**8. Conclusion**

were raised by students in their arguments indicated to me that the generation of prospective teachers should be part of the construction of knowledge about what they perceive to be the meaningful practice in the classroom. They are the generation of teachers who are from schools under the current dispensation: they have ideas to share about what they think teachers should have done to cope and comprehend real-life experiences. All the ideas shared by students informed the designing and development of the booklet for work-integrated learning. The outcomes of the study conducted for this chapter endorse the views expressed by Fejes and Nicoll ([2], p. 68) that 'the teachers own professional practice should be the platform of knowledge production designed by teachers themselves'. The preparation of teachers for the current and future dispensation requires a radical but realistic paradigm shift in the fundamental point of departure in conceptualising teachers in the context of curriculum development in South Africa. Societies such as South Africa's that are overwhelmed by issues of joblessness, poverty and social injustices need

The main conclusions drawn from the findings presented in this chapter are summarised as follows: first, the evidence-based teacher education and training and transformative learning solicited by the study appeared to be a high point in the outcomes of the study. The views and experiences shared in this study contribute to trends of thought in teacher education and training. Second, collaborative engagement of students proved to be an effective approach for competence-based learning; however, guidelines and facilitation of the process of learning are critical in ensuring that students do not lose track of the pre-determined learning outcomes and assessment criteria. Third, the idea of allowing students to select philosophies and theories of knowledge they consider to be of meaningful influence to their conceptualising of professional practice appeared to be an effective mechanism for development of multiple skills and competences. Fourth, alignment of learning outcomes, the task and assessment criteria and continuous feedback to students' performance was possible as

Lastly, the change of disposition and worldviews of students was transformative as witnessed in the competences demonstrated in students' elevated critical thinking, critical reflections and in constructing views about the pedagogical content knowledge for themselves. The application of conceptual knowledge in arguments enabled students to develop their own professional identity that is informed by their own choice of philosophical and theoretical knowledge. The reality of the matter is that prospective teachers are the agents of transformation in the societies; this view of the teacher implies that abilities of prospective teachers' to reflect and construct ideas about what ought be an effective and ideal professional practice to implement societal change and transformation should be nurtured during their initial educa-

I would like to express my deepest appreciation to all those who provided me the courage to complete this chapter. A special appreciation I give to my colleague Professor Herbert Kuzwayo, whose contributions in stimulating suggestions and

**80**

tion and training.

**Acknowledgements**

encouragement helped me in writing this chapter.

I wish to express my gratitude to my students who participated in the activities for their selfless commitment, cooperation and enthusiasm. I appreciated my colleagues and my doctoral students who encouraged me to share these ideas in this piece of work. My gratitude also is to Dr. Matthew Andrew Curr for editing my work.

#### **Author details**

Mamsi Ethel Khuzwayo Cape Peninsula University of Technology, South Africa

\*Address all correspondence to: kuzwayom@cput.ac.za

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

### **References**

[1] Jansen J, Christie P, editors. Handbook of Changing Curriculum: Studies on Outcomes-Based Education in South Africa. Cape Town: Juta; 1999

[2] Fejes A, Foucault NK. Lifelong Learning: Governing the Subject. London: Routledge; 2008

[3] Flessner R, Magee PA. Teacher education issues. In: Flessner R, Miller GR, Patrizio KM, Horwitz JR, editors. Agency through Teacher Education Community and Learning. New York: Rowman & Littlefield; 2012. pp. 31-70

[4] Carl AE. Teacher Empowerment through Curriculum Development: Curriculum Theory and Practice. Cape Town: Juta; 2010

[5] Semetsky I, Mansy. Deleuze Connections: Delueze and Education. Edinburg: Edinburg printers; 2013

[6] Heller KJ, Kaufman E, editors. Deleuze and Guattari: New Mapping in Politics, Philosophy and Culture. London: Minnesota Press; 1998

[7] Department of Higher Education. Minimum requirement for teacher qualification [Internet]. 2015. Available from: http://www.dhet.gov.za/ Teacher%20/Education/national%20 Qualifications/Framework [Accessed: 20 April 2018]

[8] Mezirow J. Adult education issues. In: Taylor EW, Cranton P, editors. Transformative Learning, Theory, Research and Practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass; 2010. pp. 73-95

[9] Draling-Hammond L. Constructing 21st-century teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education. 2006:1-15. DOI: 10.1177/0022487105285962. Accessed at: http://chalkboard.org in May 2106

[10] Dirkx JM. Transformative theory in the practice of adult education: An overview. PAACE Journal of Lifelong Learning. 1998:1-14

[11] Bransford J, Derry S, Berliner D, Hammerness K. Theories of learning and their roles in teaching. In: Darling-Hammond L, Bransford J, editors. Preparing Teachers for a Changing World: What Teachers Should Learn and Be Able to Do. San Francisco: Jossy-Bass; 2005

[12] Who Will Teach in the 21 Century? Beginning Teacher Training Experiences and Attrition Rates. Stanford: Stanford university; 2004

**83**

**Chapter 6**

**Abstract**

curriculum

**1. Introduction**

A Professional Development

Program for Beginning High

This paper presents a professional development program for beginning high school teachers. The program was designed after identifying, characterizing and evaluating the professional training needs of beginning teachers, using quantitative and qualitative methodologies via interviews and surveys. With a framework in personalized education and in constructivist theory—both related to professional development for such teachers—and in adult transformative learning theory, the program promotes personal pedagogy which guides teachers to clarify the meaning of their role in the twenty-first century. The program fosters a model of formative learning that is more related to the knowledge of the beginning teacher regarding the reality of teaching and learning, the pedagogical subject, the school environment and capacity to act on the educational situation, than to specific disciplinary contents. The contents on which the program is structured are oriented to the systematic observation of pedagogical practice, to the knowledge of adolescents and their learning as a reason for it, to teaching in diversity and to the significance of

**Keywords:** secondary school teachers, professional training, teacher education

Secondary education initial training for teachers in Uruguay is developed in a 4-year period, and is led by a learning model that is simultaneous to three fields of knowledge, i.e., knowledge regarding the subject to be taught, pedagogical knowl-

As a teacher of initial teaching training courses in this country, I perceived that teachers who graduated from training courses aimed at teaching at high schools feel

Uruguay education system offers free updates and continuous education, provided in different formats (conferences, courses, sessions, seminars, lectures and workshops.) Such instances are independent from each other and attendance is optional for teachers. There is no specific program for the enhancement of theoretical and practical training for high school teachers in their first 5 years of activity.

and state their professional needs when performing their jobs.

School Teachers

*Cristina Maciel de Oliveira*

being a teacher of secondary education.

edge and educational knowledge [1].

[13] Killen R. Teaching Strategies for Quality Teaching and Learning. Claremont: Juta & Company; 2015

#### **Chapter 6**

## A Professional Development Program for Beginning High School Teachers

*Cristina Maciel de Oliveira*

#### **Abstract**

This paper presents a professional development program for beginning high school teachers. The program was designed after identifying, characterizing and evaluating the professional training needs of beginning teachers, using quantitative and qualitative methodologies via interviews and surveys. With a framework in personalized education and in constructivist theory—both related to professional development for such teachers—and in adult transformative learning theory, the program promotes personal pedagogy which guides teachers to clarify the meaning of their role in the twenty-first century. The program fosters a model of formative learning that is more related to the knowledge of the beginning teacher regarding the reality of teaching and learning, the pedagogical subject, the school environment and capacity to act on the educational situation, than to specific disciplinary contents. The contents on which the program is structured are oriented to the systematic observation of pedagogical practice, to the knowledge of adolescents and their learning as a reason for it, to teaching in diversity and to the significance of being a teacher of secondary education.

**Keywords:** secondary school teachers, professional training, teacher education curriculum

#### **1. Introduction**

Secondary education initial training for teachers in Uruguay is developed in a 4-year period, and is led by a learning model that is simultaneous to three fields of knowledge, i.e., knowledge regarding the subject to be taught, pedagogical knowledge and educational knowledge [1].

As a teacher of initial teaching training courses in this country, I perceived that teachers who graduated from training courses aimed at teaching at high schools feel and state their professional needs when performing their jobs.

Uruguay education system offers free updates and continuous education, provided in different formats (conferences, courses, sessions, seminars, lectures and workshops.) Such instances are independent from each other and attendance is optional for teachers. There is no specific program for the enhancement of theoretical and practical training for high school teachers in their first 5 years of activity.

**82**

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

[1] Jansen J, Christie P, editors. Handbook of Changing Curriculum: Studies on Outcomes-Based Education in South Africa. Cape Town: Juta; 1999

[10] Dirkx JM. Transformative theory in the practice of adult education: An overview. PAACE Journal of Lifelong

[11] Bransford J, Derry S, Berliner D, Hammerness K. Theories of learning and their roles in teaching. In: Darling-Hammond L, Bransford J, editors. Preparing Teachers for a Changing World: What Teachers Should Learn and Be Able to Do. San Francisco: Jossy-Bass;

[12] Who Will Teach in the 21 Century? Beginning Teacher Training Experiences and Attrition Rates. Stanford: Stanford

[13] Killen R. Teaching Strategies for Quality Teaching and Learning. Claremont: Juta & Company; 2015

Learning. 1998:1-14

2005

university; 2004

[2] Fejes A, Foucault NK. Lifelong Learning: Governing the Subject.

[3] Flessner R, Magee PA. Teacher education issues. In: Flessner R, Miller GR, Patrizio KM, Horwitz JR, editors. Agency through Teacher Education Community and Learning. New York: Rowman & Littlefield; 2012. pp. 31-70

[4] Carl AE. Teacher Empowerment through Curriculum Development: Curriculum Theory and Practice. Cape

[5] Semetsky I, Mansy. Deleuze Connections: Delueze and Education. Edinburg: Edinburg printers; 2013

[6] Heller KJ, Kaufman E, editors. Deleuze and Guattari: New Mapping in Politics, Philosophy and Culture. London: Minnesota Press; 1998

[7] Department of Higher Education. Minimum requirement for teacher qualification [Internet]. 2015. Available

[8] Mezirow J. Adult education issues. In: Taylor EW, Cranton P, editors. Transformative Learning, Theory, Research and Practice. San Francisco:

[9] Draling-Hammond L. Constructing 21st-century teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education. 2006:1-15. DOI: 10.1177/0022487105285962. Accessed at: http://chalkboard.org in May 2106

from: http://www.dhet.gov.za/ Teacher%20/Education/national%20 Qualifications/Framework [Accessed:

Jossey-Bass; 2010. pp. 73-95

20 April 2018]

London: Routledge; 2008

Town: Juta; 2010

**References**

This results in a problematic situation currently being researched in the framework of a doctoral thesis on education, led by EdD. Ramón Pérez Juste, UNED, Madrid, Spain [2].

The aim is to contribute in the improvement of initial teacher training for high school teachers, by means of supporting the authorities of the CFE with a professional development program which addresses the professional needs of such teachers. In this sense, there are two specific objectives: 1. To design a pedagogical professional development program, aimed at enhancing beginning teachers who perform tasks at national public secondary education centers. 2. To perform an initial evaluation of the program in terms of appropriateness, adaptation, sufficiency and realism as regards its objectives, quality and viability.

The accomplishment of the first objective presumes prior identification of professional training needs of target teachers. The second objective will be reached via the submission of the program to expert opinions and by means of interviews to recently graduated teachers. Due to extension matters, this section presents a summarized explanation of the objective.

#### **2. A professional development program for beginning high school teachers**

The making of the process starts with a collection of background and study of bases; it continues with research on the professional needs of target beginning teachers; it continues with its design and ends with its pre-evaluation, which resulted in the reformulation of the program.

#### **2.1 Background**

There are four study areas to the research on beginning teachers. One of the areas is related to the characteristics of such teachers, which shows no previous publications in Latin America before 2006, when the international workshop "Policies for Insertion of Beginning Teachers into the Teaching Profession: the Latin America experience and the Colombian case." The second area is related to accompanying experiences in the United States, Europe (England, North Ireland, Scotland) and Israel and in countries from other continents, such as New Zealand and Japan. The third area relates to difficulties faced by beginning teachers, emerging from research done by Vonk (1983) [20] and Veenman [16]. The fourth area involves research on the socialization of participants. Such research includes influential factors, the different stages identified during the first year of activity, the strategies applied by teachers and potential changes of perspective in their teaching [3].

International research, written in English, on the development of professional teachers states the importance of teachers taking part of professional development instances, due to the positive impact that such instances have on their beliefs and habits, the students' learning and of the implementation of education reforms [4].

With reference to programs that enable professional opportunities and enhance training for beginning teachers, their institutionalization is recent in Latin America, when compared to the policies and support structures featured in European and Asian countries, such as Japan, where a compulsory training program has been active for graduated teachers since 1988.

Until now, induction programs designed and structured to offer additional training and personalized assistance to beginning teachers are compulsory in 17 countries or regions (Germany, Estonia, Ireland, France, Italy, Cyprus, Luxembourg, Malta, Austria, Portugal, Romania, Slovenia, Slovakia, Sweden, the UK, Croatia

**85**

as a teacher in a specific context.

*A Professional Development Program for Beginning High School Teachers*

performance of the job and in the training of future teachers.

and Paraguay) have been analyzed, as well [9].

and Turkey.) Some of these programs focus on individual assistance and others on training. However, all of them aim at assisting teachers in their adapting to the profession and reducing the possibilities of early dropout [5]. Accompanying projects for beginning teachers started being developed in Spain and Latin America (Argentina, Colombia, Chile and Uruguay) in the first decade of this century.

Regarding issues related to continuous training for active beginning high school teachers, who are the subject matter at an international level, within the 2010–2014 period, the subject matter mainly spotlights the requirements of society towards teaching. This involves: (a) assessment and reformulation of teaching training and practice and quality improvement; (b) training for the development of practices founded on respect for human rights and principles of inclusive education to respect diversity and (c) changes caused by the use of new information and communication technologies when teaching and learning. Furthermore, there is the resulting impact that such training has on teaching beliefs, which are exposed in the

Acknowledging the importance of continuous teacher training is recognized by multiple international authors and organizations. It is characterized as a key process to teaching professionalization [5], in order to think of pedagogical practices and adapt to changes [6] and, as a need [7], it has been analyzed internationally, mainly in America and in the UK [8]. The existing offer and organization of continuous training in the countries which belong to MERCOSUR (Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay

Continuous training involves understanding the development process of the profession [10]. Within such process, the transition from being a trainee teacher to having a first job usually causes a shock or "reality shower" to some, resulting from becoming aware of the differences between the reality and the ideals created throughout the initial training period [11]. This usually causes helplessness feelings and fear before failure. As to the cognitive aspect, this shock provokes aversion towards the theory that was learned, which seems useless when applied in practice. With reference to behavior, this shock blocks sensitive actions and reactions, therefore preventing teachers from identifying possibilities the situation presents [12]. Some others believe the phrase "reality shower" however eloquent is inappropriate, as it implies that there is an unavoidable short period of commotion to be faced [13]. For some authors, this socialization stage, at which beginning teachers enter a professional group [14], takes place during the first 3 years of the course of their

careers. However, some others extend such period to the first 5 years.

This study calls this first stage the *initial acquisition of the teaching role.* It is undoubtedly an initial phase [15], a reality check [16], starting a career and socializing [17], initiating or inducting teaching [18], in which all teachers need to develop survival strategies [19] to enter a gap period between initial and permanent training due to their lack of familiarity with the initial specific teaching situation [20], which serves as an argument for continuous professional development [21].

These statements describe this first stage considering the role such phase plays in the continuum of the professional development process and the difficulties with which it confronts teachers. As a conclusion from critical inferential reading performed in relation to the characterization of this initial stage, the essence of such professional development phase seems to rely on the fact of acquiring the teaching role and the meaning of the profession and applying it in every instance in which teaching performance is required in a practical manner or in the being and feeling

This is considered a key period as well, provided that it is that in which teachers build their work culture and therefore acknowledge the importance of its being considered by professional teacher training proposals in Latin America [21].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83649*

#### *A Professional Development Program for Beginning High School Teachers DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83649*

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

Madrid, Spain [2].

**teachers**

**2.1 Background**

This results in a problematic situation currently being researched in the framework of a doctoral thesis on education, led by EdD. Ramón Pérez Juste, UNED,

The aim is to contribute in the improvement of initial teacher training for high school teachers, by means of supporting the authorities of the CFE with a professional development program which addresses the professional needs of such teachers. In this sense, there are two specific objectives: 1. To design a pedagogical professional development program, aimed at enhancing beginning teachers who perform tasks at national public secondary education centers. 2. To perform an initial evaluation of the program in terms of appropriateness, adaptation, sufficiency

The accomplishment of the first objective presumes prior identification of professional training needs of target teachers. The second objective will be reached via the submission of the program to expert opinions and by means of interviews to recently graduated teachers. Due to extension matters, this section presents a

**2. A professional development program for beginning high school** 

The making of the process starts with a collection of background and study of bases; it continues with research on the professional needs of target beginning teachers; it continues with its design and ends with its pre-evaluation, which

There are four study areas to the research on beginning teachers. One of the areas is related to the characteristics of such teachers, which shows no previous publications in Latin America before 2006, when the international workshop "Policies for Insertion of Beginning Teachers into the Teaching Profession: the Latin America experience and the Colombian case." The second area is related to accompanying experiences in the United States, Europe (England, North Ireland, Scotland) and Israel and in countries from other continents, such as New Zealand and Japan. The third area relates to difficulties faced by beginning teachers, emerging from research done by Vonk (1983) [20] and Veenman [16]. The fourth area involves research on the socialization of participants. Such research includes influential factors, the different stages identified during the first year of activity, the strategies applied by teachers and potential changes of perspective in their teaching [3].

International research, written in English, on the development of professional teachers states the importance of teachers taking part of professional development instances, due to the positive impact that such instances have on their beliefs and habits, the students' learning and of the implementation of education reforms [4]. With reference to programs that enable professional opportunities and enhance training for beginning teachers, their institutionalization is recent in Latin America, when compared to the policies and support structures featured in European and Asian countries, such as Japan, where a compulsory training program has been

Until now, induction programs designed and structured to offer additional training and personalized assistance to beginning teachers are compulsory in 17 countries or regions (Germany, Estonia, Ireland, France, Italy, Cyprus, Luxembourg, Malta, Austria, Portugal, Romania, Slovenia, Slovakia, Sweden, the UK, Croatia

and realism as regards its objectives, quality and viability.

summarized explanation of the objective.

resulted in the reformulation of the program.

active for graduated teachers since 1988.

**84**

and Turkey.) Some of these programs focus on individual assistance and others on training. However, all of them aim at assisting teachers in their adapting to the profession and reducing the possibilities of early dropout [5]. Accompanying projects for beginning teachers started being developed in Spain and Latin America (Argentina, Colombia, Chile and Uruguay) in the first decade of this century.

Regarding issues related to continuous training for active beginning high school teachers, who are the subject matter at an international level, within the 2010–2014 period, the subject matter mainly spotlights the requirements of society towards teaching. This involves: (a) assessment and reformulation of teaching training and practice and quality improvement; (b) training for the development of practices founded on respect for human rights and principles of inclusive education to respect diversity and (c) changes caused by the use of new information and communication technologies when teaching and learning. Furthermore, there is the resulting impact that such training has on teaching beliefs, which are exposed in the performance of the job and in the training of future teachers.

Acknowledging the importance of continuous teacher training is recognized by multiple international authors and organizations. It is characterized as a key process to teaching professionalization [5], in order to think of pedagogical practices and adapt to changes [6] and, as a need [7], it has been analyzed internationally, mainly in America and in the UK [8]. The existing offer and organization of continuous training in the countries which belong to MERCOSUR (Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay and Paraguay) have been analyzed, as well [9].

Continuous training involves understanding the development process of the profession [10]. Within such process, the transition from being a trainee teacher to having a first job usually causes a shock or "reality shower" to some, resulting from becoming aware of the differences between the reality and the ideals created throughout the initial training period [11]. This usually causes helplessness feelings and fear before failure. As to the cognitive aspect, this shock provokes aversion towards the theory that was learned, which seems useless when applied in practice. With reference to behavior, this shock blocks sensitive actions and reactions, therefore preventing teachers from identifying possibilities the situation presents [12]. Some others believe the phrase "reality shower" however eloquent is inappropriate, as it implies that there is an unavoidable short period of commotion to be faced [13].

For some authors, this socialization stage, at which beginning teachers enter a professional group [14], takes place during the first 3 years of the course of their careers. However, some others extend such period to the first 5 years.

This study calls this first stage the *initial acquisition of the teaching role.* It is undoubtedly an initial phase [15], a reality check [16], starting a career and socializing [17], initiating or inducting teaching [18], in which all teachers need to develop survival strategies [19] to enter a gap period between initial and permanent training due to their lack of familiarity with the initial specific teaching situation [20], which serves as an argument for continuous professional development [21].

These statements describe this first stage considering the role such phase plays in the continuum of the professional development process and the difficulties with which it confronts teachers. As a conclusion from critical inferential reading performed in relation to the characterization of this initial stage, the essence of such professional development phase seems to rely on the fact of acquiring the teaching role and the meaning of the profession and applying it in every instance in which teaching performance is required in a practical manner or in the being and feeling as a teacher in a specific context.

This is considered a key period as well, provided that it is that in which teachers build their work culture and therefore acknowledge the importance of its being considered by professional teacher training proposals in Latin America [21].

#### **2.2 Theoretical framework**

The aim of the program subject to this paper is the development of professional beginning teachers. The Day conception of professional development is adopted, as it is a "broad view of professional learning," before other conceptions which are led by the acquisition of knowledge on the subject or teaching strategies [11]. This author adds informal learning to formal learning through experience, the former enabling teachers to overcome classroom situations and to improve their professional expertise.

In this sense, the three main theories on which the proposal is based are: the conception of personalized education, a constructivist theory—both regarding teacher professional development—and adult transformative learning theory.

Personalized education transforms the learning procedure into a personal training element, as conceived by García Hoz [22]. This is a type of education which addresses human needs and the present technological society conditions in which we live [23, 24]. Its pertinence is confirmed by the acknowledgment of a present need for personalized learning in pursue of more effective results, and by the current challenge of understanding how to adapt teaching methods in order to universalize learning [25].

This educational conception is understood broadly, thus not linked to any specific philosophical, psychological or pedagogical current, but open to all lines of thinking which may contribute to the perfecting of the person—as a whole—with no reductionism whatsoever [23]. Notwithstanding any political powers or pressure groups, educational personalization accepts sociocultural and scientific progress.

From this point of view, it is understood that teachers may find the reasons for their profession in the nature of their own selves, if that serves as support [26].

Personalized education, when related to aptitudes for evaluation and performance rather than to content learning, enhances training as a means for professional development. Therefore, the program aims at enabling a type of formative learning related more to beginning teachers' understanding of the reality of teaching and learning, the pedagogical subject and school contexts, as well as to theirs ability to act upon an educative situation, rather than to specific disciplinary contents.

In this sense, the educative style presents two main significances: teachers' teaching styles and students' learning styles within a person-forming teaching and learning model.

Teaching and learning are conceived as constitutive parts of a unique process, as teaching makes sense only when it provokes learning. The learning model related to personalized education is conditioned by how human cognitive activity is conceived, mainly when referred to intelligence and knowledge functions in a strict sense and to expression functions.

The development of abilities necessary for the execution of such functions is the reason for the educational labor, therefore showing the aims of learning, which in personalized education are conceived as constituted by three types of components: cognition, aptitude and evaluation.

Constructivist theory conceptualizes professional teaching development defining teachers as active, practical and reflexive apprentices able to build their own theories and practices collectively with other teachers, institutional actors, families and members of the community.

This is a long terms process which takes place in a particular context, i.e., it is centered in an educational institution and refers to daily teacher and student activities. This is not skills training but a culture building process. In this framework, teachers are conceived as practical and reflexive, and professional development aims at helping teachers to build new pedagogic theories and practices.

**87**

*A Professional Development Program for Beginning High School Teachers*

decide which model is more appropriate for their situation [4].

tive learning theory, developed by Mezirow in the late 70's, is adopted.

i.e., significance perspectives and ways of thinking.

ers, and an eventual reformulation, if deemed appropriate [28].

**2.3 Research on the professional needs of target beginning teachers**

In order to find inquire into the need for beginning teacher training, a study population was conformed with up to 5-year professionally experienced teachers from the 42 public high schools from the East region of the country. High school

Learning gains a role through interaction with others in a real problem-solving

From these two viewpoints, professional development is a collaborative process that is more successful when it involves significant interactions. Regarding configuration, there is no professional development format or model better than others; institutions and educator must evaluate their needs, cultural beliefs and practices to

Furthermore, encouraging teachers to teach for idea understanding and elaboration and diversity is essential in order to let students find productive entrance paths to knowledge at the same time they learn how to live together in a constructive manner. Teachers must combine content and student knowledge and understanding with the communities where they work, ensuring that families participate in the

Considering that teachers are adults who not only teach but also learn, and that such learning implies learning how to teach, the learning theory called transforma-

Reference frameworks refers to culture and language structures through which human experiences are construed and therefore given coherence and meaning [28]. Such frameworks are conceptualized as the groups of fixed cases and expectations,

According to this theory, the construction of meaning is fundamental, provided that transformative learning is conceived as that which transforms reference

The author understands this theory as a type of cognitive epistemology on evidential and dialogic (instrumental and communicative, respectively) reasoning. Mezirow agrees with Habermas on the three types of learning (technical, practical and emancipatory) and names them: instrumental, dialogic and self-reflexive. Reasoning is deemed as an advance and belief evaluation process. From this viewpoint, transformative learning is conceptualized as an adult dimension of reason evaluation, which implies validation and reformulation of meaning structures. Transformative learning theory supposes as a grownup way to transform those reference frameworks that lead actions. Adoption of such learning theory is deemed appropriate, considering that it may promote an evaluation of the conceptions related to the teaching, learning and professional identity of the participant teach-

This proposal and corresponding formative on-site contextualized action is expected to achieve the following goals: a. to consider needs, demands and worries that teachers state regarding areas of improvement, especially in connection with teaching practices; b. to work on enhancing teaching skills from experience; c. to promote teacher participation and interaction; d. to establish adolescents and their learning as the observation and analysis focus for the creation of pedagogical practices; e. to provide theoretical and practical elements to develop teaching tasks that work towards citizenship education and coexistence, via the exercise of inclusion, attention to diversity and incorporation of the communities to which students belong.

context which encourages learning through reflection, experience and dialog, thus discovering the significance of happenings in a given context. It is a social rather than individual type of learning, based on specific rather than theoretical

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83649*

situations.

process as well [27].

frameworks.

#### *A Professional Development Program for Beginning High School Teachers DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83649*

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

The aim of the program subject to this paper is the development of professional beginning teachers. The Day conception of professional development is adopted, as it is a "broad view of professional learning," before other conceptions which are led by the acquisition of knowledge on the subject or teaching strategies [11]. This author adds informal learning to formal learning through experience, the former enabling teachers to overcome classroom situations and to improve their profes-

In this sense, the three main theories on which the proposal is based are: the conception of personalized education, a constructivist theory—both regarding teacher

Personalized education transforms the learning procedure into a personal training element, as conceived by García Hoz [22]. This is a type of education which addresses human needs and the present technological society conditions in which we live [23, 24]. Its pertinence is confirmed by the acknowledgment of a present need for personalized learning in pursue of more effective results, and by the current challenge of understanding how to adapt teaching methods in order to

This educational conception is understood broadly, thus not linked to any specific philosophical, psychological or pedagogical current, but open to all lines of thinking which may contribute to the perfecting of the person—as a whole—with no reductionism whatsoever [23]. Notwithstanding any political powers or pressure groups, educational personalization accepts sociocultural and scientific progress. From this point of view, it is understood that teachers may find the reasons for their profession in the nature of their own selves, if that serves as support [26]. Personalized education, when related to aptitudes for evaluation and performance rather than to content learning, enhances training as a means for professional development. Therefore, the program aims at enabling a type of formative learning related more to beginning teachers' understanding of the reality of teaching and learning, the pedagogical subject and school contexts, as well as to theirs ability to act upon an educative situation, rather than to specific disciplinary contents. In this sense, the educative style presents two main significances: teachers' teaching styles and students' learning styles within a person-forming teaching and

Teaching and learning are conceived as constitutive parts of a unique process,

The development of abilities necessary for the execution of such functions is the reason for the educational labor, therefore showing the aims of learning, which in personalized education are conceived as constituted by three types of components:

Constructivist theory conceptualizes professional teaching development defining teachers as active, practical and reflexive apprentices able to build their own theories and practices collectively with other teachers, institutional actors, families

This is a long terms process which takes place in a particular context, i.e., it is centered in an educational institution and refers to daily teacher and student activities. This is not skills training but a culture building process. In this framework, teachers are conceived as practical and reflexive, and professional development

aims at helping teachers to build new pedagogic theories and practices.

as teaching makes sense only when it provokes learning. The learning model related to personalized education is conditioned by how human cognitive activity is conceived, mainly when referred to intelligence and knowledge functions in a strict

professional development—and adult transformative learning theory.

**2.2 Theoretical framework**

sional expertise.

universalize learning [25].

learning model.

sense and to expression functions.

cognition, aptitude and evaluation.

and members of the community.

**86**

Learning gains a role through interaction with others in a real problem-solving context which encourages learning through reflection, experience and dialog, thus discovering the significance of happenings in a given context. It is a social rather than individual type of learning, based on specific rather than theoretical situations.

From these two viewpoints, professional development is a collaborative process that is more successful when it involves significant interactions. Regarding configuration, there is no professional development format or model better than others; institutions and educator must evaluate their needs, cultural beliefs and practices to decide which model is more appropriate for their situation [4].

Furthermore, encouraging teachers to teach for idea understanding and elaboration and diversity is essential in order to let students find productive entrance paths to knowledge at the same time they learn how to live together in a constructive manner. Teachers must combine content and student knowledge and understanding with the communities where they work, ensuring that families participate in the process as well [27].

Considering that teachers are adults who not only teach but also learn, and that such learning implies learning how to teach, the learning theory called transformative learning theory, developed by Mezirow in the late 70's, is adopted.

According to this theory, the construction of meaning is fundamental, provided that transformative learning is conceived as that which transforms reference frameworks.

Reference frameworks refers to culture and language structures through which human experiences are construed and therefore given coherence and meaning [28]. Such frameworks are conceptualized as the groups of fixed cases and expectations, i.e., significance perspectives and ways of thinking.

The author understands this theory as a type of cognitive epistemology on evidential and dialogic (instrumental and communicative, respectively) reasoning. Mezirow agrees with Habermas on the three types of learning (technical, practical and emancipatory) and names them: instrumental, dialogic and self-reflexive.

Reasoning is deemed as an advance and belief evaluation process. From this viewpoint, transformative learning is conceptualized as an adult dimension of reason evaluation, which implies validation and reformulation of meaning structures.

Transformative learning theory supposes as a grownup way to transform those reference frameworks that lead actions. Adoption of such learning theory is deemed appropriate, considering that it may promote an evaluation of the conceptions related to the teaching, learning and professional identity of the participant teachers, and an eventual reformulation, if deemed appropriate [28].

This proposal and corresponding formative on-site contextualized action is expected to achieve the following goals: a. to consider needs, demands and worries that teachers state regarding areas of improvement, especially in connection with teaching practices; b. to work on enhancing teaching skills from experience; c. to promote teacher participation and interaction; d. to establish adolescents and their learning as the observation and analysis focus for the creation of pedagogical practices; e. to provide theoretical and practical elements to develop teaching tasks that work towards citizenship education and coexistence, via the exercise of inclusion, attention to diversity and incorporation of the communities to which students belong.

#### **2.3 Research on the professional needs of target beginning teachers**

In order to find inquire into the need for beginning teacher training, a study population was conformed with up to 5-year professionally experienced teachers from the 42 public high schools from the East region of the country. High school

inspectors and management teams acted as external observers, and secretaries and beginning teachers as beginning observers.

The subjects of study are: beginning teachers' profile and performance at highschools where they work; expectations and interests in a professional enhancement program for beginning teachers; aims and contents that a program of the kind should have, and the need for training.

During a research preparation phase, a high-school board is created to collect information and form a database of the beginning teachers working in such institutions. Interviews are held with the inspectors of the East region of Secondary Education to inform them on the study to be performed and learn about their interest in the study, to request their support. The directors of the high-schools of the Region are informed via telephone about the importance that providing the information requested has for the research. Collection instruments are designed and validated by secondary education inspectors.

The techniques applied for gathering information were surveys and interviews. Interviews as a means are selected due to the geographic distances among highschools. Interviews allow the triangulation of the information collected in the surveys.

High-school (n = 42) teacher-secretaries are surveyed as per request of formfilling with the data about beginning teachers' profiles (age, workload, graduate certificate or lack whereof).

Individual interviews are presented as well to the members of the board (n = 91). They are deemed qualified informants based on their expertise and experience and are enquired on the performance of beginning teachers and expectations for a professional enhancement program aimed at beginning teachers.

Interviews with 19 directors and assistant directors (45% of the total) are held to analyze the performance of beginning teachers and know their perspective on the objectives and contents that a professional enhancing program aimed at beginning teachers should have. The selection criteria used for directors involve: representing over 30% of the total and that some of the directors work at high-schools located in departmental capitals, with over 1000 students, and others work at remote highschools with under 500 students.

Four hundred and seventeen beginning teachers (57% of the total at reach) were personally interviewed and 21 (25% of the teachers willing to be interviewed) were telephonically interviewed on their professional needs, in order to also know their interest in a professional enhancement program.

Quantitative—by means of SPSS software- and qualitative methodologies—by means of content analysis—were applied.

#### **2.4 The need for beginning teacher training**

Both beginning teachers and participants of management teams of the high schools where they perform their teaching jobs, when interviewed, stated the need for professional training and, in most cases, showed their interest in the satisfaction of said needs via a professional enhancement course.

The difference between graduated beginning teachers and non-graduated beginning teachers, when perceived, mainly resides in the strength of their initial training, theoretical or specific to a subject, and in the methodology observed in graduates.

This conclusion is relevant as it defines the option of designing a program aimed at beginning teachers who have graduated from teacher training courses. It is understood that the professional needs of those who have not fulfilled the requirements of initial training courses to perform as teachers should be broader as non-graduate teachers, in general, lack pedagogical, psychological and educational training despite their subject-related expertise.

**89**

*A Professional Development Program for Beginning High School Teachers*

continuous training and skill development for beginning teachers.

learning orientation and student-performed tasks.

planning tasks in a diverse context.

general pedagogical characteristics.

includes formative assessment [30].

*2.5.1 General objectives*

**2.5 Design of the professional development program**

The program is called *SER Profesor* (being a teacher).

addictions.

Although there is institutional support for beginning teachers, such support is not a part of any action plan organized by the National Council for Education but created or not according to the initiatives of management teams in each high school. Such support, if any, does not seem to be efficient enough for beginning teachers, who do not recognize it as a professional support device relevant to a high school culture.

From the management teams' viewpoint, professional knowledge and especially pedagogical and psychological knowledge, the educational bond between teachers and adolescent students, groups and institutions, their colleagues and the context and the attitudes that teachers may have towards their profession must be subject to

Consistently, beginning teachers state their feeling a need for improvement and continuous professional self-training, in order to know how to deal with students and inappropriate behavior, for encouraging them to learn, contributing in the creation of a culture within the education center from a relational point of view and for strengthening general and specific didactic knowledge related to content teaching,

Additionally, both student diversity and inclusion raise professional training needs in beginning teachers, to encourage learning and to consider those students who present learning difficulties, special needs or other problems, such as

Consequently, it is induced that a professional strengthening program which attempts an approach to the satisfaction of such needs must aim at continuing training related to the performance of teaching roles, in consonance with the requirements of the secondary level of education and in the framework of the professional stage of acquisition of teaching roles. Moreover, studying and understanding adolescents and planning their involvement in the classroom seems to be crucial as training subject matter, as adolescents and their physical, psychological and social conditions are diverse. Enhancing systematic observation is a potential asset for

Little mention to the need for strengthening disciplinary knowledge confirms

the interest in the design of a professional teaching development course with

This program is expected to present a pedagogical updating and renewing nature, aimed at improving the teaching profession [29]. This is a course of action structured with pedagogical contents common to all teachers and their areas, and it

Being a teacher and having a personalized educational style involves a way of teaching, working and expressing oneself, featured by: being receptive and conciliatory, which is related to the reception principle; being reflexive and creative, in relation to the personal identity principle; individualizing and encouraging coexistence, considering the manifestations of the identity principle; being optimistic, in accordance with the principles and corresponding manifestations that define a person.

The program promotes pedagogy from the teacher as a person, aimed at the student as a person, which combines what teachers ought to do with real responsibilities of a teaching job. The following premises act as bases: (a) the initial acquisition of the teaching role, which beginning teachers experience, makes teachers prone to

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83649*

#### *A Professional Development Program for Beginning High School Teachers DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83649*

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

beginning teachers as beginning observers.

should have, and the need for training.

certificate or lack whereof).

schools with under 500 students.

interest in a professional enhancement program.

means of content analysis—were applied.

despite their subject-related expertise.

**2.4 The need for beginning teacher training**

of said needs via a professional enhancement course.

and validated by secondary education inspectors.

inspectors and management teams acted as external observers, and secretaries and

The subjects of study are: beginning teachers' profile and performance at highschools where they work; expectations and interests in a professional enhancement program for beginning teachers; aims and contents that a program of the kind

During a research preparation phase, a high-school board is created to collect information and form a database of the beginning teachers working in such institutions. Interviews are held with the inspectors of the East region of Secondary Education to inform them on the study to be performed and learn about their interest in the study, to request their support. The directors of the high-schools of the Region are informed via telephone about the importance that providing the information requested has for the research. Collection instruments are designed

The techniques applied for gathering information were surveys and interviews. Interviews as a means are selected due to the geographic distances among highschools. Interviews allow the triangulation of the information collected in the surveys. High-school (n = 42) teacher-secretaries are surveyed as per request of formfilling with the data about beginning teachers' profiles (age, workload, graduate

Individual interviews are presented as well to the members of the board (n = 91).

Interviews with 19 directors and assistant directors (45% of the total) are held to analyze the performance of beginning teachers and know their perspective on the objectives and contents that a professional enhancing program aimed at beginning teachers should have. The selection criteria used for directors involve: representing over 30% of the total and that some of the directors work at high-schools located in departmental capitals, with over 1000 students, and others work at remote high-

Four hundred and seventeen beginning teachers (57% of the total at reach) were personally interviewed and 21 (25% of the teachers willing to be interviewed) were telephonically interviewed on their professional needs, in order to also know their

Quantitative—by means of SPSS software- and qualitative methodologies—by

Both beginning teachers and participants of management teams of the high schools where they perform their teaching jobs, when interviewed, stated the need for professional training and, in most cases, showed their interest in the satisfaction

The difference between graduated beginning teachers and non-graduated beginning teachers, when perceived, mainly resides in the strength of their initial training, theoretical or specific to a subject, and in the methodology observed in graduates. This conclusion is relevant as it defines the option of designing a program aimed at beginning teachers who have graduated from teacher training courses. It is understood that the professional needs of those who have not fulfilled the requirements of initial training courses to perform as teachers should be broader as non-graduate teachers, in general, lack pedagogical, psychological and educational training

They are deemed qualified informants based on their expertise and experience and are enquired on the performance of beginning teachers and expectations for a

professional enhancement program aimed at beginning teachers.

**88**

Although there is institutional support for beginning teachers, such support is not a part of any action plan organized by the National Council for Education but created or not according to the initiatives of management teams in each high school. Such support, if any, does not seem to be efficient enough for beginning teachers, who do not recognize it as a professional support device relevant to a high school culture.

From the management teams' viewpoint, professional knowledge and especially pedagogical and psychological knowledge, the educational bond between teachers and adolescent students, groups and institutions, their colleagues and the context and the attitudes that teachers may have towards their profession must be subject to continuous training and skill development for beginning teachers.

Consistently, beginning teachers state their feeling a need for improvement and continuous professional self-training, in order to know how to deal with students and inappropriate behavior, for encouraging them to learn, contributing in the creation of a culture within the education center from a relational point of view and for strengthening general and specific didactic knowledge related to content teaching, learning orientation and student-performed tasks.

Additionally, both student diversity and inclusion raise professional training needs in beginning teachers, to encourage learning and to consider those students who present learning difficulties, special needs or other problems, such as addictions.

Consequently, it is induced that a professional strengthening program which attempts an approach to the satisfaction of such needs must aim at continuing training related to the performance of teaching roles, in consonance with the requirements of the secondary level of education and in the framework of the professional stage of acquisition of teaching roles. Moreover, studying and understanding adolescents and planning their involvement in the classroom seems to be crucial as training subject matter, as adolescents and their physical, psychological and social conditions are diverse. Enhancing systematic observation is a potential asset for planning tasks in a diverse context.

Little mention to the need for strengthening disciplinary knowledge confirms the interest in the design of a professional teaching development course with general pedagogical characteristics.

#### **2.5 Design of the professional development program**

This program is expected to present a pedagogical updating and renewing nature, aimed at improving the teaching profession [29]. This is a course of action structured with pedagogical contents common to all teachers and their areas, and it includes formative assessment [30].

The program is called *SER Profesor* (being a teacher).

Being a teacher and having a personalized educational style involves a way of teaching, working and expressing oneself, featured by: being receptive and conciliatory, which is related to the reception principle; being reflexive and creative, in relation to the personal identity principle; individualizing and encouraging coexistence, considering the manifestations of the identity principle; being optimistic, in accordance with the principles and corresponding manifestations that define a person.

#### *2.5.1 General objectives*

The program promotes pedagogy from the teacher as a person, aimed at the student as a person, which combines what teachers ought to do with real responsibilities of a teaching job. The following premises act as bases: (a) the initial acquisition of the teaching role, which beginning teachers experience, makes teachers prone to making sense of their professional performance or clarifying the sense and significance of their roles; (b) beginning teachers may find a reason to their profession in their nature, if assisted.

Based on such premises, two objectives give meaning to this program: (1) to contribute to the professional development of beginning teachers and (2) to encourage improvement in the teaching quality developed by beginning teachers, within this initial stage.

Therefore, the following general objectives are established: (a) to promote the development of critical thinking and participation in dialectical discourse on teaching tasks, students' learning and the context in which they meet and how they relate; (b) to enhance general pedagogical training and aptitude towards continuous training as a requirement for performing teaching roles; (c) to enable the construction of a professional identity consistent with the characteristics that conform the initial stage of the professional teaching development process; and (d) to teach values and attitudes that consider teachers as professionals who assist students in their reaching the highest level of personal autonomy as a manifestation of personalized comprehensive education.

#### *2.5.2 Course duration and modality*

The program is divided in four thematic units and a total class load of four credits (i.e., 60 hours) to be taken in 4 months, obtaining one credit per unit (i.e., 15-hour coursework during class time, assisted tasks and individual studying.) This option is substantiated by the research that argues that teachers need considerable professional development of about 50 hours to improve their skills and enhance student-learning [31].

The modality proposed is blended workshop-courses. B-learning may facilitate the demands of the course, in so far as the number of hours participants need to attend the course decrease, thus encouraging home studying instead. An on-line platform is an essential resource to apply this modality.

#### *2.5.3 Contents*

The general criteria used to solve issues related to content selection is the following: (a) selection of meaningful aspects and concepts that enable the acquisition of new knowledge to the participants; (b) possibility of exchanging work during class time; (c) adequation to beginners' condition regarding training and experience; (d) approach to real situations related to teaching jobs; and (e) functionality, regarding the extent to which such contents can be applied effectively to teaching practices.

It is a concentric program, organized consistently with pedagogical practice as interest center and linking core, from four analysis levels. These levels give name to each of the four units. Such units and their corresponding contents are presented in **Table 1**.

#### *2.5.4 Methods*

The teaching method applied throughout the course aims at the encouragement of motivation for constructive meaningful learning, based on the interrelation of contents and participants' teaching experience. The following didactic criteria are considered for motivation: presentation of tasks with relevant contents which related to their reality and are valuable as necessary for their training and experience; student involvement in tasks, encouraging participation and providing the chance to choose topics to study in depth; concrete real work, based on experience, so as to promote understanding and raise interest in learning; recovery of main

**91**

*2.5.5 Assessment*

**3. Conclusions**

ment process promoted by the course.

judgment is related to achievements instead of to aims.

its execution by the leading teacher are subject to evaluation as well.

*A Professional Development Program for Beginning High School Teachers*

Systematic observation for knowledge and analysis of pedagogical practice

**Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4**

**Contents Contents Contents Contents**

1.Observation concept and nature Advantages and limitations. 2.Techniques and procedures for recording data. 3.Observation planning. 4.Analysis and data interpretation.

Adolescents and their learning as a reason for pedagogical practices

1.Characteristics of adolescents in the present society and context of the education

2.General principles of cognitive and psychosocial development

4.Principles for the optimization of learning encouragement

center.

in adolescents. 3.Learning encouragement based on theoretical diverse focuses: conductivism, humanism, cognitivism, attribution theory, achievement motivation.

Syllabi aimed at addressing students' socio-personal diversity

1.Needs for planning. 2.Annual and unit-based planning. Bases. Components. 3.Integration of educational technologies consistent with planning. 4.Syllabi aimed at addressing student sociopersonal diversity.

meaningful codes and languages for participants, arising from their contexts, visual culture, musical expressions, sports, interactive IT culture; inclusion of emotions when teaching, thus helping participants to overcome their insecurity and enabling thought and feeling expression; personalized communication and tracking of individual progress; encouragement of teamwork, as a mediator of experiences and external perspectives to favor personal identity and socialization; use of interesting topics to participants; progress and mistakes assessment and self-assessment and commitment to learning; coherence between teacher's discourse and practices [32].

Assessment is one of the most significant activities of the professional develop-

Gained knowledge, developed attitudes and developed and acquired procedures quality are subject to evaluation. Components of the program aimed at improving

The research performed on beginning teacher professional training needs was essential for the accomplishment of the objective: designing a professional development program aimed at enhancing beginning teacher training for teachers who

In this framework, assessment is conceptualized as a systematic process of collection of information on the relevant aspects of the educational situation. Assessment allows the formulation of pre-established value judgment to take improvement decisions in the training process of the teachers involved with such evaluation. Considering its social, control and certification dimensions, such value

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83649*

Being a teacher at secondary

1.The sense of being a teacher: being, acting and feeling like

2.Stages of teaching experience and characteristics of professional and personal

3.Possibilities and limitations in the initial professional training stage: professional needs emerging from pedagogical practices. 4.Professional knowledge, attitudes and values of teachers at secondary education level.

*Thematic units and contents.*

education level

a teacher.

development.

**Table 1.**

*A Professional Development Program for Beginning High School Teachers DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83649*


**Table 1.**

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

alized comprehensive education.

*2.5.2 Course duration and modality*

platform is an essential resource to apply this modality.

student-learning [31].

*2.5.3 Contents*

*2.5.4 Methods*

their nature, if assisted.

initial stage.

making sense of their professional performance or clarifying the sense and significance of their roles; (b) beginning teachers may find a reason to their profession in

Therefore, the following general objectives are established: (a) to promote the development of critical thinking and participation in dialectical discourse on teaching tasks, students' learning and the context in which they meet and how they relate; (b) to enhance general pedagogical training and aptitude towards continuous training as a requirement for performing teaching roles; (c) to enable the construction of a professional identity consistent with the characteristics that conform the initial stage of the professional teaching development process; and (d) to teach values and attitudes that consider teachers as professionals who assist students in their reaching the highest level of personal autonomy as a manifestation of person-

The program is divided in four thematic units and a total class load of four credits (i.e., 60 hours) to be taken in 4 months, obtaining one credit per unit (i.e., 15-hour coursework during class time, assisted tasks and individual studying.) This option is substantiated by the research that argues that teachers need considerable professional development of about 50 hours to improve their skills and enhance

The modality proposed is blended workshop-courses. B-learning may facilitate the demands of the course, in so far as the number of hours participants need to attend the course decrease, thus encouraging home studying instead. An on-line

The general criteria used to solve issues related to content selection is the following: (a) selection of meaningful aspects and concepts that enable the acquisition of new knowledge to the participants; (b) possibility of exchanging work during class time; (c) adequation to beginners' condition regarding training and experience; (d) approach to real situations related to teaching jobs; and (e) functionality, regarding the extent to which such contents can be applied effectively to teaching practices. It is a concentric program, organized consistently with pedagogical practice as interest center and linking core, from four analysis levels. These levels give name to each of the four units. Such units and their corresponding contents are presented in **Table 1**.

The teaching method applied throughout the course aims at the encouragement

of motivation for constructive meaningful learning, based on the interrelation of contents and participants' teaching experience. The following didactic criteria are considered for motivation: presentation of tasks with relevant contents which related to their reality and are valuable as necessary for their training and experience; student involvement in tasks, encouraging participation and providing the chance to choose topics to study in depth; concrete real work, based on experience, so as to promote understanding and raise interest in learning; recovery of main

Based on such premises, two objectives give meaning to this program: (1) to contribute to the professional development of beginning teachers and (2) to encourage improvement in the teaching quality developed by beginning teachers, within this

**90**

*Thematic units and contents.*

meaningful codes and languages for participants, arising from their contexts, visual culture, musical expressions, sports, interactive IT culture; inclusion of emotions when teaching, thus helping participants to overcome their insecurity and enabling thought and feeling expression; personalized communication and tracking of individual progress; encouragement of teamwork, as a mediator of experiences and external perspectives to favor personal identity and socialization; use of interesting topics to participants; progress and mistakes assessment and self-assessment and commitment to learning; coherence between teacher's discourse and practices [32].

#### *2.5.5 Assessment*

Assessment is one of the most significant activities of the professional development process promoted by the course.

In this framework, assessment is conceptualized as a systematic process of collection of information on the relevant aspects of the educational situation. Assessment allows the formulation of pre-established value judgment to take improvement decisions in the training process of the teachers involved with such evaluation. Considering its social, control and certification dimensions, such value judgment is related to achievements instead of to aims.

Gained knowledge, developed attitudes and developed and acquired procedures quality are subject to evaluation. Components of the program aimed at improving its execution by the leading teacher are subject to evaluation as well.

#### **3. Conclusions**

The research performed on beginning teacher professional training needs was essential for the accomplishment of the objective: designing a professional development program aimed at enhancing beginning teacher training for teachers who

work at national public high-schools. Apart from identifying the main common needs of the population that acted as the study subject, this research allows the deduction a first conclusion: the needs recognized for both beginning teachers and the directors of educative centers where the former work relate to general pedagogical update rather than to specific-discipline related analysis. This observation has enabled two important decisions to adopt in order to define the nature of the program. On the one hand, there is the need for a pedagogical program. On the second hand, the update strategy is the most appropriate and viable framework for the design of the program, provided that the target teachers have already received basic training provided by their initial training studies. Moreover, the educative system currently offers specializations based on the analysis of specific, disciplinary areas or institution management.

The state-of-the-art study performed in the field of teacher training reveals the interest that the policies of education ministries from numerous countries express, and the interest of educative research on teacher preparation via training, updating or specialization, as means for continuous professional training. Consequentially, there is a second conclusion: it is necessary to define the objective of the training proposal to be presented. The decision adopted for the purpose of the pedagogical program to be designed to be teacher personal and professional growth acknowledges the value of people working as professional teachers who assume the responsible task of collaborating in the development of other people, i.e., the students. Therefore, their human condition and social responsibility are emphasized in the name of the program: *SER Profesor* (being a teacher) and personalized education fundaments are adopted.

A pedagogical program aimed at teachers in their first professional stage must be coherent with the current challenges the society offers and with the demands of this teaching training. Within such demands social inclusion is emphasized.

The third conclusion is that a pedagogical program of this kind should be structured on the following bases: teachers' needs, demands and concerns regarding areas to improve, mainly in relation to teaching practices, teaching-skill enhancement, teacher participation and interaction; teenagers and their learning as the observation focus, pedagogical practice analysis and construction; practical and theoretical elements to develop teaching tasks addressed to citizenship education and coexistence by means of execution of inclusion, attention to diversity and involvement of the communities to which the students belong.

From a constructivist viewpoint, teachers are conceived as practical, reflexive and active learners who must be helped in their building new pedagogical theories and practices. In this sense, the fourth conclusion is related to the conditions a professional development program should present. Three conditions are highlighted: firstly, professional development conceived as a collaborative, culture-building process which will become more effective depending on significant interactions among teachers, members of the educative institution, students' families and members of the community in general. Secondly, a professional development program must promote relevant teaching knowledge addressing the concerns resulting from teaching practices expressed by teachers. Thirdly, transformative learning may be the appropriate type of learning for a program that encourages the transformation of teachers' reference frameworks through the development of critical thinking skills and participation in dialectical discourse in order to validate better reflective opinions.

The fifth conclusion implies the general objectives of the course. These objectives must be aimed at promoting four critical aspects of a professional development program. Such objectives are: (a) development of critical thinking and participation in dialectical discourse on teaching tasks, student learning, the context where such

**93**

provided the original work is properly cited.

Pública (ANEP), Montevideo, Uruguay

\*Address all correspondence to: cristinaciel@gmail.com

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

Consejo de Formación en Educación (CFE), Administración Nacional de Educación

*A Professional Development Program for Beginning High School Teachers*

budget, infrastructure and human resources needs are met.

learning takes place and student interaction; (b) general pedagogical training and aptitude for continuous training as requirements for practice teaching roles; (c) building a professional identities that match the characteristics which conform the initial stage of the teaching-profession development process; and (d) training in values and positive attitudes for the conception of teachers as professionals who provide assistance to students for them to achieve the highest possible level of personal autonomy as a result of personalized comprehensive education.

Considering the national institutional context related to public teacher training and the comments of the researchers on teacher professional development, the sixth conclusion lays on the convenience of the program presenting the following characteristics: (a) being defined as an induction program; (b) being taken during the first year of career simultaneously with performing teaching tasks; (c) having a four-credit classload equivalent to 60 hours in a class/workshop b-learning modality; (d) certification upon passing the course; and (e) having national reach as far as

Once at program-design stage, the program is conceptualized as an action plan constituted by objectives, contents, means and resources and a system conformed via formative assessment, which is also influenced by external components, such as context and technical, practical and ethical requirements, according to the nature

The seventh conclusion relates to the contents of each component of the program and consists of structuring them on four units articulated as per level of knowledge of pedagogical practice in relation to the following matters: (1) being a teacher at a secondary level, (2) teenagers and their learning as a reason for pedagogical practice, (3) systematic observation in pursue of knowledge and analysis of pedagogical practice, and (4) planning aimed at student socio-personal diversity.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83649*

of the program.

**Author details**

Cristina Maciel de Oliveira

#### *A Professional Development Program for Beginning High School Teachers DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83649*

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

areas or institution management.

fundaments are adopted.

work at national public high-schools. Apart from identifying the main common needs of the population that acted as the study subject, this research allows the deduction a first conclusion: the needs recognized for both beginning teachers and the directors of educative centers where the former work relate to general pedagogical update rather than to specific-discipline related analysis. This observation has enabled two important decisions to adopt in order to define the nature of the program. On the one hand, there is the need for a pedagogical program. On the second hand, the update strategy is the most appropriate and viable framework for the design of the program, provided that the target teachers have already received basic training provided by their initial training studies. Moreover, the educative system currently offers specializations based on the analysis of specific, disciplinary

The state-of-the-art study performed in the field of teacher training reveals the interest that the policies of education ministries from numerous countries express, and the interest of educative research on teacher preparation via training, updating or specialization, as means for continuous professional training. Consequentially, there is a second conclusion: it is necessary to define the objective of the training proposal to be presented. The decision adopted for the purpose of the pedagogical program to be designed to be teacher personal and professional growth acknowledges the value of people working as professional teachers who assume the responsible task of collaborating in the development of other people, i.e., the students. Therefore, their human condition and social responsibility are emphasized in the name of the program: *SER Profesor* (being a teacher) and personalized education

A pedagogical program aimed at teachers in their first professional stage must be coherent with the current challenges the society offers and with the demands of this

teaching training. Within such demands social inclusion is emphasized.

involvement of the communities to which the students belong.

The third conclusion is that a pedagogical program of this kind should be structured on the following bases: teachers' needs, demands and concerns regarding areas to improve, mainly in relation to teaching practices, teaching-skill enhancement, teacher participation and interaction; teenagers and their learning as the observation focus, pedagogical practice analysis and construction; practical and theoretical elements to develop teaching tasks addressed to citizenship education and coexistence by means of execution of inclusion, attention to diversity and

From a constructivist viewpoint, teachers are conceived as practical, reflexive and active learners who must be helped in their building new pedagogical theories and practices. In this sense, the fourth conclusion is related to the conditions a professional development program should present. Three conditions are highlighted: firstly, professional development conceived as a collaborative, culture-building process which will become more effective depending on significant interactions among teachers, members of the educative institution, students' families and members of the community in general. Secondly, a professional development program must promote relevant teaching knowledge addressing the concerns resulting from teaching practices expressed by teachers. Thirdly, transformative learning may be the appropriate type of learning for a program that encourages the transformation of teachers' reference frameworks through the development of critical thinking skills and participation in dialectical discourse in order to validate better reflective

The fifth conclusion implies the general objectives of the course. These objectives must be aimed at promoting four critical aspects of a professional development program. Such objectives are: (a) development of critical thinking and participation in dialectical discourse on teaching tasks, student learning, the context where such

**92**

opinions.

learning takes place and student interaction; (b) general pedagogical training and aptitude for continuous training as requirements for practice teaching roles; (c) building a professional identities that match the characteristics which conform the initial stage of the teaching-profession development process; and (d) training in values and positive attitudes for the conception of teachers as professionals who provide assistance to students for them to achieve the highest possible level of personal autonomy as a result of personalized comprehensive education.

Considering the national institutional context related to public teacher training and the comments of the researchers on teacher professional development, the sixth conclusion lays on the convenience of the program presenting the following characteristics: (a) being defined as an induction program; (b) being taken during the first year of career simultaneously with performing teaching tasks; (c) having a four-credit classload equivalent to 60 hours in a class/workshop b-learning modality; (d) certification upon passing the course; and (e) having national reach as far as budget, infrastructure and human resources needs are met.

Once at program-design stage, the program is conceptualized as an action plan constituted by objectives, contents, means and resources and a system conformed via formative assessment, which is also influenced by external components, such as context and technical, practical and ethical requirements, according to the nature of the program.

The seventh conclusion relates to the contents of each component of the program and consists of structuring them on four units articulated as per level of knowledge of pedagogical practice in relation to the following matters: (1) being a teacher at a secondary level, (2) teenagers and their learning as a reason for pedagogical practice, (3) systematic observation in pursue of knowledge and analysis of pedagogical practice, and (4) planning aimed at student socio-personal diversity.

### **Author details**

Cristina Maciel de Oliveira

Consejo de Formación en Educación (CFE), Administración Nacional de Educación Pública (ANEP), Montevideo, Uruguay

\*Address all correspondence to: cristinaciel@gmail.com

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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[5] Comisión Europea. Cifras clave sobre el profesorado y los directores de centro en Europa. Informe Eurydice [Internet]. 2013. Available from: https://sede. educacion.gob.es/publiventa/detalle. action?cod=16288 [Accessed: Nov 14, 2018]

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[9] Ávalos B. Formación Docente: un aporte a la discusión. In: La experiencia de algunos países. Santiago, Chile [Internet]: UNESCO/ OREALC; 2002. pp. 35-37. Available from: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ images/0013/001310/131038so.pdf Accessed: Nov 3, 2018

[10] Alliaud A, y Vezub L. La formación inicial y continua de los docentes en los países del MERCOSUR. Problemas comunes, estructuras y desarrollos diversos. Cuadernos de Investigación Educativa. Universidad ORT, Montevideo. [Internet]. 2014;**5**(20): 31-46. Available from: https://ie.ort.edu. uy/innovaportal/file/20302/1/cuad\_20\_ cap1.pdf [Accessed: Nov 3, 2018]

[11] Day C. Formar docentes. Cómo, cuándo y en qué condiciones aprende el profesorado. 1st ed. Madrid: Narcea; 2005. 288 p

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*A Professional Development Program for Beginning High School Teachers*

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[25] Concha Albornoz C. Educación y Aprendizaje a lo Largo de la Vida: Desafíos para América Latina y el Caribe. Apuntes, Educación y Desarrollo Post-2015. Vol. 5. UNESCO; 2014.

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[28] Mezirow J. An overview on

P, Crowther J, editors. Lifelong Learning. Concepts and Contexts. New York: Routledge; 2006. pp. 24-38

[29] Saravia LM, Flores I. Estudio realizado en diez países. Lima

portfolio. Aprendizaje, competencias y evaluación. Madrid: UNED; 2012. 272 p

[27] Darling-Hammond L. El derecho de aprender. Crear buenas escuelas para todos. Barcelona: Ariel; 2001. 453 p

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[12] Imbernón F. La formación y el desarrollo profesional del profesorado: hacia una nueva cultura profesional.

Barcelona: Graó; 1994. 163 p

and instructional mastery. In: Hargreaves A, Fullan M, editors. Understanding Teacher Development. New York, NY: Longman Publishers;

[14] Esteve JM, Franco S, Vera J. Los profesores ante el cambio social. Barcelona: Anthropos. 1995. 297 p

[15] Unruh A, Turner H. Supervision for Change and Innovation. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Company; 1970. 333 p

[16] Veenman S. Perceived problems of beginning teachers. Research article. Sage Journals. (First Published). 1984;**54**:143-178. DOI: 10.3102/00346543054002143

[17] Huberman M. On teachers' careers: Once over lightly, with a broad brush. International Journal of Educational Research [Internet]. 1989;**13**(4):347-362. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect. com/science/article/pii/0883035589900335

[18] Marcelo García C, (Coord.). Desarrollo profesional e iniciación a la enseñanza. Barcelona: Promociones y Publicaciones

[19] Azcárate Goded P, Cuesta Fernández J. El profesorado novel de secundaria y su práctica. Estudio de un caso en las áreas de ciencias. Enseñanza de las ciencias [Internet]. 2005;**23**(3): 393-402. Available from: https://core. ac.uk/download/pdf/38990189.pdf

[20] Marcelo García C. Estudio sobre estrategias de inserción profesional en Europa. Revista Iberoamericana de Educación. Formación Docente. 1999;**19**:101-143. Available from:

[Accessed: Nov 3, 2018]

Universitarias, S.A; 1995. 461 p

[Accessed: Nov 3, 2018]

1992. pp. 216-241

*A Professional Development Program for Beginning High School Teachers DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83649*

[12] Imbernón F. La formación y el desarrollo profesional del profesorado: hacia una nueva cultura profesional. Barcelona: Graó; 1994. 163 p

[13] Huberman M. Teacher development and instructional mastery. In: Hargreaves A, Fullan M, editors. Understanding Teacher Development. New York, NY: Longman Publishers; 1992. pp. 216-241

[14] Esteve JM, Franco S, Vera J. Los profesores ante el cambio social. Barcelona: Anthropos. 1995. 297 p

[15] Unruh A, Turner H. Supervision for Change and Innovation. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Company; 1970. 333 p

[16] Veenman S. Perceived problems of beginning teachers. Research article. Sage Journals. (First Published). 1984;**54**:143-178. DOI: 10.3102/00346543054002143

[17] Huberman M. On teachers' careers: Once over lightly, with a broad brush. International Journal of Educational Research [Internet]. 1989;**13**(4):347-362. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect. com/science/article/pii/0883035589900335 [Accessed: Nov 3, 2018]

[18] Marcelo García C, (Coord.). Desarrollo profesional e iniciación a la enseñanza. Barcelona: Promociones y Publicaciones Universitarias, S.A; 1995. 461 p

[19] Azcárate Goded P, Cuesta Fernández J. El profesorado novel de secundaria y su práctica. Estudio de un caso en las áreas de ciencias. Enseñanza de las ciencias [Internet]. 2005;**23**(3): 393-402. Available from: https://core. ac.uk/download/pdf/38990189.pdf [Accessed: Nov 3, 2018]

[20] Marcelo García C. Estudio sobre estrategias de inserción profesional en Europa. Revista Iberoamericana de Educación. Formación Docente. 1999;**19**:101-143. Available from:

www.rieoei.org/oeivirt/rie19a03.htm [Accessed: Nov 3, 2018]

[21] Vaillant D. Análisis y reflexiones para pensar el desarrollo profesional continuo. Educar: Departament de Pedagogia Aplicada de la UAB [Internet]; 2014. pp. 55-66. Available from: www.redalyc.org/ pdf/3421/342132562004.pdf [Accessed: Nov 3, 2018]

[22] García Hoz V. Educación Personalizada. Madrid: Rialp; 1988. 348 p

[23] Bernardo Carrasco J, (Coord.). Educación personalizada: principios, técnicas y recursos. (UNIR). Madrid: Síntesis; 2011. 349 p

[24] Alonso Gorroño, V. Educación personalizada; apuesta obligada de presente y futuro [Internet]. 2012. Available from: https://www.educaweb. com/noticia/2012/09/03/educacionpersonalizada-apuesta-obligadapresente-futuro-5692/ [Accessed: Nov 3, 2018]

[25] Concha Albornoz C. Educación y Aprendizaje a lo Largo de la Vida: Desafíos para América Latina y el Caribe. Apuntes, Educación y Desarrollo Post-2015. Vol. 5. UNESCO; 2014. pp. 1-15

[26] Pérez Juste R, (Coord.). El portfolio. Aprendizaje, competencias y evaluación. Madrid: UNED; 2012. 272 p

[27] Darling-Hammond L. El derecho de aprender. Crear buenas escuelas para todos. Barcelona: Ariel; 2001. 453 p

[28] Mezirow J. An overview on transformative learning. In: Sutherland P, Crowther J, editors. Lifelong Learning. Concepts and Contexts. New York: Routledge; 2006. pp. 24-38

[29] Saravia LM, Flores I. Estudio realizado en diez países. Lima

**94**

2018]

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

[2] Maciel de Oliveira C. Análisis y valoración de las necesidades de formación de profesores principiantes de educación secundaria en Uruguay como base para el diseño de un programa de desarrollo profesional. Educación XX1 UNED [Internet]. 2018;**21**(1):63-86. Available from: http://revistas.uned. es/index.php/educacionXX1/article/ view/20176/16712 [Accessed: Nov 3, 2018]

[3] Jiménez Narváez MM, Angulo Delgado F. Breve estado del arte sobre los/as profesores/as principiantes. Revista Educación y Pedagogía [Internet]. 2008;**XX**(50):207-218. Available from: http://aprendeenlinea. udea.edu.co/revistas/index.php/ revistaeyp/article/viewFile/9935/9132

[Accessed: Nov 3, 2018]

[4] Villegas-Reimers E. Teacher Professional Development: An

[Internet]. Corporate author: UNESCO. International Institute for Educational Planning; 2003. Available from: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ images/0013/001330/133010e.pdf

[Accessed: Nov 14, 2018]

International Review of the Literature

[5] Comisión Europea. Cifras clave sobre el profesorado y los directores de centro en Europa. Informe Eurydice [Internet]. 2013. Available from: https://sede. educacion.gob.es/publiventa/detalle. action?cod=16288 [Accessed: Nov 14,

[6] Moliner L, y Loren C. La Formación Continua como proceso clave en la profesionalización docente: Buenas prácticas en Chile. Revista

[1] Consejo de Formación en Educación, Plan 2008—Profesorado [Internet]. 2018. Available from: http://www.cfe. edu.uy/index.php/planes-y-programas/ planes-vigentes-para-profesorado/42 planes-y-programas/profesorado/376 plan-2008 [Accessed: Nov 3, 2018]

Latinoamericana de Inclusión Educativa [Internet]. 2010;**4**(1):25-44. Available from: http://www.rinace.net/rlei/ numeros/vol4-num1/art1.pdf [Accessed:

[7] UNESCO. Enseñanza y aprendizaje: lograr la calidad para todos. Informe de seguimiento de la EPT en el mundo 2013/4. Educación para todos [Internet]. 2014. Available from: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ images/0022/002256/225654s.pdf

Nov 14, 2018]

[Accessed: Nov 14, 2018]

[Accessed: Nov 3, 2018]

Accessed: Nov 3, 2018

Educativa. Universidad ORT, Montevideo. [Internet]. 2014;**5**(20): 31-46. Available from: https://ie.ort.edu. uy/innovaportal/file/20302/1/cuad\_20\_ cap1.pdf [Accessed: Nov 3, 2018]

2005. 288 p

[11] Day C. Formar docentes. Cómo, cuándo y en qué condiciones aprende el profesorado. 1st ed. Madrid: Narcea;

[9] Ávalos B. Formación Docente: un aporte a la discusión. In: La experiencia de algunos países. Santiago, Chile [Internet]: UNESCO/ OREALC; 2002. pp. 35-37. Available from: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ images/0013/001310/131038so.pdf

[10] Alliaud A, y Vezub L. La formación inicial y continua de los docentes en los países del MERCOSUR. Problemas comunes, estructuras y desarrollos diversos. Cuadernos de Investigación

[8] Camargo Abello M, Calvo M, Franco Arbeláez MC, Vergara Arboleda M, Londoño S, Zapata Jaramillo F, et al. Las necesidades de formación permanente del docente Educación y Educadores. Educación y Educadores. Vol. 7. Colombia: Universidad de La Sabana Cundinamarca [Internet]; 2004. pp. 79-112. Available from: http://www. redalyc.org/pdf/834/83400708.pdf

**References**

[Internet]: Ministerio de Educación, DINFOCAD, PROEDUCA-GTZ; 2005. Available from: http://www.oei.es/pdfs/ formacion\_maestros\_america\_latina\_ PROEDUCA2.pdf [Accessed: Nov 3, 2018]

[30] Pérez Juste R. Evaluación de programas educativos. Madrid: La Muralla; 2006. 565 p

[31] Darling-Hammond L, Wei RC, Andree A, Richardson N, Orphanos S. Professional Learning in the Learning Profession: A Status Report on Teacher Development in the U.S. and Abroad. Technical Report. Dallas, TX: National Staff Development Council; 2009. 152 p

[32] Davini MC. La formación en la práctica docente. Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires: Paidós; 2015. 192 p

**97**

**Chapter 7**

*Olga Oleksiuk*

alternative, interdisciplinary

**1. Introduction**

**Abstract**

Modernization and Development

of Arts Education: Spiritual and

In the field of artistic education, the issue of modernization is considered in different contexts. In this chapter, the modernization of artistic education is considered as improvement, advancing, updating, and changes in accordance with the requirements of time and the macro-process of transition from the traditional view of education to innovation and its relationship with spiritual-ideological traditions. The main purpose of the modernization of artistic education is to improve the quality of the system through transformations and enhance its ability to respond adequately to the challenges of the time. The main challenge is globalization. Two philosophical concepts are considered—the concept of anthropological pedagogy and the concept of living knowledge. The basis for the modernization of the content of artistic education is a synergistic approach, which involves the integration of scientific knowledge, in particular, natural sciences and humanities. The task of artistic pedagogy is to establish a holistic view of a person, and it cannot be compensated at the objective level by traditional technologies. Integrity is a measure of spirituality, humanity, and the creative fiction of education. In the content of modern artistic education, special values are acquired by integrated special courses designed to guide future specialists in the specificity of the development of the individual's spiritual potential, on the value basis to formulate conceptual positions

aimed at preserving and enhancing spiritual and ideological values.

in particular, spiritual and philosophical reflection.

**Keywords:** arts education, modernization, development, spiritual and worldview

An important goal of modern education and a priority task of society and state is the formation of a responsible, enterprising, and competent citizen. The change of the educational paradigm requires a significant transformation of the entire pedagogical outlook, which means that pedagogical science is expected to have a fundamental breakthrough in the field of general scientific and philosophical and,

Literature review, conceptual framework, hypotheses, etc. The theme of modernization of artistic education is supplied from various sources. These are the philosophical and culturological works of Vernadsky, Tsiolkovsky, Chizhevsky, Soloviov, and others. The ideas of pedagogical anthropology (Golovanova, Lipskaia,

Worldview Alternative

#### **Chapter 7**

## Modernization and Development of Arts Education: Spiritual and Worldview Alternative

*Olga Oleksiuk*

#### **Abstract**

In the field of artistic education, the issue of modernization is considered in different contexts. In this chapter, the modernization of artistic education is considered as improvement, advancing, updating, and changes in accordance with the requirements of time and the macro-process of transition from the traditional view of education to innovation and its relationship with spiritual-ideological traditions. The main purpose of the modernization of artistic education is to improve the quality of the system through transformations and enhance its ability to respond adequately to the challenges of the time. The main challenge is globalization. Two philosophical concepts are considered—the concept of anthropological pedagogy and the concept of living knowledge. The basis for the modernization of the content of artistic education is a synergistic approach, which involves the integration of scientific knowledge, in particular, natural sciences and humanities. The task of artistic pedagogy is to establish a holistic view of a person, and it cannot be compensated at the objective level by traditional technologies. Integrity is a measure of spirituality, humanity, and the creative fiction of education. In the content of modern artistic education, special values are acquired by integrated special courses designed to guide future specialists in the specificity of the development of the individual's spiritual potential, on the value basis to formulate conceptual positions aimed at preserving and enhancing spiritual and ideological values.

**Keywords:** arts education, modernization, development, spiritual and worldview alternative, interdisciplinary

#### **1. Introduction**

An important goal of modern education and a priority task of society and state is the formation of a responsible, enterprising, and competent citizen. The change of the educational paradigm requires a significant transformation of the entire pedagogical outlook, which means that pedagogical science is expected to have a fundamental breakthrough in the field of general scientific and philosophical and, in particular, spiritual and philosophical reflection.

Literature review, conceptual framework, hypotheses, etc. The theme of modernization of artistic education is supplied from various sources. These are the philosophical and culturological works of Vernadsky, Tsiolkovsky, Chizhevsky, Soloviov, and others. The ideas of pedagogical anthropology (Golovanova, Lipskaia,

**96**

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

2018]

[Internet]: Ministerio de Educación, DINFOCAD, PROEDUCA-GTZ; 2005. Available from: http://www.oei.es/pdfs/ formacion\_maestros\_america\_latina\_ PROEDUCA2.pdf [Accessed: Nov 3,

[30] Pérez Juste R. Evaluación de programas educativos. Madrid: La

[31] Darling-Hammond L, Wei RC, Andree A, Richardson N, Orphanos S. Professional Learning in the Learning Profession: A Status Report on Teacher Development in the U.S. and Abroad. Technical Report. Dallas, TX: National Staff Development Council; 2009. 152 p

[32] Davini MC. La formación en la práctica docente. Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires: Paidós; 2015. 192 p

Muralla; 2006. 565 p

Luzina, and others) are of great importance. The works of Samokhvalova, in which synergetic discourse involves a holistic and multidimensional perception of an unstable and complex world of art, are of considerable interest.

The works of Ovcharuk, Bermus, Schmais, Thagapsoiev, and Oleksiuk played a significant role in the modernization of artistic education, which reveals the redefinition of theoretical approaches to the emergence of a new settled paradigm. The spiritual interpretation of the text is highlighted in the works of Oleksiuk, Tkach, and Lisun.

The ideas of the ontology of art, revealed in the writings of Losev and Medushevsky, emphasize that it is possible to comprehend the ontological essence of music by penetrating the semantic basis of intonational energies. The purpose of the article is to highlight the conceptual approaches of the spiritual and ideological alternative in the context of modernization and development of artistic education.

#### **1.1 Methodology of research**

To achieve the goal, scientific methods have been applied. They create a unique methodology of the chosen research, namely, analytical ones, with reference to the research of the scientific fund, inductive-deductive and generalization to reveal the essential characteristics of the analyzed pedagogical phenomenon, and its regularities of functioning and development.

#### **2. General material presentation**

Against the background of the domination of spiritual values in higher education, new requirements for the quality of arts education are specified. It is important to take into account the fact that due to the recent changes in the picture of the world, understanding of a person, his or her formation and development, has been changing. Today it can be argued that the realization of the higher self is possible only through the person's cognition of one's own internal nature. The ideas of personality's self-development, their spiritual potential, and ability to creative realization are becoming more and more widespread. The focus of cognition is shifting from social structures to human individuality, to subjectivity. Society is rapidly moving toward anthropocentrism, and this principle managed to enter modern pedagogy only since it reflects profound changes in social reality [1].

Nowadays, the direction of the new educational paradigm is clearly defined, and the subject of the post-non-classical arts pedagogy is determined. Thus, in particular, based on the ideas of Bim-Bad, it can be argued that the new post-non-classical arts pedagogy should be built on the basis of axioms formulated in the priorities of individual's uniqueness and ambivalence. Within the limits of the pedagogical axioms put forward by the author, a person is considered as the unity of their inherited, inborn, and acquired characteristics. Such a system turns pedagogy to the channel of humanistic anthropological pedagogy. Thus, as Bim-Bad claims, postnon-classical pedagogy receives its first ideological conception—the conception of anthropological pedagogy [2].

Another worldview conception of post-non-classical pedagogy suggested by the author is called the conception of living knowledge. This concept, in the author's opinion, is fundamentally inseparable from the conception of anthropological pedagogy. The complementarity of the two worldview conceptions can turn anthropological pedagogy into the channel of a systemic transformation of a man from

**99**

*Modernization and Development of Arts Education: Spiritual and Worldview Alternative*

adequate to the process of a postindustrial society development.

the biological person *Homo sapiens* into a person gifted with a systemic worldview

ity of the system by means of transformations and to enhance its ability to adequately respond to the challenges of the time. The main challenge is *globalization*. Global education as a consequence of globalization starts to acquire the qualities of the new social and humanitarian paradigm of upbringing the younger generation. This means that it can influence the important issues of education modernization and training of future specialists for interaction in European and world social

In the end of the twentieth century, there were two models of global education popular in foreign pedagogy. The essence of the first is in the formation of an impartial view of the world, real awareness of the general condition of the planet, the formation of cross-cultural literacy, knowledge of global dynamics, and an informed choice. The second model dictates the need to move from unconscious adaptation to the world to the position of active and deliberate socialization, conscious prediction, and personal involvement. According to Kukushin [4], global education acts as one of the directions of modern pedagogical theory and practice development, which is based on the need to prepare a person for life in the context

In this context, the most adequate requirements nowadays are the conceptual foundations of cognition characteristic of the philosophical school of unity (Vernadskyi, Tsiolkovskyi, Chyzhevskyi, Solovyov, et al.). Considering all the multifacetedness of these conceptual ideas, it is the ideas of *the philosophy of unit*y, whose outstanding representatives were Vernadskyi, Tsiolkovskyi, Chyzhevskyi, Solovyov, and a lot of their followers that deserve special attention. The most important conclusion that follows from the consideration of these conceptions is that a man is the essence of the universe, the main value of the universe. The path to high spirituality lies through the merger of a man with the cosmos, through a new cosmic worldview. The leitmotif of the scientists' works was the idea of unity as a methodological basis for the cognition of nature and human society in their interaction. The idea of unity plays a significant role in educating a worldview of a person of the "noosphere type of civilization." Its basic essence is as follows: any human activity must be spiritualized and nobel, carried out in accordance with the universal laws of the Nature and the Cosmos. Of great importance for solving the problem of educating a worldview of a person of a new noosphere civilization type are the works of Vernadskyi [5] on the versatility of the spatiotemporal states of matter, the structure and properties of time, and the nature of the scientific world outlook. In his opinion, the evolutionary process acquires a special geological significance due to the fact that it has created a new geological force—the scientific thought of a social mankind. Under the influence of the scientific thought and human work, the

biosphere is transformed into a new state—the noosphere.

We should note that Vernadskyi made a significant contribution to the disclosure

of general laws that are the basis for the three main branches of knowledge—on inanimate nature, living organisms, and people. The scientist has repeatedly emphasized that the spiritual power of society is created as a result of people's creative independent work in all branches of cultural life—science, philosophy, religion, and art. Therefore, education and upbringing should be oriented toward the training of culture creators. In his doctrine of the noosphere, Vernadskyi attempted to combine natural scientific and human knowledge by defining a thought as a peculiar form of energy. Consequently, unlike previous thinkers (their doctrines of unity were basically those of natural philosophy), Vernadskyi developed the idea

The main purpose of the modernization of arts education is to increase the qual-

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85375*

media [3].

of growing global problems.

#### *Modernization and Development of Arts Education: Spiritual and Worldview Alternative DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85375*

the biological person *Homo sapiens* into a person gifted with a systemic worldview adequate to the process of a postindustrial society development.

The main purpose of the modernization of arts education is to increase the quality of the system by means of transformations and to enhance its ability to adequately respond to the challenges of the time. The main challenge is *globalization*.

Global education as a consequence of globalization starts to acquire the qualities of the new social and humanitarian paradigm of upbringing the younger generation. This means that it can influence the important issues of education modernization and training of future specialists for interaction in European and world social media [3].

In the end of the twentieth century, there were two models of global education popular in foreign pedagogy. The essence of the first is in the formation of an impartial view of the world, real awareness of the general condition of the planet, the formation of cross-cultural literacy, knowledge of global dynamics, and an informed choice. The second model dictates the need to move from unconscious adaptation to the world to the position of active and deliberate socialization, conscious prediction, and personal involvement. According to Kukushin [4], global education acts as one of the directions of modern pedagogical theory and practice development, which is based on the need to prepare a person for life in the context of growing global problems.

In this context, the most adequate requirements nowadays are the conceptual foundations of cognition characteristic of the philosophical school of unity (Vernadskyi, Tsiolkovskyi, Chyzhevskyi, Solovyov, et al.). Considering all the multifacetedness of these conceptual ideas, it is the ideas of *the philosophy of unit*y, whose outstanding representatives were Vernadskyi, Tsiolkovskyi, Chyzhevskyi, Solovyov, and a lot of their followers that deserve special attention. The most important conclusion that follows from the consideration of these conceptions is that a man is the essence of the universe, the main value of the universe. The path to high spirituality lies through the merger of a man with the cosmos, through a new cosmic worldview. The leitmotif of the scientists' works was the idea of unity as a methodological basis for the cognition of nature and human society in their interaction. The idea of unity plays a significant role in educating a worldview of a person of the "noosphere type of civilization." Its basic essence is as follows: any human activity must be spiritualized and nobel, carried out in accordance with the universal laws of the Nature and the Cosmos. Of great importance for solving the problem of educating a worldview of a person of a new noosphere civilization type are the works of Vernadskyi [5] on the versatility of the spatiotemporal states of matter, the structure and properties of time, and the nature of the scientific world outlook. In his opinion, the evolutionary process acquires a special geological significance due to the fact that it has created a new geological force—the scientific thought of a social mankind. Under the influence of the scientific thought and human work, the biosphere is transformed into a new state—the noosphere.

We should note that Vernadskyi made a significant contribution to the disclosure of general laws that are the basis for the three main branches of knowledge—on inanimate nature, living organisms, and people. The scientist has repeatedly emphasized that the spiritual power of society is created as a result of people's creative independent work in all branches of cultural life—science, philosophy, religion, and art. Therefore, education and upbringing should be oriented toward the training of culture creators. In his doctrine of the noosphere, Vernadskyi attempted to combine natural scientific and human knowledge by defining a thought as a peculiar form of energy. Consequently, unlike previous thinkers (their doctrines of unity were basically those of natural philosophy), Vernadskyi developed the idea

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

Tkach, and Lisun.

**1.1 Methodology of research**

ties of functioning and development.

**2. General material presentation**

anthropological pedagogy [2].

education.

Luzina, and others) are of great importance. The works of Samokhvalova, in which synergetic discourse involves a holistic and multidimensional perception of an

The works of Ovcharuk, Bermus, Schmais, Thagapsoiev, and Oleksiuk played a significant role in the modernization of artistic education, which reveals the redefinition of theoretical approaches to the emergence of a new settled paradigm. The spiritual interpretation of the text is highlighted in the works of Oleksiuk,

To achieve the goal, scientific methods have been applied. They create a unique methodology of the chosen research, namely, analytical ones, with reference to the research of the scientific fund, inductive-deductive and generalization to reveal the essential characteristics of the analyzed pedagogical phenomenon, and its regulari-

Against the background of the domination of spiritual values in higher education, new requirements for the quality of arts education are specified. It is important to take into account the fact that due to the recent changes in the picture of the world, understanding of a person, his or her formation and development, has been changing. Today it can be argued that the realization of the higher self is possible only through the person's cognition of one's own internal nature. The ideas of personality's self-development, their spiritual potential, and ability to creative realization are becoming more and more widespread. The focus of cognition is shifting from social structures to human individuality, to subjectivity. Society is rapidly moving toward anthropocentrism, and this principle managed to enter modern

Nowadays, the direction of the new educational paradigm is clearly defined, and the subject of the post-non-classical arts pedagogy is determined. Thus, in particular, based on the ideas of Bim-Bad, it can be argued that the new post-non-classical arts pedagogy should be built on the basis of axioms formulated in the priorities of individual's uniqueness and ambivalence. Within the limits of the pedagogical axioms put forward by the author, a person is considered as the unity of their inherited, inborn, and acquired characteristics. Such a system turns pedagogy to the channel of humanistic anthropological pedagogy. Thus, as Bim-Bad claims, postnon-classical pedagogy receives its first ideological conception—the conception of

Another worldview conception of post-non-classical pedagogy suggested by the author is called the conception of living knowledge. This concept, in the author's opinion, is fundamentally inseparable from the conception of anthropological pedagogy. The complementarity of the two worldview conceptions can turn anthropological pedagogy into the channel of a systemic transformation of a man from

pedagogy only since it reflects profound changes in social reality [1].

The ideas of the ontology of art, revealed in the writings of Losev and Medushevsky, emphasize that it is possible to comprehend the ontological essence of music by penetrating the semantic basis of intonational energies. The purpose of the article is to highlight the conceptual approaches of the spiritual and ideological alternative in the context of modernization and development of artistic

unstable and complex world of art, are of considerable interest.

**98**

of "cosmos logos," where a person performs a special cosmic function—creates a noosphere.

Equally important for the upbringing of a new type of worldview consciousness is another idea of the philosophy of unity, which was first elaborated by Soloviov and later developed by Zenkovskyi, Franko, Muravyov, and other scholars. This is the idea of "unity," which in broad worldview terms means, first of all, the mutual attraction of people and is based on spiritual affinity. The first element of the collegiality is the personality. The very collegiality in its highest, cosmic manifestation lies at the heart of the culture of the past, the present, and the coming. The living person, as well as a particular collegial whole, is inextricably linked and mutually entrenched in one another and is mutually enriching. The idea of a collegiality is aimed at overcoming the antagonism between materialistic and idealistic and scientific and religious and, therefore, plays an essential methodological role in elaborating the foundations of post-non-classical pedagogy.

In the beginning of the third millennium, pedagogical science is becoming more and more aware of the fact that the solution of educational problems involves a new philosophical understanding of a person. Modern scholars (Holovanova, Lipska, Luzina, et al.) argue that various philosophical and anthropological trends (in particular, transcendental, phenomenological, and others) express a certain philosophical position on education. It is the anthropological aspects of philosophical knowledge that provide the pedagogical anthropology with a generalized notion of a person that underlies pedagogical anthropology and pedagogical views on the compatibility of pedagogy. Due to the organic unity of anthropological directions, one can reveal the pedagogical relations within which the formation of the human in humans occurs. Thus, Lipska in her conception [6] puts forward the idea of integration of pedagogical paradigms (objective and subjective) on the basis of philosophical and anthropological approaches. According to the author, such a paradigm is designed to unite different aspects of philosophical and pedagogical human studies into a single subject area. It proceeds from the principle of the integrity of a man as a unity of physical and mental, physical and spiritual, and social and individual and the construction of a modern anthropological model of education. Agreeing with this view, we shall note that modern pedagogy is only approaching the study of the laws of human development as integrity, but today it is known that person's spirituality and subjectivity depend on the integration of emotional, intellectual, motivational, cognitive, and other personality spheres.

It is clear that in today's conditions of rejecting the linear conception of progress and relevant to it classical philosophical interpretations, the scientific and pedagogical community is increasingly aware of the need for a new look at both musical art and its educational potential. At the same time, it results in a number of arising problems that require careful research in art studies, sociology, and cultural studies, as well as physics, biology, mathematics, etc. What unites these branches is the fact that they investigate the universal patterns of complex organizations, whose functioning is attempted to be explained by synergetics. Expanding the systemicity and dynamics of the surrounding world and introducing the vision of it as a universal unity, a synergistic approach can become the basis for modernizing the content of arts education through the integration of diverse scientific knowledge and, in particular, natural sciences and humanities.

Person's discovery and use of the organization laws in the nature in their artistic activity contribute to the closer connection of a man with the world and testify to the need for their mutual development (not the confrontation of a man with nature, but equal participation in the disclosure of the inherent potential of the movement toward beauty). Proceeding from the fact that any process of self-organization is capable of realizing only those potential opportunities that the

**101**

*Modernization and Development of Arts Education: Spiritual and Worldview Alternative*

Nature possesses, it can be argued that the organization of the artistic language is based on those principles of nature self-organization, which predetermine the appearance of objects regarded as beautiful. According to Samokhvalova [7], the principles of symmetry, the rhythmic structure in spatial and temporal structures, certain qualitative correlations, etc., which underlie artistic forms of expression, constitute the essence of the principle of the manifestation of the structure-

Thus, synergetic discourse implies a holistic and multidimensional perception of an unstable and complex world of art and readiness to diversification of its development, to the emergence of an unpredictable and, at the same time, a programmed new. Synergetics enabled the scientific community to realize the nonlinearity, multifactority, and probability of the world of art, the multivariant pathways of its development. Thanks to the general mechanisms and laws of the processes of socio-natural systems' self-organization, one can illustrate the unity of all existing things and build a unified procedural model of the world, where the life and work of people, culture, and society are subject to common laws of the universe. The widespread introduction of the synergetic conception into the humanities is internally determined by the prototypes of self-organization ideas. Understanding of general trends in the development of complex structured systems and knowledge of limitations associated with their

**3. Modernization and development of artistic education in post: classical** 

We consider post-non-classical arts education as the following: a value that preserves the person's individual view of the world, of art, and of themselves as the creators of artistic values and their creation; self-organized system, which integrates in its basis the self-development of musical art, and a person, which is in the conceptual field of intersubject relations; process of the person's values formation in the media space, which comprehends music values and creates new ones during creative activity; and the result of the value-based interaction of participants in the educational process, where education is a synergistic unity of time modes: past,

Supporters of defining the specifics of the modern stage of science development with the help of the concept of "post-non-classical science," point to its key difference from the classical and non-classical science. This difference lies in the fact that knowledge no longer focuses on the reflection of reality. Post-non-classical science is aimed at creating knowledge, whose reception and application must necessarily include the answer to the question: what are the values of human existence? What are the prospects of human existence in the light of new technologies' application? The new paradigm of education, the principal position of which is the hermeneutic interpretation of experience, involves the spiritual interpretation of the text, revealing its sense and meaning in the universe of culture. The intuitive processes involved in individual's subconscious provide them with the opportunity to comprehensively cover the whole text scope and comprehend its universal sense. In the end, it is the role of the value and sense intuition in the formation of the hermeneutic experience of the future teacher of musical art that is actualized [8, 9]. Thus, at the turning points in the life of society, there arises an objective need for new knowledge and new methodology. And the beginning of the twenty-first century is characterized by the beginning of the stage of rationalization, which is to end up

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85375*

forming forces of the very universe.

**discourse**

present, and future.

nature enable more realistic prediction of the result.

with the definition of new values of arts education.

#### *Modernization and Development of Arts Education: Spiritual and Worldview Alternative DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85375*

Nature possesses, it can be argued that the organization of the artistic language is based on those principles of nature self-organization, which predetermine the appearance of objects regarded as beautiful. According to Samokhvalova [7], the principles of symmetry, the rhythmic structure in spatial and temporal structures, certain qualitative correlations, etc., which underlie artistic forms of expression, constitute the essence of the principle of the manifestation of the structureforming forces of the very universe.

Thus, synergetic discourse implies a holistic and multidimensional perception of an unstable and complex world of art and readiness to diversification of its development, to the emergence of an unpredictable and, at the same time, a programmed new. Synergetics enabled the scientific community to realize the nonlinearity, multifactority, and probability of the world of art, the multivariant pathways of its development. Thanks to the general mechanisms and laws of the processes of socio-natural systems' self-organization, one can illustrate the unity of all existing things and build a unified procedural model of the world, where the life and work of people, culture, and society are subject to common laws of the universe. The widespread introduction of the synergetic conception into the humanities is internally determined by the prototypes of self-organization ideas. Understanding of general trends in the development of complex structured systems and knowledge of limitations associated with their nature enable more realistic prediction of the result.

#### **3. Modernization and development of artistic education in post: classical discourse**

We consider post-non-classical arts education as the following: a value that preserves the person's individual view of the world, of art, and of themselves as the creators of artistic values and their creation; self-organized system, which integrates in its basis the self-development of musical art, and a person, which is in the conceptual field of intersubject relations; process of the person's values formation in the media space, which comprehends music values and creates new ones during creative activity; and the result of the value-based interaction of participants in the educational process, where education is a synergistic unity of time modes: past, present, and future.

Supporters of defining the specifics of the modern stage of science development with the help of the concept of "post-non-classical science," point to its key difference from the classical and non-classical science. This difference lies in the fact that knowledge no longer focuses on the reflection of reality. Post-non-classical science is aimed at creating knowledge, whose reception and application must necessarily include the answer to the question: what are the values of human existence? What are the prospects of human existence in the light of new technologies' application?

The new paradigm of education, the principal position of which is the hermeneutic interpretation of experience, involves the spiritual interpretation of the text, revealing its sense and meaning in the universe of culture. The intuitive processes involved in individual's subconscious provide them with the opportunity to comprehensively cover the whole text scope and comprehend its universal sense. In the end, it is the role of the value and sense intuition in the formation of the hermeneutic experience of the future teacher of musical art that is actualized [8, 9]. Thus, at the turning points in the life of society, there arises an objective need for new knowledge and new methodology. And the beginning of the twenty-first century is characterized by the beginning of the stage of rationalization, which is to end up with the definition of new values of arts education.

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

noosphere.

of "cosmos logos," where a person performs a special cosmic function—creates a

In the beginning of the third millennium, pedagogical science is becoming more and more aware of the fact that the solution of educational problems involves a new philosophical understanding of a person. Modern scholars (Holovanova, Lipska, Luzina, et al.) argue that various philosophical and anthropological trends (in particular, transcendental, phenomenological, and others) express a certain philosophical position on education. It is the anthropological aspects of philosophical knowledge that provide the pedagogical anthropology with a generalized notion of a person that underlies pedagogical anthropology and pedagogical views on the compatibility of pedagogy. Due to the organic unity of anthropological directions, one can reveal the pedagogical relations within which the formation of the human in humans occurs. Thus, Lipska in her conception [6] puts forward the idea of integration of pedagogical paradigms (objective and subjective) on the basis of philosophical and anthropological approaches. According to the author, such a paradigm is designed to unite different aspects of philosophical and pedagogical human studies into a single subject area. It proceeds from the principle of the integrity of a man as a unity of physical and mental, physical and spiritual, and social and individual and the construction of a modern anthropological model of education. Agreeing with this view, we shall note that modern pedagogy is only approaching the study of the laws of human development as integrity, but today it is known that person's spirituality and subjectivity depend on the integration of emotional, intellectual,

It is clear that in today's conditions of rejecting the linear conception of progress and relevant to it classical philosophical interpretations, the scientific and pedagogical community is increasingly aware of the need for a new look at both musical art and its educational potential. At the same time, it results in a number of arising problems that require careful research in art studies, sociology, and cultural studies, as well as physics, biology, mathematics, etc. What unites these branches is the fact that they investigate the universal patterns of complex organizations, whose functioning is attempted to be explained by synergetics. Expanding the systemicity and dynamics of the surrounding world and introducing the vision of it as a universal unity, a synergistic approach can become the basis for modernizing the content of arts education through the integration of diverse scientific knowledge and, in

Person's discovery and use of the organization laws in the nature in their artistic activity contribute to the closer connection of a man with the world and testify to the need for their mutual development (not the confrontation of a man with nature, but equal participation in the disclosure of the inherent potential of the movement toward beauty). Proceeding from the fact that any process of self-organization is capable of realizing only those potential opportunities that the

elaborating the foundations of post-non-classical pedagogy.

motivational, cognitive, and other personality spheres.

particular, natural sciences and humanities.

Equally important for the upbringing of a new type of worldview consciousness is another idea of the philosophy of unity, which was first elaborated by Soloviov and later developed by Zenkovskyi, Franko, Muravyov, and other scholars. This is the idea of "unity," which in broad worldview terms means, first of all, the mutual attraction of people and is based on spiritual affinity. The first element of the collegiality is the personality. The very collegiality in its highest, cosmic manifestation lies at the heart of the culture of the past, the present, and the coming. The living person, as well as a particular collegial whole, is inextricably linked and mutually entrenched in one another and is mutually enriching. The idea of a collegiality is aimed at overcoming the antagonism between materialistic and idealistic and scientific and religious and, therefore, plays an essential methodological role in

**100**

Non-classical understanding of arts education is that besides the process, the result, and the system, it is considered through the prism of the subject's active participation. This conditions the subjective nature of education—a phenomenon that possesses such traits as universality, generality, supersituativity, and supersociality.

Based on the law of psychology, the integration of theoretical knowledge is formed in the process of acquisition of invariant structures of the content, which made it possible to scientifically substantiate the system of spiritual values, which include the axiological triad: truth, in the cognitive; good, in the value orientational; and beauty, in esthetic activities. Value-based component of the subjectivity of the education content is enclosed in its sociocultural functions and the process of its assimilation, the result of which is general and functional literacy, professional self-identification, self-cognition, and adherence to culture, that is, socialization.

The twenty-first century has increased the demands for higher education and exacerbated the contradictions connected with the globalization of all aspects of the economic and sociocultural life of society. As a result of the deployment of these processes, the understanding of the person, their formation, and development change. It is possible to claim now that the realization of the highest self is possible only through the cognition of their internal nature.

Modern educational paradigm is aimed at intensifying the practical orientation and instrumental direction, at raising a skilled and mobile person who has not only a set of knowledge but also knows the methods and technologies for obtaining it in a fast-moving information flow [10]. The system of modern education is still aimed at memorizing as much recipe-like information as possible, but not at the conscious memorizing of significant connections and relations in the field under study. The result of this approach is a failure of systemic vision and thinking, which can give rise to unpredictable effects connected with uncontrolled accumulation of modern electronic means. This contributes to the emergence of a new paradigm of education, the necessity of which is conditioned, from our point of view, by the problem of overcoming the absolutism of the competency-based approach and the transition to interdisciplinary positions that ensure the holistic development of a person capable of realizing their spiritual and creative potential. The situation of paradigm changes in education is characterized by many scholars as transitive [11–14]. Transitive means transient, that is, the transition from one state to another. This determines the need to develop scientifically justified strategies and tactics of training a future specialist for entering the educational space, where transitive processes take place at the practical level and where student's further professional formation is to continue [15]. Herewith, it should be noted that the transition is characterized by the absence of clear boundaries. In this context, there is a need for a radical renewal of the constituent elements of education, rethinking of theoretical approaches, finding new organizational forms, methods, technologies, and teaching aids, and introducing innovations into broad practice. This process inevitably leads to the emergence of a new educational paradigm, based on the ideas and principles of fractal pedagogy: nonlinearity, openness, congruency, other dominancy, holism, etc. [16].

Of great importance in the context of socioeconomic changes become human dimensions in education, directed at anthropocentrism. Thus, one can make a number of assumptions that each person is a unique multidimensional, multilevel, hierarchical, multi-deterministic structure that integrates actual-real and potentially possible; every person has a tendency to dynamics and development; people are characterized by a desire for self-organization, ordering from chaos; and the person's desire to be expressed in creativity and communication is natural.

Modern science has made the center of research a comprehensive interdisciplinary approach that integrates various branches of scientific knowledge (not

**103**

sional growth.

*Modernization and Development of Arts Education: Spiritual and Worldview Alternative*

only social and humanitarian but also natural) around the problem of the holistic cognition of a man. The spiritual component, laid in the basis of arts education, will become the cornerstone that will raise education on the basis of integrity and interdisciplinarity, aimed at developing the spiritual potential of the individual. It is this peculiarity of post-non-classical arts education that makes it possible to hope that future professionals will be the bearers of creative initiative and civic activism. It should be noted that discipline-based education contradicts its innovation, since new knowledge arises exclusively in the space of its general connections and relationships, in those interdisciplinary nodes where many scientific disciplines intersect. On the other hand, interdisciplinarity contradicts the paradigm of education, which was connected with the training of a professional of a special qualification and corresponded to a clear vertical structure of science, built on the basis of clearly separated, specialized, disciplinary forms of activity. An adequate contemporary science form of fundamental education becomes an interdisciplinary character. Interdisciplinarity characterizes the contemporary form of fundamentalism of both science and education. The interdisciplinary nature of education makes it necessary to rethink the content of educational activity. At the same time, it is necessary to take into account the requirements of the labor market, where the demand for specialists possessing not basic, but practical knowledge, is growing. The task of the teacher in these conditions is to form student's interactive thinking. It is this that provides modern education with the adequacy of training a professional to the requirements and challenges of modern science and modern profes-

Interdisciplinarity as a modern form of fundamental education is the main direction of the university modernization, and the development of fundamental interdisciplinary approaches in university education comes to the fore. The question of the inconsistency of the university space, divided into faculties and the department, which contradicts new realities and requirements for education, is becoming really urgent. As a result, it is necessary to form new professional orientations in education. Thus, the model of the specialist should have such characteristics as

The introduction of spatial concepts in the study of the spiritual potential of personality caused the need to revise the linear ideas of the educational process as a causal determined process where specialist's personality develops. The basis for this is the post-non-classical type of rationality, which makes it possible to understand the person in education as the center, the purpose, and the value of cognition. The semantic field of the post-non-classical arts education is quite broad and multilevel, related to the scale of certain phenomena in social practice and media space. Such multifaceted nature involves creating the image of the desired future, formulating the goals and means for their achievement in research projects, and scientific and pedagogical schools taking into consideration the new educational paradigm.

The historical nature of the spiritual potential of arts education is based on the principles of the formation of structural changes in the classical paradigm, which, in today's conditions, undergoes a cardinal transformation. Instead of classical, post–non-classical education paradigm comes to the fore, but the final transition from one state to another has not yet happened. It should be emphasized that the classical educational paradigm forms the educational process in the traditional direction. And if such a paradigm met the needs of the twentieth century society, where the main goal was to transfer practical knowledge to the student, in the conditions of social needs of modern society, after the information revolution, the classical paradigm is already not sufficient. The post-non-classical educational paradigm forms the educational process through research, individualization, and variability. At the same time, sociocultural norms level out their canonical essence;

adaptability, flexibility, readiness for change, etc.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85375*

#### *Modernization and Development of Arts Education: Spiritual and Worldview Alternative DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85375*

only social and humanitarian but also natural) around the problem of the holistic cognition of a man. The spiritual component, laid in the basis of arts education, will become the cornerstone that will raise education on the basis of integrity and interdisciplinarity, aimed at developing the spiritual potential of the individual. It is this peculiarity of post-non-classical arts education that makes it possible to hope that future professionals will be the bearers of creative initiative and civic activism.

It should be noted that discipline-based education contradicts its innovation, since new knowledge arises exclusively in the space of its general connections and relationships, in those interdisciplinary nodes where many scientific disciplines intersect. On the other hand, interdisciplinarity contradicts the paradigm of education, which was connected with the training of a professional of a special qualification and corresponded to a clear vertical structure of science, built on the basis of clearly separated, specialized, disciplinary forms of activity. An adequate contemporary science form of fundamental education becomes an interdisciplinary character. Interdisciplinarity characterizes the contemporary form of fundamentalism of both science and education. The interdisciplinary nature of education makes it necessary to rethink the content of educational activity. At the same time, it is necessary to take into account the requirements of the labor market, where the demand for specialists possessing not basic, but practical knowledge, is growing. The task of the teacher in these conditions is to form student's interactive thinking. It is this that provides modern education with the adequacy of training a professional to the requirements and challenges of modern science and modern professional growth.

Interdisciplinarity as a modern form of fundamental education is the main direction of the university modernization, and the development of fundamental interdisciplinary approaches in university education comes to the fore. The question of the inconsistency of the university space, divided into faculties and the department, which contradicts new realities and requirements for education, is becoming really urgent. As a result, it is necessary to form new professional orientations in education. Thus, the model of the specialist should have such characteristics as adaptability, flexibility, readiness for change, etc.

The introduction of spatial concepts in the study of the spiritual potential of personality caused the need to revise the linear ideas of the educational process as a causal determined process where specialist's personality develops. The basis for this is the post-non-classical type of rationality, which makes it possible to understand the person in education as the center, the purpose, and the value of cognition. The semantic field of the post-non-classical arts education is quite broad and multilevel, related to the scale of certain phenomena in social practice and media space. Such multifaceted nature involves creating the image of the desired future, formulating the goals and means for their achievement in research projects, and scientific and pedagogical schools taking into consideration the new educational paradigm.

The historical nature of the spiritual potential of arts education is based on the principles of the formation of structural changes in the classical paradigm, which, in today's conditions, undergoes a cardinal transformation. Instead of classical, post–non-classical education paradigm comes to the fore, but the final transition from one state to another has not yet happened. It should be emphasized that the classical educational paradigm forms the educational process in the traditional direction. And if such a paradigm met the needs of the twentieth century society, where the main goal was to transfer practical knowledge to the student, in the conditions of social needs of modern society, after the information revolution, the classical paradigm is already not sufficient. The post-non-classical educational paradigm forms the educational process through research, individualization, and variability. At the same time, sociocultural norms level out their canonical essence;

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

only through the cognition of their internal nature.

Non-classical understanding of arts education is that besides the process, the result, and the system, it is considered through the prism of the subject's active participation. This conditions the subjective nature of education—a phenomenon that possesses such traits as universality, generality, supersituativity, and supersociality. Based on the law of psychology, the integration of theoretical knowledge is formed in the process of acquisition of invariant structures of the content, which made it possible to scientifically substantiate the system of spiritual values, which include the axiological triad: truth, in the cognitive; good, in the value orientational; and beauty, in esthetic activities. Value-based component of the subjectivity of the education content is enclosed in its sociocultural functions and the process of its assimilation, the result of which is general and functional literacy, professional self-identification, self-cognition, and adherence to culture, that is, socialization. The twenty-first century has increased the demands for higher education and exacerbated the contradictions connected with the globalization of all aspects of the economic and sociocultural life of society. As a result of the deployment of these processes, the understanding of the person, their formation, and development change. It is possible to claim now that the realization of the highest self is possible

Modern educational paradigm is aimed at intensifying the practical orientation and instrumental direction, at raising a skilled and mobile person who has not only a set of knowledge but also knows the methods and technologies for obtaining it in a fast-moving information flow [10]. The system of modern education is still aimed at memorizing as much recipe-like information as possible, but not at the conscious memorizing of significant connections and relations in the field under study. The result of this approach is a failure of systemic vision and thinking, which can give rise to unpredictable effects connected with uncontrolled accumulation of modern electronic means. This contributes to the emergence of a new paradigm of education, the necessity of which is conditioned, from our point of view, by the problem of overcoming the absolutism of the competency-based approach and the transition to interdisciplinary positions that ensure the holistic development of a person capable of realizing their spiritual and creative potential. The situation of paradigm changes in education is characterized by many scholars as transitive [11–14]. Transitive means transient, that is, the transition from one state to another. This determines the need to develop scientifically justified strategies and tactics of training a future specialist for entering the educational space, where transitive processes take place at the practical level and where student's further professional formation is to continue [15]. Herewith, it should be noted that the transition is characterized by the absence of clear boundaries. In this context, there is a need for a radical renewal of the constituent elements of education, rethinking of theoretical approaches, finding new organizational forms, methods, technologies, and teaching aids, and introducing innovations into broad practice. This process inevitably leads to the emergence of a new educational paradigm, based on the ideas and principles of fractal pedagogy: nonlinearity, openness, congruency, other domi-

Of great importance in the context of socioeconomic changes become human dimensions in education, directed at anthropocentrism. Thus, one can make a number of assumptions that each person is a unique multidimensional, multilevel, hierarchical, multi-deterministic structure that integrates actual-real and potentially possible; every person has a tendency to dynamics and development; people are characterized by a desire for self-organization, ordering from chaos; and the person's desire to be expressed in creativity and communication is natural.

Modern science has made the center of research a comprehensive interdisciplinary approach that integrates various branches of scientific knowledge (not

**102**

nancy, holism, etc. [16].

moreover, the modern students themselves must reproduce a new sociocultural reality, which will provide them with the spiritual development of creative selfesteem in the context of world educational standards of the twenty-first century.

In a situation where the spiritual and ideological role of science becomes more and more important, the educational process at university involves not only the formation of knowledge but also the transfer of the "spirit of science," "traditions of science," and "semantics of science." First of all, these concepts include spiritual values and moral norms that are characteristics of science in general and of certain branches in particular. And although a student can acquire knowledge from educational and methodological literature, the bearer of traditions is always a teacher. It is worth noting that science is not the only way of cognizing the world. Over many years, the scientific form of cognition dominated in native education, the absolutization of which superseded other scientific ideas and related branches. This negatively influenced the quality of education at the level of development of spiritual and worldview awareness and self-awareness of the young generation of specialists. Since this was a logical process of the humanitarian science and education of the twentieth century, it also influenced the development of arts education.

Integrity of knowledge involves the combination of natural science with the dominant scientific method in the field of humanities, art, religion, etc. Nature and society are a holistic phenomenon, so the student must get objective knowledge about nature, society, and the role of a man (personality) in this process. The limits of our intervention in life processes are not determined only by the scientific and technical capabilities but also by ideas about the phenomenon and the essence of a man. This explains the need to consider the problem of integrating the spiritual potential of humanitarian education and natural science. Successful realization of the integration of humanitarian education and science spiritual potential is possible under the conditions of formation of the modern scientific picture of the world in students based on basic knowledge and universal educational actions of these branches.

Natural scientific literacy can be considered not only as the result of subject learning but primarily as a means of realizing the spiritual potential of natural sciences, which define the fundamentals of the nation's basic culture. The problem is insufficient realization of the spiritual potential of natural sciences as the basis for value orientations of needs, motives, interests, ideals, and beliefs. Formation of the worldview orientation of education in accordance with the vector of state policy will be achieved on the basis of the successful realization of the spiritual potential of natural science education. Mechanisms for realizing the spiritual potential of natural sciences should be considered in the context of the goals and objectives of the Law "On Higher Education" (2014). It is this law that provides the formation of socially active people, who respect their people, culture, and spiritual traditions.

Real ways of realizing the spiritual potential of natural science in humanitarian education lie in improving the content of education and the creation and modernization of new teaching methods and diagnostic materials. This is especially true of arts education at the present stage of its development, where one of the main trends is integration of modernization processes.

The key issue, and hence the main issue of the theory and practice of arts education, is the relations of universal values and human life's reality. The context of mastering the value space of arts education potentially involves the search for integrated knowledge based on the use of post-non-classical type of scientific rationality. In this respect, the possibility of the existence of non-humanitarian knowledge, based on the laws of classical natural science, is increasingly questioned.

It is well known that the cult of theoretical natural sciences of the twentieth century created the prerequisites for the growth of the rationalization of society and nihilistic sentiment, since at the same time the value-based approach was

**105**

**modernization processes**

*Modernization and Development of Arts Education: Spiritual and Worldview Alternative*

completely excluded. Along with this, another possibility arose: the construction of scientific knowledge by incorporating a value-based approach with its simultaneous, more profound rational reflection. The significance of the value-based relationship accentuated by this direction must be taken into account in light of the tragic experience of nihilist rejection of eternal spiritual values. From our point of view, it is here where one of the options for solving the problem of *integrating the spiritual potential of humanitarian education and science* should be found. Denial of spiritual values means denial of humanity in general; therefore, the abovemen-

For the content of arts education, especially important is historical and cultural knowledge—historical data on the specifics of the scientific, artistic, and mythological ways of cognizing the world as phenomena of culture and, on the works of world art, outstanding historical figures—symbols of the era. Modernization of the content of arts education should include the methodological components of synergetic knowledge, as well as combine different ways of comprehending the world, dialog of science and art. The need to turn to natural science knowledge is conditioned by the

The discovery and use of the laws of nature organization promote closer connection of a man with the world, which indicates the need for their parallel development (not the confrontation of a man with the nature, but equal participation in growth and expansion of the potential of beauty). Proceeding from the fact that any process of self-organization is capable of realizing only the potential possessed by the nature, it can be assumed that the basis of the artistic language organization is the principles of natural self-organization. Samokhvalova argues that the principles of the rhythmic construction in the spatial and temporal structures that underlie the artistic forms of expression are the essence of the principle of self-organization of the universe. For example, the principle of the "golden intersection" is not only the structural law of constructing forms in art (music, poetry, painting, etc.) but also the key law in nature, which characterizes all the geometric and astrophysical ratios of quantities in the solar system [17]. According to Losiev, the subject of musical art is the high-quality embodiment of the ideal digit in time. In his view, this is how music is created as an art of time, in the depths of which the perfectly immovable figurality of digits, which has external qualities of the materialized movement, is hidden. From the conception of music as a manifestation of the life of digits, its main categories emerge: rhythm, symmetry, musical meter, beat, musical tone, melody, harmony, tonality, timbre, dynamics, and sonar qualities of sound combinations. Modern understanding of the ontology of art concerns the consideration of human being in its cosmic dimension. The idea of the art ontology reveals the forms and multidimensional manifestations of a man in the world. Medushevskyi emphasizes that it is possible to comprehend the ontological essence of music by penetrating into the sense basis of intonational energies. Herewith, the author reveals negative tendencies that violate the purity of the spiritual forces of a man. The initial, living ontological sense of force, as Medushevskyi believes, is absorbed by combinatorics of ideas, logical skills, and knowledge. The author turns to the most elevated notion of humanity—the concept of eternity, the life of the spirit in the truth. It is here, in eternity, that the energy and sense of music converge [18].

fact that a man in art multiplies the beauty of life, gaining space in chaos.

**4. Content of contemporary artistic education in the context of** 

The modernization of arts education implies in its content integrative knowledge, which combines general scientific, specific scientific, and general cultural

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85375*

tioned integration should define its perception of values.

#### *Modernization and Development of Arts Education: Spiritual and Worldview Alternative DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85375*

completely excluded. Along with this, another possibility arose: the construction of scientific knowledge by incorporating a value-based approach with its simultaneous, more profound rational reflection. The significance of the value-based relationship accentuated by this direction must be taken into account in light of the tragic experience of nihilist rejection of eternal spiritual values. From our point of view, it is here where one of the options for solving the problem of *integrating the spiritual potential of humanitarian education and science* should be found. Denial of spiritual values means denial of humanity in general; therefore, the abovementioned integration should define its perception of values.

For the content of arts education, especially important is historical and cultural knowledge—historical data on the specifics of the scientific, artistic, and mythological ways of cognizing the world as phenomena of culture and, on the works of world art, outstanding historical figures—symbols of the era. Modernization of the content of arts education should include the methodological components of synergetic knowledge, as well as combine different ways of comprehending the world, dialog of science and art. The need to turn to natural science knowledge is conditioned by the fact that a man in art multiplies the beauty of life, gaining space in chaos.

The discovery and use of the laws of nature organization promote closer connection of a man with the world, which indicates the need for their parallel development (not the confrontation of a man with the nature, but equal participation in growth and expansion of the potential of beauty). Proceeding from the fact that any process of self-organization is capable of realizing only the potential possessed by the nature, it can be assumed that the basis of the artistic language organization is the principles of natural self-organization. Samokhvalova argues that the principles of the rhythmic construction in the spatial and temporal structures that underlie the artistic forms of expression are the essence of the principle of self-organization of the universe. For example, the principle of the "golden intersection" is not only the structural law of constructing forms in art (music, poetry, painting, etc.) but also the key law in nature, which characterizes all the geometric and astrophysical ratios of quantities in the solar system [17]. According to Losiev, the subject of musical art is the high-quality embodiment of the ideal digit in time. In his view, this is how music is created as an art of time, in the depths of which the perfectly immovable figurality of digits, which has external qualities of the materialized movement, is hidden. From the conception of music as a manifestation of the life of digits, its main categories emerge: rhythm, symmetry, musical meter, beat, musical tone, melody, harmony, tonality, timbre, dynamics, and sonar qualities of sound combinations. Modern understanding of the ontology of art concerns the consideration of human being in its cosmic dimension. The idea of the art ontology reveals the forms and multidimensional manifestations of a man in the world. Medushevskyi emphasizes that it is possible to comprehend the ontological essence of music by penetrating into the sense basis of intonational energies. Herewith, the author reveals negative tendencies that violate the purity of the spiritual forces of a man. The initial, living ontological sense of force, as Medushevskyi believes, is absorbed by combinatorics of ideas, logical skills, and knowledge. The author turns to the most elevated notion of humanity—the concept of eternity, the life of the spirit in the truth. It is here, in eternity, that the energy and sense of music converge [18].

#### **4. Content of contemporary artistic education in the context of modernization processes**

The modernization of arts education implies in its content integrative knowledge, which combines general scientific, specific scientific, and general cultural

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

moreover, the modern students themselves must reproduce a new sociocultural reality, which will provide them with the spiritual development of creative selfesteem in the context of world educational standards of the twenty-first century. In a situation where the spiritual and ideological role of science becomes more and more important, the educational process at university involves not only the formation of knowledge but also the transfer of the "spirit of science," "traditions of science," and "semantics of science." First of all, these concepts include spiritual values and moral norms that are characteristics of science in general and of certain branches in particular. And although a student can acquire knowledge from educational and methodological literature, the bearer of traditions is always a teacher. It is worth noting that science is not the only way of cognizing the world. Over many years, the scientific form of cognition dominated in native education, the absolutization of which superseded other scientific ideas and related branches. This negatively influenced the quality of education at the level of development of spiritual and worldview awareness and self-awareness of the young generation of specialists. Since this was a logical process of the humanitarian science and education of the

twentieth century, it also influenced the development of arts education.

Integrity of knowledge involves the combination of natural science with the dominant scientific method in the field of humanities, art, religion, etc. Nature and society are a holistic phenomenon, so the student must get objective knowledge about nature, society, and the role of a man (personality) in this process. The limits of our intervention in life processes are not determined only by the scientific and technical capabilities but also by ideas about the phenomenon and the essence of a man. This explains the need to consider the problem of integrating the spiritual potential of humanitarian education and natural science. Successful realization of the integration of humanitarian education and science spiritual potential is possible under the conditions of formation of the modern scientific picture of the world in students based on basic knowledge and universal educational actions of these branches. Natural scientific literacy can be considered not only as the result of subject learning but primarily as a means of realizing the spiritual potential of natural sciences, which define the fundamentals of the nation's basic culture. The problem is insufficient realization of the spiritual potential of natural sciences as the basis for value orientations of needs, motives, interests, ideals, and beliefs. Formation of the worldview orientation of education in accordance with the vector of state policy will be achieved on the basis of the successful realization of the spiritual potential of natural science education. Mechanisms for realizing the spiritual potential of natural sciences should be considered in the context of the goals and objectives of the Law "On Higher Education" (2014). It is this law that provides the formation of socially active people, who respect their people, culture, and spiritual traditions. Real ways of realizing the spiritual potential of natural science in humanitarian education lie in improving the content of education and the creation and modernization of new teaching methods and diagnostic materials. This is especially true of arts education at the present stage of its development, where one of the main trends

The key issue, and hence the main issue of the theory and practice of arts education, is the relations of universal values and human life's reality. The context of mastering the value space of arts education potentially involves the search for integrated knowledge based on the use of post-non-classical type of scientific rationality. In this respect, the possibility of the existence of non-humanitarian knowledge, based

It is well known that the cult of theoretical natural sciences of the twentieth century created the prerequisites for the growth of the rationalization of society and nihilistic sentiment, since at the same time the value-based approach was

on the laws of classical natural science, is increasingly questioned.

**104**

is integration of modernization processes.

disciplines of the humanities. Analyzed scientific approaches to the integration of the spiritual potential of humanitarian and natural sciences can become a conceptual basis for the development and implementation of theoretical, methodological, and diagnostic materials. The essence of the modernization of the content of arts education is to provide it with a purposeful, substantive, and procedural integrity. This involves the restructuring of teaching material; changes in interpretation, composition, commenting, and illustration; and its completion with value and sense elements. The culture study orientation of arts education is realized on the basis of the unity of functional and content components of the educational process. At the same time, this orientation implies integration of the spiritual potential of humanitarian and natural education in the context of the post-non-classical paradigm.

The globalization of modern society has greatly influenced the transformation of the essential foundations and structure of humanitarian knowledge and conceptual and functional relationships of the humanities—philosophy, sociology, history, psychology, pedagogy, law, etc. The consequences of globalization require an in-depth methodological analysis of the peculiarities of the formation of individual's spiritual potential in the field of education and socialization of the younger generation.

The tendencies of the modernization of arts education, which must reflect the social demand for value orientations, content, types, and ways of the activity of teachers and students—future specialists in the field of art—have been already quite clearly outlined.

Valuable orientations should be stable. They are the mastery of a common culture, inclusion to higher spiritual values, the development of spiritual potential, the value consciousness of a professional, etc. One of the obligatory conditions that determine the conceptual basis of arts education modernization is the creation of an innovative methodological basis for each subject of educational activity, taking into account progressive experience within the European space and individual regions of the country. All of this requires, first and foremost, a new humanitarian integrity of knowledge, which acquires an anthropological dimension due to the simultaneous coordination of related disciplines. In this context, the task of arts pedagogy is to establish a holistic view of a person, and this cannot be compensated at the objective level at the expense of traditional technologies. Integrity is a measure of spirituality, humanity, and the creative essence of education.

In the context of the abovementioned statements, the pedagogical principles of the integrated approach to the content of arts education are of particular interest. Thus, theoretical level of integration of students' knowledge is directed at understanding the essence of the concepts of artistic content and form, genre and style, artistic metaphor, symbol, and allegory. This requires the comparison of various art phenomena according to the principle of analogy and contrast, a comparative analysis of the means of artistic comprehension of the surrounding reality, finding the parallels between works close in subject, plot, styles, genre, and structural composition, etc. It should be emphasized that the theoretical level of knowledge integration should be complemented by the empirical level of integration of personality-sensitive impressions of artistic perception, which is based on the activation of psychological mechanisms of synesthesia.

The conception of Bondarevska considers the principle of interdisciplinary approach in modern university education. The author believes that this principle is realized in the content of psychological and pedagogical, scientific and methodical, subject, technological, educational, and other aspects of teacher's professional training [19–21]. "Interdisciplinarity," the author notes, "whose main purpose is to ensure the interaction of sciences and educational modules in the formation of teacher's integral personality, is a real manifestation of the system-forming role of

**107**

upbringing.

*Modernization and Development of Arts Education: Spiritual and Worldview Alternative*

irrevocably linked with the realization of self-worth of all their existence.

The foregoing acquires special value in the content of contemporary arts education in the form of integrated special courses. Thus, say, the author's integrated special course "Pedagogy of individual's spiritual potential" is intended to orient future specialists in the specifics of the development of individual's spiritual potential, to formulate on the value basis conceptual positions aimed at preserving

The disclosure of the *content* of the course and its study involves three methodological levels. The first level—philosophical—enables getting acquainted with the world philosophical heritage, penetrating into the ideas of humanistic pedagogy. The second level—general scientific—helps to study the systematic sociocultural existence of personality, to form new ideas about the inclusion of personality in sociocultural space. The third level—specific scientific—makes it possible to understand the laws and humanistic principles of constructing and analyzing pedagogical

The study of theoretical material is accompanied by a system of seminars and practical classes, which not only provide the traditional connection of theory and practice but also open the possibilities to develop future specialists' pedagogical self-consciousness and form their psychological readiness for self-realization in socio-pedagogical activity. In the process of seminars and practical classes, students solve creative tasks and prepare self-guided written assignments. Some seminars and practical classes are held in the form of simulation and role games, didactic

The aim of the integrated special course is to form on the basis of knowledge integration in humanitarian disciplines the spiritual and ideological values of future artistic profile specialists. The task of the integrated special course is the acquisition of knowledge about the methodological foundations of the development of individual's spiritual potential; the study of the essence, structure, and specifics of the formation of individual's spiritual potential; awareness of the role of the system approach to the formation of individual's spiritual potential; and stimulation of the

As a result of the study of the integrated special course, the master student must gain knowledge about the nature and structural components of individual's spiritual potential, directions of the development of individual's spiritual potential pedagogy, the system of formation of individual's spiritual potential, and a strategy for the development of technologies for students' spiritual and moral

The master student must be able to distinguish the specifics of the worldview and world comprehension of each cultural and historical epoch; identify the main stages of the development of spiritual culture; determine the main directions of world philosophical and cultural thought; use modern scientific terminology; work with texts (primary sources), write summaries and abstracts, and prepare abstracts;

discussions, "brainstorming," and various types of trainings.

need for professional self-education and creative self-realization.

pedagogical education in the professional training of students of all specialties. In this regard, it is obvious that the factors contributing to the implementation of the interdisciplinary approach are, on the one hand, the introduction of the pedagogical component in the content of all areas of education, and on the other, enrichment of the content of the very pedagogical education by the necessary components of each of other directions of the university education" [21]. The conception of Bondarevska characterizes integrity as the orientation of the educational process on student's personality, their features, interests and needs, value, and sense-based, personal, and professional development. It is also important that the author attributes support to subjectivity and individuality, career links, life plans, and selfdevelopment programs to student centeredness [22]. Thus, individuals' integrity is

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85375*

and enhancing national values.

phenomena.

#### *Modernization and Development of Arts Education: Spiritual and Worldview Alternative DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85375*

pedagogical education in the professional training of students of all specialties. In this regard, it is obvious that the factors contributing to the implementation of the interdisciplinary approach are, on the one hand, the introduction of the pedagogical component in the content of all areas of education, and on the other, enrichment of the content of the very pedagogical education by the necessary components of each of other directions of the university education" [21]. The conception of Bondarevska characterizes integrity as the orientation of the educational process on student's personality, their features, interests and needs, value, and sense-based, personal, and professional development. It is also important that the author attributes support to subjectivity and individuality, career links, life plans, and selfdevelopment programs to student centeredness [22]. Thus, individuals' integrity is irrevocably linked with the realization of self-worth of all their existence.

The foregoing acquires special value in the content of contemporary arts education in the form of integrated special courses. Thus, say, the author's integrated special course "Pedagogy of individual's spiritual potential" is intended to orient future specialists in the specifics of the development of individual's spiritual potential, to formulate on the value basis conceptual positions aimed at preserving and enhancing national values.

The disclosure of the *content* of the course and its study involves three methodological levels. The first level—philosophical—enables getting acquainted with the world philosophical heritage, penetrating into the ideas of humanistic pedagogy. The second level—general scientific—helps to study the systematic sociocultural existence of personality, to form new ideas about the inclusion of personality in sociocultural space. The third level—specific scientific—makes it possible to understand the laws and humanistic principles of constructing and analyzing pedagogical phenomena.

The study of theoretical material is accompanied by a system of seminars and practical classes, which not only provide the traditional connection of theory and practice but also open the possibilities to develop future specialists' pedagogical self-consciousness and form their psychological readiness for self-realization in socio-pedagogical activity. In the process of seminars and practical classes, students solve creative tasks and prepare self-guided written assignments. Some seminars and practical classes are held in the form of simulation and role games, didactic discussions, "brainstorming," and various types of trainings.

The aim of the integrated special course is to form on the basis of knowledge integration in humanitarian disciplines the spiritual and ideological values of future artistic profile specialists. The task of the integrated special course is the acquisition of knowledge about the methodological foundations of the development of individual's spiritual potential; the study of the essence, structure, and specifics of the formation of individual's spiritual potential; awareness of the role of the system approach to the formation of individual's spiritual potential; and stimulation of the need for professional self-education and creative self-realization.

As a result of the study of the integrated special course, the master student must gain knowledge about the nature and structural components of individual's spiritual potential, directions of the development of individual's spiritual potential pedagogy, the system of formation of individual's spiritual potential, and a strategy for the development of technologies for students' spiritual and moral upbringing.

The master student must be able to distinguish the specifics of the worldview and world comprehension of each cultural and historical epoch; identify the main stages of the development of spiritual culture; determine the main directions of world philosophical and cultural thought; use modern scientific terminology; work with texts (primary sources), write summaries and abstracts, and prepare abstracts;

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

generation.

quite clearly outlined.

disciplines of the humanities. Analyzed scientific approaches to the integration of the spiritual potential of humanitarian and natural sciences can become a conceptual basis for the development and implementation of theoretical, methodological, and diagnostic materials. The essence of the modernization of the content of arts education is to provide it with a purposeful, substantive, and procedural integrity. This involves the restructuring of teaching material; changes in interpretation, composition, commenting, and illustration; and its completion with value and sense elements. The culture study orientation of arts education is realized on the basis of the unity of functional and content components of the educational process. At the same time, this orientation implies integration of the spiritual potential of humanitarian and natural education in the context of the post-non-classical paradigm. The globalization of modern society has greatly influenced the transformation of the essential foundations and structure of humanitarian knowledge and conceptual and functional relationships of the humanities—philosophy, sociology, history, psychology, pedagogy, law, etc. The consequences of globalization require an in-depth methodological analysis of the peculiarities of the formation of individual's spiritual potential in the field of education and socialization of the younger

The tendencies of the modernization of arts education, which must reflect the social demand for value orientations, content, types, and ways of the activity of teachers and students—future specialists in the field of art—have been already

Valuable orientations should be stable. They are the mastery of a common culture, inclusion to higher spiritual values, the development of spiritual potential, the value consciousness of a professional, etc. One of the obligatory conditions that determine the conceptual basis of arts education modernization is the creation of an innovative methodological basis for each subject of educational activity, taking into account progressive experience within the European space and individual regions of the country. All of this requires, first and foremost, a new humanitarian integrity of knowledge, which acquires an anthropological dimension due to the simultaneous coordination of related disciplines. In this context, the task of arts pedagogy is to establish a holistic view of a person, and this cannot be compensated at the objective level at the expense of traditional technologies. Integrity is a measure of

In the context of the abovementioned statements, the pedagogical principles of the integrated approach to the content of arts education are of particular interest. Thus, theoretical level of integration of students' knowledge is directed at understanding the essence of the concepts of artistic content and form, genre and style, artistic metaphor, symbol, and allegory. This requires the comparison of various art phenomena according to the principle of analogy and contrast, a comparative analysis of the means of artistic comprehension of the surrounding reality, finding the parallels between works close in subject, plot, styles, genre, and structural composition, etc. It should be emphasized that the theoretical level of knowledge integration should be complemented by the empirical level of integration of personality-sensitive impressions of artistic perception, which is based on the

The conception of Bondarevska considers the principle of interdisciplinary approach in modern university education. The author believes that this principle is realized in the content of psychological and pedagogical, scientific and methodical, subject, technological, educational, and other aspects of teacher's professional training [19–21]. "Interdisciplinarity," the author notes, "whose main purpose is to ensure the interaction of sciences and educational modules in the formation of teacher's integral personality, is a real manifestation of the system-forming role of

spirituality, humanity, and the creative essence of education.

activation of psychological mechanisms of synesthesia.

**106**

classify, interpret, and systematize received information; reason to defend their own views on certain problem and tolerate the opposite views; apply the knowledge gained when solving professional problems and in personal life; enrich their spiritual potential by means of self-education; and transfer the processed information in the form of external processes, that is, practical implementation.

As a result of the study of an integrated special course, the master student forms the ability to interact with society, team, and individual; to control, analyze, and correlate the process and result of educational activity; to organize independent activity, etc.; to use new learning technologies; to perform the functions of a teacher of higher education; to supervise students' cognitive activity; to provide high-quality education; to organize students' research activities; to ensure their effectiveness; to develop technologies of pedagogical research; and to implement the obtained results in the educational process.

In this integrated special course, the interdisciplinary block of knowledge is clearly outlined by the philosophical, general scientific, and specifically scientific aspects. The main thing is to relate their cognitive discourse with corresponding determinants of the tasks set.

The current state of the world community is accompanied by the spontaneous emergence of contradictions and conflicts, a poorly expressed confidence in the stability of relations. In such conditions, the negative trends in the youth environment inevitably manifest themselves. In order to modernize the global society through a positive strategy of civilized communities' functioning, it is necessary to reach mutual understanding in assessing the principle of interdisciplinarity as a decisive and significant factor in the system of inter-subjective relations. The integrated construct of interdisciplinary has a spiritual potential, which helps to realize the reflection of the optimal variants for designing, choosing, and harmonizing mutual understanding. All this opens up a considerable resource in overcoming negative tendencies, reaching consensus in the context of modern social medium [23].

Undoubtedly, all this concerns the pedagogical process in higher educational institutions. Considering the problem of professional training of a modern teacher and musician, most scholars state that the boundaries existing in the pedagogy of arts education become a barrier for the formation of a person who seeks comprehension of the artistic space as an integral system.

From the standpoint of the non-classical humanitarian understanding, learning manifests itself in the interconnection of its content-activity and value-sense-based sides as part of the educational process. Thus, according to non-classical ideas of learning, there is not only a purposeful but also a value-oriented process of mastering the knowledge, the ways of activity, and the experience of creativity for individual's personal, professional, and cultural self-identification.

Important in this context is the statement about the necessity of understanding the key goal of the educational process. In modern conditions, this goal can be defined as the formation of a social subject of a holistic, autonomous activity and a rationally organized personality. Attempts to explain competency as a personality trait and identify the graduate's personality with the amount of "gained" competencies are conditioned by the same educational model—ideas about the comprehensive development of the individual. The content of this concept is that the subject is in the constant process of formation, subjection.

#### **5. Conclusions**

The system of artistic education and the changes taking place in it under the influence of globalization processes are studied in a spiritual and philosophical

**109**

**Author details**

Olga Oleksiuk

to the fore.

provided the original work is properly cited.

Grinchenko Kyiv University, Kyiv, Ukraine

\*Address all correspondence to: olga4148@gmail.com

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

Department of Theory and Techniques of Musical Art, Institute of Arts, Borys

*Modernization and Development of Arts Education: Spiritual and Worldview Alternative*

alternative. This alternative does not merely serve as a semantic context, but as a real-life cloth, in which the educational process takes place, as a necessary measure of life's realities. Modernization in education turns out to be productive only if it is projected and implemented in the spiritual-ideological context. Globalization factors are of crucial importance. They are not merely components of the educational system, but determine the essence of education, expressed in its purpose and content, philosophy, and technology. The combination of the abovementioned guidelines is one of the key characteristics and strategic guidelines for the develop-

In full agreement with the authors of the abovementioned conceptions of integrative knowledge in arts education, we shall note that the problems of contemporary reality require the development of new scientific approaches aimed at identifying the main areas of scientific and pedagogical activity, taking into account the depth of radical changes that fundamentally change the human community. Emerged oppositional pairs of the problems of world space globalization—

preservation of national cultures, acceleration of the pace of scientific and technological progress, and the value status of science and art, etc.—create a substantive field for integrative knowledge. A new, higher level of knowledge integration connected with the laws of the self-organization of the universe comes

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85375*

ment of artistic education in Ukraine.

#### *Modernization and Development of Arts Education: Spiritual and Worldview Alternative DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85375*

alternative. This alternative does not merely serve as a semantic context, but as a real-life cloth, in which the educational process takes place, as a necessary measure of life's realities. Modernization in education turns out to be productive only if it is projected and implemented in the spiritual-ideological context. Globalization factors are of crucial importance. They are not merely components of the educational system, but determine the essence of education, expressed in its purpose and content, philosophy, and technology. The combination of the abovementioned guidelines is one of the key characteristics and strategic guidelines for the development of artistic education in Ukraine.

In full agreement with the authors of the abovementioned conceptions of integrative knowledge in arts education, we shall note that the problems of contemporary reality require the development of new scientific approaches aimed at identifying the main areas of scientific and pedagogical activity, taking into account the depth of radical changes that fundamentally change the human community. Emerged oppositional pairs of the problems of world space globalization preservation of national cultures, acceleration of the pace of scientific and technological progress, and the value status of science and art, etc.—create a substantive field for integrative knowledge. A new, higher level of knowledge integration connected with the laws of the self-organization of the universe comes to the fore.

#### **Author details**

Olga Oleksiuk

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

classify, interpret, and systematize received information; reason to defend their own views on certain problem and tolerate the opposite views; apply the knowledge gained when solving professional problems and in personal life; enrich their spiritual potential by means of self-education; and transfer the processed information in

As a result of the study of an integrated special course, the master student forms the ability to interact with society, team, and individual; to control, analyze, and correlate the process and result of educational activity; to organize independent activity, etc.; to use new learning technologies; to perform the functions of a teacher of higher education; to supervise students' cognitive activity; to provide high-quality education; to organize students' research activities; to ensure their effectiveness; to develop technologies of pedagogical research; and to implement

In this integrated special course, the interdisciplinary block of knowledge is clearly outlined by the philosophical, general scientific, and specifically scientific aspects. The main thing is to relate their cognitive discourse with corresponding

The current state of the world community is accompanied by the spontaneous emergence of contradictions and conflicts, a poorly expressed confidence in the stability of relations. In such conditions, the negative trends in the youth environment inevitably manifest themselves. In order to modernize the global society through a positive strategy of civilized communities' functioning, it is necessary to reach mutual understanding in assessing the principle of interdisciplinarity as a decisive and significant factor in the system of inter-subjective relations. The integrated construct of interdisciplinary has a spiritual potential, which helps to realize the reflection of the optimal variants for designing, choosing, and harmonizing mutual understanding. All this opens up a considerable resource in overcoming negative tendencies, reaching consensus in the context of modern social medium [23]. Undoubtedly, all this concerns the pedagogical process in higher educational institutions. Considering the problem of professional training of a modern teacher and musician, most scholars state that the boundaries existing in the pedagogy of arts education become a barrier for the formation of a person who seeks compre-

From the standpoint of the non-classical humanitarian understanding, learning manifests itself in the interconnection of its content-activity and value-sense-based sides as part of the educational process. Thus, according to non-classical ideas of learning, there is not only a purposeful but also a value-oriented process of mastering the knowledge, the ways of activity, and the experience of creativity for indi-

Important in this context is the statement about the necessity of understanding the key goal of the educational process. In modern conditions, this goal can be defined as the formation of a social subject of a holistic, autonomous activity and a rationally organized personality. Attempts to explain competency as a personality trait and identify the graduate's personality with the amount of "gained" competencies are conditioned by the same educational model—ideas about the comprehensive development of the individual. The content of this concept is that the subject is

The system of artistic education and the changes taking place in it under the influence of globalization processes are studied in a spiritual and philosophical

the form of external processes, that is, practical implementation.

the obtained results in the educational process.

hension of the artistic space as an integral system.

in the constant process of formation, subjection.

vidual's personal, professional, and cultural self-identification.

determinants of the tasks set.

**108**

**5. Conclusions**

Department of Theory and Techniques of Musical Art, Institute of Arts, Borys Grinchenko Kyiv University, Kyiv, Ukraine

\*Address all correspondence to: olga4148@gmail.com

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

#### **References**

[1] Oleksiuk OM. In: Oleksiuk OM, editor. Musical Pedagogy: Teach. Manual. Musical Pedagogy. Ukraine: Kyiv University; 2013. pp. 218-219. 448pp

[2] Bim-Bad BM. Axioms of pedagogy. Pedagogics. 2010;**2**:19-23

[3] Sinagatullin IM. The Impact of Globalization on Education. New York; 2006

[4] Kukushin VS. In: Kukushin VS, editor. Common Basic Principles of Pedagogy: Teach. Man. For Stud. of Ped. Universities. Common Basic Principles of Pedagogy. Rostov-on-Donu; 2002. 224pp

[5] Vernadskyi VI. Scientific Thought as a Planetary Phenomenon. Russia: 1991

[6] Lipska LA. Philosophical and anthropological foundation of modern education. Pedagogics. 2006;**2**:23-28

[7] Samokhvalova VI. Definition of aesthetics as a music of science in the modern context. In: Aesthetic Experience and Aesthetic Culture. Russia: IFRAN; 1992. p. 123

[8] Oleksiuk OM. In: Oleksiuk OM, Tkach MM, Lisun DV, editors. Hermeneutic Approach in Higher Arts Education: A Collective Monograph. K: Kyiv University; 2013. pp. 85-90. 164pp

[9] Oleksuk OM. Congeniality in hermeneutic senses of arts education. In: Oleksiuk OM, editor. Problems of Modern Pedagogical Education. Series: Pedagogy and Psychology. Vol. 44. Yalta: RVB KSU; 2014. pp. 159-163

[10] Ovcharuk OV, editor. Competency Approach in Modern Education: World Experience and Ukrainian Perspectives. Ukraine: K.I.S.; 2004. pp. 76-83. 112pp

[11] Bermus AH. In: Bermus AH, editor. Introduction to the Humanitarian Methodology. M: Canon+; 2007. 336pp

[12] Tkhahapsoiev KH. In: Tkhahapsoiev KH, editor. The New Era of Educational Paradigm. Moscow: "Prosveshcheniye"; 1997. 99pp

[13] Tkhahapsoiev KH. Paradigmal approach in education: To the problems of formation. Pedagogics. 2011;**5**:8-17

[14] Shmeis Y. In: Shmeis Y, editor. Culture Under Threat: From Evolutionary Ontology to Environmental Policy: Monograph [Trans. from Czech by O. Berger]. Novosibirsk: Publishing-House of SB RAS; 2012. 260pp

[15] Oleksiuk OM. Spiritual feelings in person's world perception [Extended Theses of PhD in Philosophy Sciences]. 1994. pp. 15-18. 25pp

[16] Oleksiuk OM. Conceptual foundations of post-non-classical arts pedagogy. In: Materials of the International Scientific and Practical Conference; Nizhyn; April 24-25, 2015. Revenchuk VV, editor. Nizhyn: NDU Named After M. Gogol; 2015. pp. 3-4. 125pp

[17] Abolyna TH. Historical Fates of Morality: Philosophical Analysis of Moral Culture. Ukraine: Lybid; 1992. p. 123. 195pp

[18] Abdullyn EB. In: Abdullyn EB, Nikolaieva EV, editors. Theory of Musical Education: A Textbook for the Students of Higher Pedagogical Universities. Russia: Publishing Center "Academy"; 2004. p. 55. 336pp

[19] Bondarevskaya EV. Designing an innovative space for pedagogical education at the Federal University. Pedagogics. 2013;**7**:33-43

[20] Bondarevskaya EV. Methodological problems of formation of universitytype pedagogical education. Pedagogics. 2010;**9**:73-84

**111**

*Modernization and Development of Arts Education: Spiritual and Worldview Alternative*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85375*

[21] Bondarevskaya EV. Value basis of personally oriented education.

[22] Bondarevskaya EV. Designing an innovative space for pedagogical education at the Federal University.

[23] Oleksiuk OM. In: Oleksiuk OM, editor. Development of the Spiritual Potential of the Individual in Post-Non-Classical Artistic Education [Monograph]. Ukraine: Kyiv

University; 2017. p. 117. 192pp. ISBN:

Pedagogy. 1995;**4**:29-35

Pedagogics. 2013;**7**:31-42

978-617-658-035-5

*Modernization and Development of Arts Education: Spiritual and Worldview Alternative DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85375*

[21] Bondarevskaya EV. Value basis of personally oriented education. Pedagogy. 1995;**4**:29-35

[22] Bondarevskaya EV. Designing an innovative space for pedagogical education at the Federal University. Pedagogics. 2013;**7**:31-42

[23] Oleksiuk OM. In: Oleksiuk OM, editor. Development of the Spiritual Potential of the Individual in Post-Non-Classical Artistic Education [Monograph]. Ukraine: Kyiv University; 2017. p. 117. 192pp. ISBN: 978-617-658-035-5

**110**

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

[1] Oleksiuk OM. In: Oleksiuk OM, editor. Musical Pedagogy: Teach. Manual. [12] Tkhahapsoiev KH. In: Tkhahapsoiev KH, editor. The New Era of Educational Paradigm. Moscow: "Prosveshcheniye";

[13] Tkhahapsoiev KH. Paradigmal approach in education: To the problems of formation. Pedagogics. 2011;**5**:8-17

[15] Oleksiuk OM. Spiritual feelings in person's world perception [Extended Theses of PhD in Philosophy Sciences].

[16] Oleksiuk OM. Conceptual foundations of post-non-classical arts pedagogy. In: Materials of the International Scientific and Practical Conference; Nizhyn; April 24-25, 2015. Revenchuk VV, editor. Nizhyn: NDU Named After M. Gogol;

[17] Abolyna TH. Historical Fates of Morality: Philosophical Analysis of Moral Culture. Ukraine: Lybid; 1992.

[18] Abdullyn EB. In: Abdullyn EB, Nikolaieva EV, editors. Theory of Musical Education: A Textbook for the Students of Higher Pedagogical Universities. Russia: Publishing Center

"Academy"; 2004. p. 55. 336pp

Pedagogics. 2013;**7**:33-43

2010;**9**:73-84

[19] Bondarevskaya EV. Designing an innovative space for pedagogical education at the Federal University.

[20] Bondarevskaya EV. Methodological problems of formation of universitytype pedagogical education. Pedagogics.

[14] Shmeis Y. In: Shmeis Y, editor. Culture Under Threat: From Evolutionary Ontology to Environmental Policy: Monograph [Trans. from Czech by O. Berger]. Novosibirsk: Publishing-House of SB

RAS; 2012. 260pp

1994. pp. 15-18. 25pp

2015. pp. 3-4. 125pp

p. 123. 195pp

1997. 99pp

Musical Pedagogy. Ukraine: Kyiv University; 2013. pp. 218-219. 448pp

Pedagogics. 2010;**2**:19-23

[2] Bim-Bad BM. Axioms of pedagogy.

[3] Sinagatullin IM. The Impact of Globalization on Education. New York;

[4] Kukushin VS. In: Kukushin VS, editor. Common Basic Principles of Pedagogy: Teach. Man. For Stud. of Ped. Universities. Common Basic Principles of Pedagogy. Rostov-on-Donu; 2002. 224pp

[5] Vernadskyi VI. Scientific Thought as a Planetary Phenomenon. Russia: 1991

[6] Lipska LA. Philosophical and anthropological foundation of modern education. Pedagogics. 2006;**2**:23-28

[7] Samokhvalova VI. Definition of aesthetics as a music of science in the modern context. In: Aesthetic Experience and Aesthetic Culture. Russia: IFRAN; 1992. p. 123

[8] Oleksiuk OM. In: Oleksiuk OM, Tkach MM, Lisun DV, editors.

[9] Oleksuk OM. Congeniality in hermeneutic senses of arts education. In: Oleksiuk OM, editor. Problems of Modern Pedagogical Education. Series: Pedagogy and Psychology. Vol. 44. Yalta:

RVB KSU; 2014. pp. 159-163

Hermeneutic Approach in Higher Arts Education: A Collective Monograph. K: Kyiv University; 2013. pp. 85-90. 164pp

[10] Ovcharuk OV, editor. Competency Approach in Modern Education: World Experience and Ukrainian Perspectives. Ukraine: K.I.S.; 2004. pp. 76-83. 112pp

[11] Bermus AH. In: Bermus AH, editor. Introduction to the Humanitarian Methodology. M: Canon+; 2007. 336pp

**References**

2006

**113**

useful.

**Chapter 8**

**Abstract**

**1. Introduction**

*Oleg A. Donskikh*

Significance of Aristotle's Teaching

The teaching experience of former systems of education is now enticing the attention not only of some specialists but also from practicing teachers of different levels, and their findings can be used by educators involved in the practical work at schools and universities. In this chapter, the significance of the Aristotle's approach to education is discussed. Four aspects of his approach are specifically investigated: (1) the integrity of knowledge, (2) wonder as the beginning of knowledge, (3) oral communication as a specific way of creating knowledge, and (4) knowledge as a necessary element of way of life. While nowadays, the individuality is the primary value, and the accessibility of information is becoming almost absolute, these points

**Keywords:** Aristotle, integrity of knowledge, wonder, oral communication,

Nowadays, the importance of ancient systems of education is attracting more attention. It is especially true in relation to the Greek's teaching experience, including the one of the Sophists, Stoics, and students of Plato's *Academy* and Aristotle's *Lykeion*. This interest is arousing from professional philosophers (see: [10, 14, 20]) as well as from the practicing teachers (see: [7, 15, 19]). The main idea of this chapter is to argue that nowadays the importance of the Aristotelian approach to teaching is becoming not only interesting but also quite useful. At the same time, some authors indicate that modern universities are becoming much closer to corporations rather than to the classical universities, and in this case previous experience cannot be really useful ([9], pp. 24-25). I think that it is not quite right, and the basic ideas of great teachers should serve as landmarks notwithstanding the modern trends in

The main idea of this chapter is to argue that nowadays the importance of the Aristotelian approach to teaching is becoming not only interesting but also quite

The problems of modern education are largely related to the new conditions in

This is, firstly, the victory of the pedagogical concept, which places the interests

of the individual above the interests of society and, accordingly, approves the need to choose individual trajectories of education. Yet, the person has to become a member of society and, therefore, to be an obedient taxpayer sharing norms and persuasions of a particular social milieu. These two goals of education are not

of the Aristotle's way of teaching are becoming crucial.

which a person of the information society finds himself.

knowledge as value, "theoretical way of life"

education and conditions of life.

Practice for Modern Education

#### **Chapter 8**

## Significance of Aristotle's Teaching Practice for Modern Education

*Oleg A. Donskikh*

#### **Abstract**

The teaching experience of former systems of education is now enticing the attention not only of some specialists but also from practicing teachers of different levels, and their findings can be used by educators involved in the practical work at schools and universities. In this chapter, the significance of the Aristotle's approach to education is discussed. Four aspects of his approach are specifically investigated: (1) the integrity of knowledge, (2) wonder as the beginning of knowledge, (3) oral communication as a specific way of creating knowledge, and (4) knowledge as a necessary element of way of life. While nowadays, the individuality is the primary value, and the accessibility of information is becoming almost absolute, these points of the Aristotle's way of teaching are becoming crucial.

**Keywords:** Aristotle, integrity of knowledge, wonder, oral communication, knowledge as value, "theoretical way of life"

#### **1. Introduction**

Nowadays, the importance of ancient systems of education is attracting more attention. It is especially true in relation to the Greek's teaching experience, including the one of the Sophists, Stoics, and students of Plato's *Academy* and Aristotle's *Lykeion*. This interest is arousing from professional philosophers (see: [10, 14, 20]) as well as from the practicing teachers (see: [7, 15, 19]). The main idea of this chapter is to argue that nowadays the importance of the Aristotelian approach to teaching is becoming not only interesting but also quite useful. At the same time, some authors indicate that modern universities are becoming much closer to corporations rather than to the classical universities, and in this case previous experience cannot be really useful ([9], pp. 24-25). I think that it is not quite right, and the basic ideas of great teachers should serve as landmarks notwithstanding the modern trends in education and conditions of life.

The main idea of this chapter is to argue that nowadays the importance of the Aristotelian approach to teaching is becoming not only interesting but also quite useful.

The problems of modern education are largely related to the new conditions in which a person of the information society finds himself.

This is, firstly, the victory of the pedagogical concept, which places the interests of the individual above the interests of society and, accordingly, approves the need to choose individual trajectories of education. Yet, the person has to become a member of society and, therefore, to be an obedient taxpayer sharing norms and persuasions of a particular social milieu. These two goals of education are not

easily compatible; moreover, they are quite contradictory. This contradiction can be found in the saying by Alain Touraine, taken as the epigraph for the book [21]: "Democracy serves neither society nor individuals. Democracy serves human beings insofar as they are subjects, or in other words, their own creators and the creators of their individual and collective lives." The problem here is that collective life is guaranteed by the state, and only law (also executed by the state) guarantees the possibility of individual life. At the same time, the law is implemented by the power of the state. This means that the state has to shape future citizens to be obedient, passive, and dependent. It is exactly what Chomsky says in his interview: "If kids are studying for a test, they're not going to learn anything. We all know that from our own experience. You study for a test and pass it and you forget what the topic was, you know. And I presume that this is all pretty conscious. How conscious are they? I don't know, but they're reflections of the attitude that you have to have discipline, passivity, obedience, the kind of independence and creativity that we were shown in the '60s and since then – it's just dangerous" [8].

Secondly, teaching now occurs in conditions where information is always fully available. This means that information does not become real knowledge. It seems that bits of information appear out of nowhere. Accordingly, the very value of knowledge is undermined, because it appears to be so easily gained. This forms a second contradiction: we are living in an informational society, but information is losing its value.

#### **2. Main part**

Accordingly, the goals of education are dramatically changing. It is openly or implicitly proclaimed that the purpose of the system of education is, first, to educate a member of a well-organized society, whose purpose is to find the best suitable place in order to receive the maximum from outer conditions. In other words the system of education is aimed to coin qualified consumers, who will be able to navigate themselves through complicated conditions of modern society, or/and, secondly, education is aimed at training a narrow specialist who will be able to find the most appropriate and profitable job necessary for national economy. The system is built in such a way that a person eventually thinks that he chooses the purpose of his training and that he is the master, yet in reality he is driven by the system.

Yet here, the insurmountable and unproductive contradiction is formed between standardization (which is required for the training of a narrow specialist) and the implementation of the individual trajectory of education, which in name is designed to develop the inner abilities of the pupils. This contradiction is easy to demonstrate, for instance, by the so-called manifesto on the digital educational environment, which proclaims that "the purpose of education is not the assimilation of knowledge, but the development of personality" and that "…individualization is the highest good and point of reference" [17].1 The basic statements are as follows: "Nowadays training is predominantly the obtaining of information from outside – given by a program, a teacher, or a standard. In the digital environment the unit of learning becomes the activity of the student" [17]. And further, "…the usual concept of 'a textbook' retains its meaning only as a selection of educational content of different types. It should be replaced by a digital educational environment, where everyone can choose their own educational path, consisting of activities that they need here and now. The environment, in turn, should continuously analyze the needs and abilities of the student and offer scenarios for further development" [17]. The authors do not even notice how

**115**

*Significance of Aristotle's Teaching Practice for Modern Education*

ridiculous and contradictory this picture looks. On the one hand, it speaks about the formation of an individual educational trajectory, which should be based on the abilities and interests of the student. But, on the other hand, an environment acts as an *active builder* of this exclusively autonomous personality due to its responsibility to set the parameters of this individual trajectory. What about the will of the personality whose path is arranged from outside? In addition, we are talking about the activities relevant at the moment, but it is unclear how this will determine future activity and how the abilities of the growing and emerging individual will be taken into account. What about the establishment of a system that would take into account the change of

this very environment as well? There is an extremely thin difference between

predict the outcome of the implementation of such innovations.

cally different in its goals and approaches from the situation before.

he cannot formulate the main idea of what he has just heard;

short-time memory, yet long-time memory is not used;

although there definitely are some capable students):

history, literature, etc;

(1) the situation when artificial intelligence systems are designed to tutor students for particular tasks, yet the very task is presented in the course of traditional education (see, e.g., [6]), and (2) the situation when these systems start to play an active role

The goal of the creators of the so-called OLnet is similar, in that they state that "There has also been a noticeable move towards a strategic recognition of the mission critical importance of technologies as part of wider institutional structures. These changes are evidence that technologies have had an increasing impact on education processes over the last couple of decades, however the impact on actual practice – on teaching and learning – is perhaps not as radical as might have been expected. Considered in terms of methods of teaching, models of work and the relations between teacher and learner, the impact of technologies has not been as transformative in education as it has been in other industries such as finance, tourism or online shopping" ([11], p. 124). The very determination to transform the teaching process on the basis of new technologies excluding personal interaction in favor of impersonal procedure is quite indicative. The problem is that we cannot

Further colors to this picture are added by the purely economic approach to education. This is perfectly demonstrated by the intermediate results of educational reforms which have been going in the Russian Federation for about a quarter of a century taking the averaged Western system of education as a model. The process of education is turned into a "service": pupils are becoming clients who are always right, and teachers are the sellers of educational products. This situation is drasti-

In the end, we can observe the following outcome. The person who has been educated for 11 years (I am taking the average first year student of university





*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84180*

replacing a student's own sphere of initiative.

<sup>1</sup> This program is taken just as a demonstration of particular modern tendency in education.

#### *Significance of Aristotle's Teaching Practice for Modern Education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84180*

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

losing its value.

**2. Main part**

point of reference" [17].1

easily compatible; moreover, they are quite contradictory. This contradiction can be found in the saying by Alain Touraine, taken as the epigraph for the book [21]: "Democracy serves neither society nor individuals. Democracy serves human beings insofar as they are subjects, or in other words, their own creators and the creators of their individual and collective lives." The problem here is that collective life is guaranteed by the state, and only law (also executed by the state) guarantees the possibility of individual life. At the same time, the law is implemented by the power of the state. This means that the state has to shape future citizens to be obedient, passive, and dependent. It is exactly what Chomsky says in his interview: "If kids are studying for a test, they're not going to learn anything. We all know that from our own experience. You study for a test and pass it and you forget what the topic was, you know. And I presume that this is all pretty conscious. How conscious are they? I don't know, but they're reflections of the attitude that you have to have discipline, passivity, obedience, the kind of independence and creativity that we

Secondly, teaching now occurs in conditions where information is always fully available. This means that information does not become real knowledge. It seems that bits of information appear out of nowhere. Accordingly, the very value of knowledge is undermined, because it appears to be so easily gained. This forms a second contradiction: we are living in an informational society, but information is

Accordingly, the goals of education are dramatically changing. It is openly or implicitly proclaimed that the purpose of the system of education is, first, to educate a member of a well-organized society, whose purpose is to find the best suitable place in order to receive the maximum from outer conditions. In other words the system of education is aimed to coin qualified consumers, who will be able to navigate themselves through complicated conditions of modern society, or/and, secondly, education is aimed at training a narrow specialist who will be able to find the most appropriate and profitable job necessary for national economy. The system is built in such a way that a person eventually thinks that he chooses the purpose of his training and that he is the master, yet in reality he is driven by the system.

Yet here, the insurmountable and unproductive contradiction is formed between standardization (which is required for the training of a narrow specialist) and the implementation of the individual trajectory of education, which in name is designed to develop the inner abilities of the pupils. This contradiction is easy to demonstrate, for instance, by the so-called manifesto on the digital educational environment, which proclaims that "the purpose of education is not the assimilation of knowledge, but the development of personality" and that "…individualization is the highest good and

predominantly the obtaining of information from outside – given by a program, a teacher, or a standard. In the digital environment the unit of learning becomes the activity of the student" [17]. And further, "…the usual concept of 'a textbook' retains its meaning only as a selection of educational content of different types. It should be replaced by a digital educational environment, where everyone can choose their own educational path, consisting of activities that they need here and now. The environment, in turn, should continuously analyze the needs and abilities of the student and offer scenarios for further development" [17]. The authors do not even notice how

<sup>1</sup> This program is taken just as a demonstration of particular modern tendency in education.

The basic statements are as follows: "Nowadays training is

were shown in the '60s and since then – it's just dangerous" [8].

**114**

ridiculous and contradictory this picture looks. On the one hand, it speaks about the formation of an individual educational trajectory, which should be based on the abilities and interests of the student. But, on the other hand, an environment acts as an *active builder* of this exclusively autonomous personality due to its responsibility to set the parameters of this individual trajectory. What about the will of the personality whose path is arranged from outside? In addition, we are talking about the activities relevant at the moment, but it is unclear how this will determine future activity and how the abilities of the growing and emerging individual will be taken into account. What about the establishment of a system that would take into account the change of this very environment as well? There is an extremely thin difference between (1) the situation when artificial intelligence systems are designed to tutor students for particular tasks, yet the very task is presented in the course of traditional education (see, e.g., [6]), and (2) the situation when these systems start to play an active role replacing a student's own sphere of initiative.

The goal of the creators of the so-called OLnet is similar, in that they state that "There has also been a noticeable move towards a strategic recognition of the mission critical importance of technologies as part of wider institutional structures. These changes are evidence that technologies have had an increasing impact on education processes over the last couple of decades, however the impact on actual practice – on teaching and learning – is perhaps not as radical as might have been expected. Considered in terms of methods of teaching, models of work and the relations between teacher and learner, the impact of technologies has not been as transformative in education as it has been in other industries such as finance, tourism or online shopping" ([11], p. 124). The very determination to transform the teaching process on the basis of new technologies excluding personal interaction in favor of impersonal procedure is quite indicative. The problem is that we cannot predict the outcome of the implementation of such innovations.

Further colors to this picture are added by the purely economic approach to education. This is perfectly demonstrated by the intermediate results of educational reforms which have been going in the Russian Federation for about a quarter of a century taking the averaged Western system of education as a model. The process of education is turned into a "service": pupils are becoming clients who are always right, and teachers are the sellers of educational products. This situation is drastically different in its goals and approaches from the situation before.

In the end, we can observe the following outcome. The person who has been educated for 11 years (I am taking the average first year student of university although there definitely are some capable students):


disappears, replaced by simple procedure: any fragment of received knowledge is easily followed by the next one, and the link is not necessary;


In this situation, it is interesting to look at the goals set by the education system in the era of Aristotle, given the phenomenon that is called the "Greek miracle" and which with extreme efficiency showed itself in a variety of areas of human activity, including the intellectual. Aristotle is also taken in this respect due to his activity as a teacher and founder of the school which greatly influenced the development of learning in Alexandria, the paramount center of science of the Hellenistic era.

Werner Yeager in his famous book *Paideia* stated that the Greeks thought that the main purpose of education was the creation of man. "They were the first to recognize that education means deliberately moulding human character in accordance with an ideal. … Throughout history, whenever this conception reappears, it is always inherited from the Greeks; and it always reappears when man abandons the idea of training the young like animals to perform certain definite external duties, and recollects the true essence of education" ([22], pp. xxii-xxiii). This idea of the creation of man (in Russian the word for "education" is "образование" which exactly means "creation" and "building") is developed by the Greeks in close relation with the idea of a necessary political aspect. "The man revealed in the work of the great Greeks is a political man. Greek education is not the sum of a number of private arts and skills intended to create a perfect independent personality. No one believed that it was, until the decline of Hellenism, when the Greek state as such had vanished – the age from which modern pedagogy is directly derived" ([22], pp. xxv-xxvi). Yeager emphasizes that in this case the education was intended to create a responsible citizen rather than an independent personality or narrow specialist.

Aristotle in his understanding of education followed Socrates and especially his teacher Plato and, accordingly, opposed philosophy to dialectics and sophistry. Socrates began to struggle with the sophists, as they realized a purely intellectual ideal, allowing their students to achieve their goals in the political arena without trying to be virtuous. Socrates, followed by Plato and Aristotle, effectively challenged this ideal. Immortal accomplishment of the sophists was the invention of intellectual culture and corresponding ways of educational techniques. "At the same time it is clear that whenever their political training attacked the deeper problems of morality and the state, it was in danger of teaching half-truths—unless it could be grounded in genuine and thorough political thought, searching for the truth for its own sake. From this point of view, Plato and Aristotle later attacked the whole system of sophistic culture and shook it to its foundations" ([22], p. 293). The starting point of the Socratic approach to education was the civilization of the individual in order to make him a socially valuable person. Xenophon spoke on this, introducing the idea of his teacher that if you take "the human beings with the best natures, who are most robust in their souls and most able to accomplish whatever they attempt, if they are educated and learn what they should do, become best and

**117**

*Significance of Aristotle's Teaching Practice for Modern Education*

most beneficial (for the good things they accomplish are very many and very great), while without education and learning they become worst and most harmful, for not understanding how to decide what they should do - they frequently attempt wicked actions, and since they are grand and impetuous they are hard to restrain and hard to turn back, which is why the bad things they do are very many and very great" ([22], p. 112). In other words, we are talking about curbing wildlife, which characterizes an uneducated person. Thus, the purpose of education is undoubtedly

proclaimed as the creation of a political person (a man of a *polis*), a citizen.

Plato follows Socrates directly; Aristotle follows Plato. If Socrates sets a pattern straightly by his personal example, Plato already implements this approach in the Academy, and his approach is intentionally opposed to the rhetorical schools of his time. Plato combines intelligence with the desire to implement a certain civil ideal. As John Dillon notes: "That is the true legacy of the Platonist model of education, on which modern civilization is progressively turning its back: that the properly structured study of quite abstract subjects is the best training for the mind, even when the mind is turned to the solution of entirely practical problems" ([12], p. 332). This aspect of Plato's approach was fully continued by Aristotle in his *Lykeion*. Without entering into discussion of more detailed intersections between systems of teaching of three great philosophers, I would like to emphasize the following points of Aristotelian approach to education, which I assume to be the most important nowadays.

These points are (1) integrity of knowledge, (2) wonder as the beginning of knowledge, (3) oral communication as a way of organizing knowledge, and

Let us start with the first point: integrity. How has it been revealed in the educa-

(1) An indication toward integrity and commitment to **integrity** are present (a) in the mandatory establishment of generic relations, when any object of study is considered, and in establishing the system of the most general categories, and (b) in

(a) We will consider these two aspects successively. According to Aristotle, philosophy and logic play a key role in education as the forms of implementation of a unified approach in any field of knowledge. It is philosophy that turns knowledge "scientific," that is, in the understanding of Aristotle, the knowledge which is built from the beginnings, from the first principles. "Clearly then it is the function of the philosopher, that is, the student of the whole of reality in its essential nature, to investigate also the principles of syllogistic reasoning. And it is proper for him who best understands each class of subject to be able to state the most certain principles of that subject; so that he who understands the modes of Being qua Being should be able to state the most certain principles of all things. Now this person is the philosopher, …" ([1, 2], Metaphysics, 1005b). The first principles of everything are explored by theology, and, consequently, less general principles are examined by specific sciences. Thus, Aristotle transfers philosophical approach to any sphere of research, and any knowledge is built systematically. Hence, the methodical analysis is applied to everything under research. Namely, Aristotle is the one who sets the system of categories in his *Metaphysics*—essence, quality, place, action or suffering, relation, and quantity, and then he sets more extensive list of categories in the *Categories*. Aristotle states: "Clearly, then, it pertains to one science to study Being qua Being, and the attributes inherent in it qua Being; and the same science investigates, besides the concepts mentioned above, Priority and Posteriority, Genus and Species, Whole and Part, and all other such concepts" ([1, 2], Metaphysics, 1005a). Due to the emergence of categories—the specific concepts that cannot be defined by the principle of gender and species differences (because they are the most general of their kind)—it is possible to freely build a generic chain that has been impossible

(4) knowledge as a necessary and special element of lifestyle.

tional system of Aristotle?

the methodological support of knowledge.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84180*

#### *Significance of Aristotle's Teaching Practice for Modern Education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84180*

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

different databases;


information in long-term memory.

disappears, replaced by simple procedure: any fragment of received knowledge

is easily followed by the next one, and the link is not necessary;




In this situation, it is interesting to look at the goals set by the education system in the era of Aristotle, given the phenomenon that is called the "Greek miracle" and which with extreme efficiency showed itself in a variety of areas of human activity, including the intellectual. Aristotle is also taken in this respect due to his activity as a teacher and founder of the school which greatly influenced the development of learning in Alexandria, the paramount center of science of the Hellenistic era. Werner Yeager in his famous book *Paideia* stated that the Greeks thought that the main purpose of education was the creation of man. "They were the first to recognize that education means deliberately moulding human character in accordance with an ideal. … Throughout history, whenever this conception reappears, it is always inherited from the Greeks; and it always reappears when man abandons the idea of training the young like animals to perform certain definite external duties, and recollects the true essence of education" ([22], pp. xxii-xxiii). This idea of the creation of man (in Russian the word for "education" is "образование" which exactly means "creation" and "building") is developed by the Greeks in close relation with the idea of a necessary political aspect. "The man revealed in the work of the great Greeks is a political man. Greek education is not the sum of a number of private arts and skills intended to create a perfect independent personality. No one believed that it was, until the decline of Hellenism, when the Greek state as such had vanished – the age from which modern pedagogy is directly derived" ([22], pp. xxv-xxvi). Yeager emphasizes that in this case the education was intended to create a responsible citizen rather than an independent personality or narrow specialist. Aristotle in his understanding of education followed Socrates and especially his teacher Plato and, accordingly, opposed philosophy to dialectics and sophistry. Socrates began to struggle with the sophists, as they realized a purely intellectual ideal, allowing their students to achieve their goals in the political arena without trying to be virtuous. Socrates, followed by Plato and Aristotle, effectively challenged this ideal. Immortal accomplishment of the sophists was the invention of intellectual culture and corresponding ways of educational techniques. "At the same time it is clear that whenever their political training attacked the deeper problems of morality and the state, it was in danger of teaching half-truths—unless it could be grounded in genuine and thorough political thought, searching for the truth for its own sake. From this point of view, Plato and Aristotle later attacked the whole system of sophistic culture and shook it to its foundations" ([22], p. 293). The starting point of the Socratic approach to education was the civilization of the individual in order to make him a socially valuable person. Xenophon spoke on this, introducing the idea of his teacher that if you take "the human beings with the best natures, who are most robust in their souls and most able to accomplish whatever they attempt, if they are educated and learn what they should do, become best and

**116**

most beneficial (for the good things they accomplish are very many and very great), while without education and learning they become worst and most harmful, for not understanding how to decide what they should do - they frequently attempt wicked actions, and since they are grand and impetuous they are hard to restrain and hard to turn back, which is why the bad things they do are very many and very great" ([22], p. 112). In other words, we are talking about curbing wildlife, which characterizes an uneducated person. Thus, the purpose of education is undoubtedly proclaimed as the creation of a political person (a man of a *polis*), a citizen.

Plato follows Socrates directly; Aristotle follows Plato. If Socrates sets a pattern straightly by his personal example, Plato already implements this approach in the Academy, and his approach is intentionally opposed to the rhetorical schools of his time. Plato combines intelligence with the desire to implement a certain civil ideal. As John Dillon notes: "That is the true legacy of the Platonist model of education, on which modern civilization is progressively turning its back: that the properly structured study of quite abstract subjects is the best training for the mind, even when the mind is turned to the solution of entirely practical problems" ([12], p. 332). This aspect of Plato's approach was fully continued by Aristotle in his *Lykeion*. Without entering into discussion of more detailed intersections between systems of teaching of three great philosophers, I would like to emphasize the following points of Aristotelian approach to education, which I assume to be the most important nowadays.

These points are (1) integrity of knowledge, (2) wonder as the beginning of knowledge, (3) oral communication as a way of organizing knowledge, and (4) knowledge as a necessary and special element of lifestyle.

Let us start with the first point: integrity. How has it been revealed in the educational system of Aristotle?

(1) An indication toward integrity and commitment to **integrity** are present (a) in the mandatory establishment of generic relations, when any object of study is considered, and in establishing the system of the most general categories, and (b) in the methodological support of knowledge.

(a) We will consider these two aspects successively. According to Aristotle, philosophy and logic play a key role in education as the forms of implementation of a unified approach in any field of knowledge. It is philosophy that turns knowledge "scientific," that is, in the understanding of Aristotle, the knowledge which is built from the beginnings, from the first principles. "Clearly then it is the function of the philosopher, that is, the student of the whole of reality in its essential nature, to investigate also the principles of syllogistic reasoning. And it is proper for him who best understands each class of subject to be able to state the most certain principles of that subject; so that he who understands the modes of Being qua Being should be able to state the most certain principles of all things. Now this person is the philosopher, …" ([1, 2], Metaphysics, 1005b). The first principles of everything are explored by theology, and, consequently, less general principles are examined by specific sciences. Thus, Aristotle transfers philosophical approach to any sphere of research, and any knowledge is built systematically. Hence, the methodical analysis is applied to everything under research. Namely, Aristotle is the one who sets the system of categories in his *Metaphysics*—essence, quality, place, action or suffering, relation, and quantity, and then he sets more extensive list of categories in the *Categories*. Aristotle states: "Clearly, then, it pertains to one science to study Being qua Being, and the attributes inherent in it qua Being; and the same science investigates, besides the concepts mentioned above, Priority and Posteriority, Genus and Species, Whole and Part, and all other such concepts" ([1, 2], Metaphysics, 1005a). Due to the emergence of categories—the specific concepts that cannot be defined by the principle of gender and species differences (because they are the most general of their kind)—it is possible to freely build a generic chain that has been impossible

before the emergence of philosophy. Plato, followed by Aristotle, rationalized the relationship between concepts. Aristotle built categories as a system.2

(b) The method developed by Aristotle provides a unified approach to the study of any phenomenon. For instance, he begins his *Physics* not with the concept of movement but from methodological instructions. The first chapter begins with the definition of true knowledge (*to epistasmai* - from *he episteme* - science): "When the objects of an inquiry, in any department, have principles, conditions, or elements, it is through acquaintance with these that knowledge, that is to say scientific knowledge, is attained. For we do not think that we know a thing until we are acquainted with its primary conditions or first principles, and have carried our analysis as far as its simplest elements. Plainly therefore in the science of Nature, as in other branches of study, our first task will be to try to determine what relates to its principles" ([3], Physics, 184a). This means that the researcher has to move from general to specific. Of course, speaking of physics, we assume that it is an inductive science, but if we attribute Aristotle's approach not to obtaining knowledge, but to its representation, it turns out to be quite relevant here. We can do this because in teaching we are not just obtaining knowledge but have to present it to students.

In a similar way, Aristotle approaches judicial practice, which is very far from physics: "… Most important of all, because a judgment of a lawmaker is not about a particular case but about what lies in the future and in general, while the assemblyman and juror are actually judging present and specific cases …" ([5], Rhetoric, 1354b). This approach allows to lay the foundation of theoretical jurisprudence.

Practical disciplines are built by the same logic. Thus, Aristotle begins his ethical teaching with the definition of the good as the goal of any art and, accordingly, shows how specific benefits, like health, victory, and wealth, are subjects to more general benefits. "Now, as there are many actions, arts, and sciences, their ends also are many; the end of the medical art is health, that of shipbuilding a vessel, that of strategy victory, that of economics wealth. But where such arts fall under a single capacity — as bridle-making and the other arts concerned with the equipment of horses fall under the art of riding, and this and every military action under strategy, in the same way other arts fall under yet others — in all of these the ends of the master arts are to be preferred to all the subordinate ends; for it is for the sake of the former that the latter are pursued" ([4], Nicomachean Ethics, 1094a). The number of examples can be easily multiplied. Obviously, Aristotle's approach in all these cases is based upon the assumption that as the world is consistent in its entirety, the methodology should be commensurable to it.

(2) Now we turn to **wonder** (*to thaymadzein*) as the beginning of knowledge. Aristotle talks about wonder and the ability to be surprised in two famous places from *Metaphysics*. Let us start with the second one: "… All begin, as we have said, by wondering that things should be as they are, e.g. with regard to marionettes, or the solstices, or the incommensurability of the diagonal of a square; because it seems wonderful to everyone who has not yet perceived the cause that a thing should not be measurable by the smallest unit. But we must end with the contrary and (according to the proverb) the better view, as men do even in these cases when they understand them; for a geometrician would wonder at nothing so much as if the diagonal were to become measurable" ([1, 2], Metaphysics 983а). So what is wonder according to Aristotle?

**119**

*Significance of Aristotle's Teaching Practice for Modern Education*

First, it seems necessary to understand wonder as the reaction to a deviation from the norm, in the most extreme cases, to a deviation that goes beyond the possible. By providing the example with toys (marionettes), Aristotle has in mind a situation where this reaction can proceed in the interest and demand of research and response. Secondly, he is talking about the surprise of the researcher, who moves from the opposite: he starts from the idea that the diagonal is commensurate; however by exploring the case comes to the contrary—the diagonal is incommensurable. Aristotle, as we have seen, speaks of two types of wonder: (1) the surprise arising from the observation of something unusual and (2) surprise that contradicts to the theory, in this case—to geometry. The surprise of the possible commensurability of the diagonal of the square is the surprise of the geometer, a man who already knows the theory. And here we are talking only about the fact that by reasoning from the opposite (from something amazing), Aristotle becomes convinced of the correct-

Yet neither the example of marionettes nor the example of incommensurability leads to the search for new knowledge. Let us now turn to the earlier passage: "It is through wonder that men now begin and originally began to philosophize; wondering in the first place at obvious perplexities, and then by gradual progression raising questions about the greater matters too, e.g. about the changes of the moon and of the sun, about the stars and about the origin of the universe. Now he who wonders and is perplexed feels that he is ignorant (thus the myth-lover is in a sense a philosopher, since myths are composed of wonders); therefore if it was to escape ignorance that men studied philosophy, it is obvious that they pursued science for the sake of knowledge, and not for any practical utility" ([1, 2], Metaphysics, 982а). Thus, for Aristotle wonder becomes the beginning not only of philosophy but also of any reflective intellectual activity, due to the fact that myths are represented in the works of poetry. Fran O'Rourke draws attention to this point in his work, saying that the philosopher, according to Aristotle, "relies greatly upon the poet, the 'maker' of myth, who, through allegory, symbol and metaphor, shapes a meaning from the welter of human happenings by weaving them into a pattern and narrative of wider cosmic order. Although Aristotle does not state that the poet is engaged in wonderment of the totality … the juxtaposition and comparison of philosophy and poetry allow us to make this assumption" ([18], p. 31). O'Rourke emphasizes the point that, according to Aristotle, philosophy deals with totality (*pantos*), linking totality and wonder. Aristotle shows that from the beginning wonder leads to the creation of a myth. Myth replaces ignorance by stating the problem. Later philoso-

Thus, according to Aristotle, wonder is necessary to indicate toward the situation of misunderstanding and incomprehension. Namely, this situation, in turn, generates interest, which, in relation to the most important things for a person, is presented in myths. Myths, in turn, raise questions, and they require systematic

It is interesting to note that Aristotle directly connects knowledge with leadership and, therefore, power. In *Rhetoric* he says: "And sine to be the leader is pleasantest, to seem to be wise in a practical way is a quality of leadership, and wisdom is a knowledge of many and admirable things" ([5], Rhetoric, 1371b). Aristotle understands that in society the power of myths is enormous, and, given this, the value of

In teaching, we can take these considerations in a slightly different way turning myths into hypotheses (taken as preliminary presuppositions) which are formulated to answer the question raised by wonder. I think that this substitution is not far from what Aristotle had in mind. Only the answer to a well-understood problem

provides us with knowledge which will be stored in long-term memory.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84180*

ness of the idea of incommensurability.

phy starts to explore the problem in a systematic way.

research of a philosopher or scientist.

wonder is increasing even more.

<sup>2</sup> Émile Benveniste demonstrated that this system reflects the specific grammatical structure of the Ancient Greek; however in this case it does matter, because Aristotle started to apply these general concepts not in the sphere of linguistics but in the sphere of general knowledge.

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

jurisprudence.

before the emergence of philosophy. Plato, followed by Aristotle, rationalized the

of any phenomenon. For instance, he begins his *Physics* not with the concept of movement but from methodological instructions. The first chapter begins with the definition of true knowledge (*to epistasmai* - from *he episteme* - science): "When the objects of an inquiry, in any department, have principles, conditions, or elements, it is through acquaintance with these that knowledge, that is to say scientific knowledge, is attained. For we do not think that we know a thing until we are acquainted with its primary conditions or first principles, and have carried our analysis as far as its simplest elements. Plainly therefore in the science of Nature, as in other branches of study, our first task will be to try to determine what relates to its principles" ([3], Physics, 184a). This means that the researcher has to move from general to specific. Of course, speaking of physics, we assume that it is an inductive science, but if we attribute Aristotle's approach not to obtaining knowledge, but to its representation, it turns out to be quite relevant here. We can do this because in teaching we are not

In a similar way, Aristotle approaches judicial practice, which is very far from physics: "… Most important of all, because a judgment of a lawmaker is not about a particular case but about what lies in the future and in general, while the assemblyman and juror are actually judging present and specific cases …" ([5], Rhetoric, 1354b). This approach allows to lay the foundation of theoretical

Practical disciplines are built by the same logic. Thus, Aristotle begins his ethical

teaching with the definition of the good as the goal of any art and, accordingly, shows how specific benefits, like health, victory, and wealth, are subjects to more general benefits. "Now, as there are many actions, arts, and sciences, their ends also are many; the end of the medical art is health, that of shipbuilding a vessel, that of strategy victory, that of economics wealth. But where such arts fall under a single capacity — as bridle-making and the other arts concerned with the equipment of horses fall under the art of riding, and this and every military action under strategy, in the same way other arts fall under yet others — in all of these the ends of the master arts are to be preferred to all the subordinate ends; for it is for the sake of the former that the latter are pursued" ([4], Nicomachean Ethics, 1094a). The number of examples can be easily multiplied. Obviously, Aristotle's approach in all these cases is based upon the assumption that as the world is consistent in its entirety, the

(2) Now we turn to **wonder** (*to thaymadzein*) as the beginning of knowledge. Aristotle talks about wonder and the ability to be surprised in two famous places from *Metaphysics*. Let us start with the second one: "… All begin, as we have said, by wondering that things should be as they are, e.g. with regard to marionettes, or the solstices, or the incommensurability of the diagonal of a square; because it seems wonderful to everyone who has not yet perceived the cause that a thing should not be measurable by the smallest unit. But we must end with the contrary and (according to the proverb) the better view, as men do even in these cases when they understand them; for a geometrician would wonder at nothing so much as if the diagonal were to become measurable" ([1, 2], Metaphysics 983а). So what is wonder

<sup>2</sup> Émile Benveniste demonstrated that this system reflects the specific grammatical structure of the Ancient Greek; however in this case it does matter, because Aristotle started to apply these general con-

cepts not in the sphere of linguistics but in the sphere of general knowledge.

(b) The method developed by Aristotle provides a unified approach to the study

relationship between concepts. Aristotle built categories as a system.2

just obtaining knowledge but have to present it to students.

methodology should be commensurable to it.

**118**

according to Aristotle?

First, it seems necessary to understand wonder as the reaction to a deviation from the norm, in the most extreme cases, to a deviation that goes beyond the possible. By providing the example with toys (marionettes), Aristotle has in mind a situation where this reaction can proceed in the interest and demand of research and response. Secondly, he is talking about the surprise of the researcher, who moves from the opposite: he starts from the idea that the diagonal is commensurate; however by exploring the case comes to the contrary—the diagonal is incommensurable. Aristotle, as we have seen, speaks of two types of wonder: (1) the surprise arising from the observation of something unusual and (2) surprise that contradicts to the theory, in this case—to geometry. The surprise of the possible commensurability of the diagonal of the square is the surprise of the geometer, a man who already knows the theory. And here we are talking only about the fact that by reasoning from the opposite (from something amazing), Aristotle becomes convinced of the correctness of the idea of incommensurability.

Yet neither the example of marionettes nor the example of incommensurability leads to the search for new knowledge. Let us now turn to the earlier passage: "It is through wonder that men now begin and originally began to philosophize; wondering in the first place at obvious perplexities, and then by gradual progression raising questions about the greater matters too, e.g. about the changes of the moon and of the sun, about the stars and about the origin of the universe. Now he who wonders and is perplexed feels that he is ignorant (thus the myth-lover is in a sense a philosopher, since myths are composed of wonders); therefore if it was to escape ignorance that men studied philosophy, it is obvious that they pursued science for the sake of knowledge, and not for any practical utility" ([1, 2], Metaphysics, 982а). Thus, for Aristotle wonder becomes the beginning not only of philosophy but also of any reflective intellectual activity, due to the fact that myths are represented in the works of poetry. Fran O'Rourke draws attention to this point in his work, saying that the philosopher, according to Aristotle, "relies greatly upon the poet, the 'maker' of myth, who, through allegory, symbol and metaphor, shapes a meaning from the welter of human happenings by weaving them into a pattern and narrative of wider cosmic order. Although Aristotle does not state that the poet is engaged in wonderment of the totality … the juxtaposition and comparison of philosophy and poetry allow us to make this assumption" ([18], p. 31). O'Rourke emphasizes the point that, according to Aristotle, philosophy deals with totality (*pantos*), linking totality and wonder. Aristotle shows that from the beginning wonder leads to the creation of a myth. Myth replaces ignorance by stating the problem. Later philosophy starts to explore the problem in a systematic way.

Thus, according to Aristotle, wonder is necessary to indicate toward the situation of misunderstanding and incomprehension. Namely, this situation, in turn, generates interest, which, in relation to the most important things for a person, is presented in myths. Myths, in turn, raise questions, and they require systematic research of a philosopher or scientist.

It is interesting to note that Aristotle directly connects knowledge with leadership and, therefore, power. In *Rhetoric* he says: "And sine to be the leader is pleasantest, to seem to be wise in a practical way is a quality of leadership, and wisdom is a knowledge of many and admirable things" ([5], Rhetoric, 1371b). Aristotle understands that in society the power of myths is enormous, and, given this, the value of wonder is increasing even more.

In teaching, we can take these considerations in a slightly different way turning myths into hypotheses (taken as preliminary presuppositions) which are formulated to answer the question raised by wonder. I think that this substitution is not far from what Aristotle had in mind. Only the answer to a well-understood problem provides us with knowledge which will be stored in long-term memory.

(3) Let us now turn to the third point: the specifics of **oral communication** in comparison with the written. Here it is worth to pay attention to the nature of the organization of communication. Suffice to note that the guidance of Socrates was based precisely on his ability to influence the listeners by oral speech (e.g., it is possible to recall the speech of Alcibiades in Plato's *Symposium*). Namely, in this position of oral teacher, Socrates has become an enduring role model. Aristotle sets another type of oral communication, more consistent with his nature—teaching in the process of walking. Note that walking almost completely excludes direct recording. If we consider that the extant texts are mostly student records of Aristotle's lectures, it means that the students recorded them from memory, sometime after these lectures had been pronounced, that is, it is not a direct abstract but some later reproduction. It is worth, of course, to keep in mind that memory in a society where oral communication plays a decisive role, on average, was much more developed than memory of our contemporaries, when it is possible to find the right link, the right text in the book, or, even more effectively, at any time to turn to the help of a smartphone. It was necessary to keep a long chain of reasoning in mind. Thus, the retelling of some scenes in the dialogues of Plato may not have been fully written and was presented to a large extent as a record of spoken dialogues. A long narrative based on memory was normal practice. It is well-known that much attention was paid to the development of the memory by the Pythagoreans, and Plato and Aristotle went in line with this tradition.

In addition, for oral communication, it is very important to demonstrate the right intonation and clarity of speech. "There are three things which require special attention in regard to speech: first, the sources of proofs; secondly, style; and thirdly, the arrangement of the parts of the speech. We have already spoken of proofs and stated that they are three in number, what is their nature, and why there are only three; for in all cases persuasion is the result either of the judges themselves being affected in a certain manner, or because they consider the speakers to be of a certain character, or because something has been demonstrated. … In the first place, following the natural order, we investigated that which first presented itself—what gives things themselves their persuasiveness; in the second place, their arrangement by style; and in the third place, delivery, which is of the greatest importance but has not yet been treated of by anyone. In fact, it only made its appearance late in tragedy and rhapsody, for at first the poets themselves acted their tragedies" ([5], Rhetoric, 1403b, 1404a]). The subtlety of the assessment spoken in Ancient Greece is known; it is sufficient to recall the case that the actor Gegeloh has been ridiculed in one of Aristophanes' comedies because he made a mistake in emphasis. In general, diction was a high priority. Such a reverent attitude to the spoken word raised its value much higher than in nowadays and, accordingly, drastically increased the impact on the listener.

Another important aspect of the primacy of oral communication is its dialogic nature, which is radically different from our primarily monologic reality. Involvement in the subject was being organized through dialogue, not through abstract acquaintance with it, especially with the usage of written text. Undoubtedly, students were able to ask questions and certainly greatly enjoyed this opportunity.3 The very nature of oral communication suggests that the listener much more actively delves into the matter here and now, and this requires (especially when discussing complex subjects) clarification or raising objections. Naturally, the very impression of the subject was associated with the situation of its perception—with the teacher's intonations, with his reactions to questions, and

**121**

*Significance of Aristotle's Teaching Practice for Modern Education*

also the continuation of the two-century tradition of wisdom.

however this does not occlude the intellectual striving.

Aristotle speaks of economics as of the basis for the transition to public activity, to the activity of the citizen, which is the nature of a real human being. According

with his manner of reasoning. All these aspects are lost when translating oral text into written. This was especially important in philosophy which embraced at that

(4) Let us now turn to the last point—**knowledge as a necessary and special element of lifestyle**. The purpose of philosophizing was to build a way of life in accordance with certain principles. Aristotle formulated the difference between philosophy and other disciplines: "… Dialecticians and sophists wear the same appearance as the philosopher, for sophistry is Wisdom in appearance only, and dialecticians discuss all subjects, and Being is a subject common to them all; but clearly they discuss these concepts because they appertain to philosophy. For sophistry and dialectic are concerned with the same class of subjects as philosophy, but philosophy differs from the former in the nature of its capability and from the latter in its outlook on life. Dialectic treats as an exercise what philosophy tries to understand, and sophistry seems to be philosophy; but is not" ([1, 2], Metaphysics, 1004b]). It is

Pierre Hadot paid attention to the idea of philosophy as a way of life, not just thinking as such. He writes: "These theories - which one could call 'general philosophy' - give rise, in almost all systems, to doctrines or criticisms of morality which, as it were, draw the consequences, both for individuals and for society, of the general principles of the system, and thus invite people to carry out a specific choice of life and adopt a certain mode of behavior." And Hadot continues: "… Philosophical discourse must be understood from the perspective of the way of life of which it is both the expression and the means. Consequently, philosophy is above all a way of life, but one which is intimately linked to philosophical discourse" ([16], pp. 2-4). Although Aristotle seems for modern readers to act as a philosopher, striving for pure knowledge, that is, knowledge that is valuable for its own sake, Hadot shows that this is not the case. Aristotle in his approach to teaching differs significantly from Plato. If the Academy prepared people for political life, *Lykeion* prepared for the life of a philosopher. Obviously, for Aristotle, philosophy is "a theoretical" way of life. "In modern parlance, 'the theoretic' is opposed to 'the practical' the way the abstract and speculative is opposed to the concrete. From this perspective, then, we may oppose a purely theoretic philosophical discourse to a practical, lived philosophical life. Aristotle himself, however, uses only the word 'theoretical' [*theoretikos*], and he uses it to designate, on the one hand, the mode of knowledge whose goal is knowledge for knowledge's sake, and not some goal outside itself; and on the other, the way of life which consists in devoting one's life to this mode of knowledge. In this latter meaning, 'theoretical' is not opposed to 'practical.' In other words, 'theoretical' can be applied to a philosophy which is practiced, lived, and active, and which brings happiness" ([11], pp. 80–81). Since philosophy is a certain way of life, it definitely carries an ethical principle: "… 'theoretical' philosophy is at the same time a certain ethics. Just as virtuous practice is not to choose for itself a purpose other than virtue, to strive to be a good man, not counting on any private benefit— 'Just as virtuous praxis consists in choosing no other goal than virtue and in wanting to be a good person without seeking any particular interest, so theoretical praxis (it is Aristotle himself who inspires us to hazard this apparently paradoxical phrase) consists in choosing no goal other than knowledge. It means wanting knowledge for its own sake, without pursuing any other particular, egoistic interest which would be alien to knowledge. This is an ethics of disinterestedness and of objectivity" ([16], p. 81). Hadot notes that Aristotle is well aware that such a lifestyle requires that the material side of life is ensured. Economic side of life plays a significant role;

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84180*

time a much wider range of subjects.

<sup>3</sup> As far as we know, this possibility was forbidden for so-called *akousmatikoi*; however this was the norm in communication of Pythagoras with *mathēmatikoi*.

#### *Significance of Aristotle's Teaching Practice for Modern Education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84180*

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

Aristotle went in line with this tradition.

(3) Let us now turn to the third point: the specifics of **oral communication** in comparison with the written. Here it is worth to pay attention to the nature of the organization of communication. Suffice to note that the guidance of Socrates was based precisely on his ability to influence the listeners by oral speech (e.g., it is possible to recall the speech of Alcibiades in Plato's *Symposium*). Namely, in this position of oral teacher, Socrates has become an enduring role model. Aristotle sets another type of oral communication, more consistent with his nature—teaching in the process of walking. Note that walking almost completely excludes direct recording. If we consider that the extant texts are mostly student records of Aristotle's lectures, it means that the students recorded them from memory, sometime after these lectures had been pronounced, that is, it is not a direct abstract but some later reproduction. It is worth, of course, to keep in mind that memory in a society where oral communication plays a decisive role, on average, was much more developed than memory of our contemporaries, when it is possible to find the right link, the right text in the book, or, even more effectively, at any time to turn to the help of a smartphone. It was necessary to keep a long chain of reasoning in mind. Thus, the retelling of some scenes in the dialogues of Plato may not have been fully written and was presented to a large extent as a record of spoken dialogues. A long narrative based on memory was normal practice. It is well-known that much attention was paid to the development of the memory by the Pythagoreans, and Plato and

In addition, for oral communication, it is very important to demonstrate the right intonation and clarity of speech. "There are three things which require special attention in regard to speech: first, the sources of proofs; secondly, style; and thirdly, the arrangement of the parts of the speech. We have already spoken of proofs and stated that they are three in number, what is their nature, and why there are only three; for in all cases persuasion is the result either of the judges themselves being affected in a certain manner, or because they consider the speakers to be of a certain character, or because something has been demonstrated. … In the first place, following the natural order, we investigated that which first presented itself—what gives things themselves their persuasiveness; in the second place, their arrangement by style; and in the third place, delivery, which is of the greatest importance but has not yet been treated of by anyone. In fact, it only made its appearance late in tragedy and rhapsody, for at first the poets themselves acted their tragedies" ([5], Rhetoric, 1403b, 1404a]). The subtlety of the assessment spoken in Ancient Greece is known; it is sufficient to recall the case that the actor Gegeloh has been ridiculed in one of Aristophanes' comedies because he made a mistake in emphasis. In general, diction was a high priority. Such a reverent attitude to the spoken word raised its value much higher than in nowadays and, accordingly, drastically increased the impact on

Another important aspect of the primacy of oral communication is its dialogic nature, which is radically different from our primarily monologic reality. Involvement in the subject was being organized through dialogue, not through abstract acquaintance with it, especially with the usage of written text. Undoubtedly, students were able to ask questions and certainly greatly enjoyed

tener much more actively delves into the matter here and now, and this requires (especially when discussing complex subjects) clarification or raising objections. Naturally, the very impression of the subject was associated with the situation of its perception—with the teacher's intonations, with his reactions to questions, and

<sup>3</sup> As far as we know, this possibility was forbidden for so-called *akousmatikoi*; however this was the norm

The very nature of oral communication suggests that the lis-

**120**

the listener.

this opportunity.3

in communication of Pythagoras with *mathēmatikoi*.

with his manner of reasoning. All these aspects are lost when translating oral text into written. This was especially important in philosophy which embraced at that time a much wider range of subjects.

(4) Let us now turn to the last point—**knowledge as a necessary and special element of lifestyle**. The purpose of philosophizing was to build a way of life in accordance with certain principles. Aristotle formulated the difference between philosophy and other disciplines: "… Dialecticians and sophists wear the same appearance as the philosopher, for sophistry is Wisdom in appearance only, and dialecticians discuss all subjects, and Being is a subject common to them all; but clearly they discuss these concepts because they appertain to philosophy. For sophistry and dialectic are concerned with the same class of subjects as philosophy, but philosophy differs from the former in the nature of its capability and from the latter in its outlook on life. Dialectic treats as an exercise what philosophy tries to understand, and sophistry seems to be philosophy; but is not" ([1, 2], Metaphysics, 1004b]). It is also the continuation of the two-century tradition of wisdom.

Pierre Hadot paid attention to the idea of philosophy as a way of life, not just thinking as such. He writes: "These theories - which one could call 'general philosophy' - give rise, in almost all systems, to doctrines or criticisms of morality which, as it were, draw the consequences, both for individuals and for society, of the general principles of the system, and thus invite people to carry out a specific choice of life and adopt a certain mode of behavior." And Hadot continues: "… Philosophical discourse must be understood from the perspective of the way of life of which it is both the expression and the means. Consequently, philosophy is above all a way of life, but one which is intimately linked to philosophical discourse" ([16], pp. 2-4). Although Aristotle seems for modern readers to act as a philosopher, striving for pure knowledge, that is, knowledge that is valuable for its own sake, Hadot shows that this is not the case. Aristotle in his approach to teaching differs significantly from Plato. If the Academy prepared people for political life, *Lykeion* prepared for the life of a philosopher. Obviously, for Aristotle, philosophy is "a theoretical" way of life. "In modern parlance, 'the theoretic' is opposed to 'the practical' the way the abstract and speculative is opposed to the concrete. From this perspective, then, we may oppose a purely theoretic philosophical discourse to a practical, lived philosophical life. Aristotle himself, however, uses only the word 'theoretical' [*theoretikos*], and he uses it to designate, on the one hand, the mode of knowledge whose goal is knowledge for knowledge's sake, and not some goal outside itself; and on the other, the way of life which consists in devoting one's life to this mode of knowledge. In this latter meaning, 'theoretical' is not opposed to 'practical.' In other words, 'theoretical' can be applied to a philosophy which is practiced, lived, and active, and which brings happiness" ([11], pp. 80–81). Since philosophy is a certain way of life, it definitely carries an ethical principle: "… 'theoretical' philosophy is at the same time a certain ethics. Just as virtuous practice is not to choose for itself a purpose other than virtue, to strive to be a good man, not counting on any private benefit— 'Just as virtuous praxis consists in choosing no other goal than virtue and in wanting to be a good person without seeking any particular interest, so theoretical praxis (it is Aristotle himself who inspires us to hazard this apparently paradoxical phrase) consists in choosing no goal other than knowledge. It means wanting knowledge for its own sake, without pursuing any other particular, egoistic interest which would be alien to knowledge. This is an ethics of disinterestedness and of objectivity" ([16], p. 81). Hadot notes that Aristotle is well aware that such a lifestyle requires that the material side of life is ensured. Economic side of life plays a significant role; however this does not occlude the intellectual striving.

Aristotle speaks of economics as of the basis for the transition to public activity, to the activity of the citizen, which is the nature of a real human being. According

to Aristotle, through ethics and law, a person defines himself within the political community (*koinonia*). "Since the main mechanism of self-identification is the correlation, feeling and self-realization within the political community, the main definition of the Greek is his civil belonging to a certain city-state. The state is the highest, and the most perfect form of political communication of equal people (*homilia*)" ([13], pp. 189–190). Political communication is possible only due to speech. Namely, speech makes it possible, and we come to the point of intersection of oral communication (speech) and lifestyle. The speech itself, according to Aristotle, contains an ethical principle. He begins his *Politics* with the statement that the most important and embracing all other types of communication is political communication, that is, communication within the state. However, communication is based on speech: "… Man alone of the animals possesses speech. The mere voice, it is true, can indicate pain and pleasure, and therefore is possessed by the other animals as well … , but speech is designed to indicate the advantageous and the harmful, and therefore also the right and the wrong; for it is the special property of man in distinction from the other animals that he alone has perception of good and bad and right and wrong and the other moral qualities, and it is partnership in these things that makes a household and a city-state" ([1, 2], Politics, 1253a). It is obvious that a person can become a true human being only due to the fact that he is included in this system of social relations, civil relations, in particular.

In other words, we come to the problem of self-identification, where education plays a key role. Returning to the current situation in education, it is necessary to raise the question: is it possible to provide a sustainable self-identification if the individual trajectory of education is realized in full capacity? On the one hand, it is obvious that the individual trajectory of education is inevitable, because everyone learns the same things in different ways. All people are taught by the same samples of writing, but for apparent reasons everyone's handwriting is different. On the other hand, it is understandable that people need a common knowledge platform to have a meaningful communication. If we exaggerate the idea of the initial choice of individual trajectories, communication will be reduced to a relatively small number of everyday topics, such as weather and the latest news. People who are taught this way are very easily manipulated. Otherwise, their way of life can be easily set and controlled from the outside. If this is stated as the aim of education, we have to forget the experience of the great ancient thinkers. It is quite useful to recall the role played by Aristotle's pupils in foundation of the greatest scientific institution of antiquity—Alexandrian *Museion* and the library.

#### **3. Conclusion**

What follows from the reflection upon Aristotle's approach to teaching in comparison with the current trends in education? Why is it relevant?


**123**

provided the original work is properly cited.

Economics and Management, Novosibirsk, Russia

\*Address all correspondence to: olegdonskikh@yandex.ru

*Significance of Aristotle's Teaching Practice for Modern Education*

of attempt to implement what Aristotle means, but it should be included in a broader context of questioning. It is possible to teach students to wonder; however this is not the same as putting them in a problematic situation. The latter is something artificial and secondary: the ability to wonder means the ability to intellectually create the problematic situation. It is part of life rather than part of the educational process. Yet only the ability to be surprised leads to the ability to raise questions, and after that the problem is formulated. It

3.Oral communication about complex matters teaches concentration, the ability to highlight main points, to keep the thread of the narrative. It forces students to ask questions, turning a monologue of the teacher into a dialogue between teacher and student. Modern pedagogical practices are moving along the path of increasing the role of visualization, while philosophical courses should be based primarily on oral communication. Also, in teaching other disciplines, more attention should be paid to oral communication and dialogue as a form of

4.Understanding that any knowledge is ethical in nature by itself makes the teaching more responsible. Striving for the truth and awareness of the power of acquired knowledge should accompany teaching from the very beginning. If these conditions are obeyed, education is aimed not toward the formation of a narrow specialist but toward the creation of a responsible citizen, who is much more an individual than a modern seeker of an individual educational

The Author wishes to express his sincere gratitude to Novosibirsk State University of Economics and Management for financial support of this publication.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84180*

requires an appropriate mindset.

resolving the problem situation.

trajectory.

**Acknowledgements**

**Author details**

Oleg A. Donskikh

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

Department of Philosophy and Humanities, Novosibirsk State University of

#### *Significance of Aristotle's Teaching Practice for Modern Education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84180*

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century*

to Aristotle, through ethics and law, a person defines himself within the political community (*koinonia*). "Since the main mechanism of self-identification is the correlation, feeling and self-realization within the political community, the main definition of the Greek is his civil belonging to a certain city-state. The state is the highest, and the most perfect form of political communication of equal people (*homilia*)" ([13], pp. 189–190). Political communication is possible only due to speech. Namely, speech makes it possible, and we come to the point of intersection of oral communication (speech) and lifestyle. The speech itself, according to Aristotle, contains an ethical principle. He begins his *Politics* with the statement that the most important and embracing all other types of communication is political communication, that is, communication within the state. However, communication is based on speech: "… Man alone of the animals possesses speech. The mere voice, it is true, can indicate pain and pleasure, and therefore is possessed by the other animals as well … , but speech is designed to indicate the advantageous and the harmful, and therefore also the right and the wrong; for it is the special property of man in distinction from the other animals that he alone has perception of good and bad and right and wrong and the other moral qualities, and it is partnership in these things that makes a household and a city-state" ([1, 2], Politics, 1253a). It is obvious that a person can become a true human being only due to the fact that he is included

in this system of social relations, civil relations, in particular.

antiquity—Alexandrian *Museion* and the library.

In other words, we come to the problem of self-identification, where education plays a key role. Returning to the current situation in education, it is necessary to raise the question: is it possible to provide a sustainable self-identification if the individual trajectory of education is realized in full capacity? On the one hand, it is obvious that the individual trajectory of education is inevitable, because everyone learns the same things in different ways. All people are taught by the same samples of writing, but for apparent reasons everyone's handwriting is different. On the other hand, it is understandable that people need a common knowledge platform to have a meaningful communication. If we exaggerate the idea of the initial choice of individual trajectories, communication will be reduced to a relatively small number of everyday topics, such as weather and the latest news. People who are taught this way are very easily manipulated. Otherwise, their way of life can be easily set and controlled from the outside. If this is stated as the aim of education, we have to forget the experience of the great ancient thinkers. It is quite useful to recall the role played by Aristotle's pupils in foundation of the greatest scientific institution of

What follows from the reflection upon Aristotle's approach to teaching in

1.The significance of Aristotle, compared to the recent situation in education, starts with the counter-mosaic approach to teaching. The teacher has to strive toward systematic knowledge, which is possible only through the formation of a broad view of the subject based on the links with other subjects, creating at the end a hierarchical structure from first principles to the particulars. This underscores the importance of integral courses, including humanitarian ones.

2.The wonder that precedes the answer to the problem makes this answer and the relevant knowledge involved valuable and thus becomes part of long-term rather than short-term memory. The so-called problem approach is a kind

comparison with the current trends in education? Why is it relevant?

**122**

**3. Conclusion**

of attempt to implement what Aristotle means, but it should be included in a broader context of questioning. It is possible to teach students to wonder; however this is not the same as putting them in a problematic situation. The latter is something artificial and secondary: the ability to wonder means the ability to intellectually create the problematic situation. It is part of life rather than part of the educational process. Yet only the ability to be surprised leads to the ability to raise questions, and after that the problem is formulated. It requires an appropriate mindset.


#### **Acknowledgements**

The Author wishes to express his sincere gratitude to Novosibirsk State University of Economics and Management for financial support of this publication.

### **Author details**

Oleg A. Donskikh Department of Philosophy and Humanities, Novosibirsk State University of Economics and Management, Novosibirsk, Russia

\*Address all correspondence to: olegdonskikh@yandex.ru

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

### **References**

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[13] Yu D. Lichnost' i kommunikatsiya. Antropologiya ustnogo i pis'mennogo slova v antichnoi kul'ture. (Personality and Communication. Anthropology of Oral and Written Word in Ancient Culture). Sankt Petersburg: RHGA Publishing House; 2015. (In Russian)

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[17] Manifest o tsifrovoi obrazovatel'noi srede (Manifesto on the digital educational environment). Available from: https://mel.fm/ obrazovaniye/9541708-edutainme [Accessed: Dec 12, 2018] (In Russian)

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(in Russian)

Blackwell; 1946

*Significance of Aristotle's Teaching Practice for Modern Education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84180*

[19] Shim SH. A philosophical investigation of the role of teachers: A synthesis of Plato, Confucius, Buber, and Freire. Teaching and Teacher Education. 2008;**24**:515-535

[20] Volf M. The sophistic education. SCHOLE: Ancient Philosophy and the Classical Tradition. 2018;**12**(1):287-296 (in Russian)

[21] Woods Philip A. Transforming Education Policy. Shaping a Democratic Future. Bristol: The Policy Press; 2011

[22] Werner Y. Paideia: The Ideals of Greek Culture. In: Archaic Greece: The Mind of Athens. Vol. 1. Oxford: Basil Blackwell; 1946

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[1] Tredennick H. Aristotle Metaphysics. Vol. 17. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; 1933. Available from: http://www.perseus.tufts.edu [Accessed: [11] Conole G, McAndrew P. OLnet: A new approach to supporting the design and use of open educational resources of open educational resources of open educational resources. In: Looking Toward the Future of Technology-Enhanced Education: Ubiquitous

Learning and the Digital Native. Hershey, New York: Information Science Reference

(an imprint of IGI Global); 2010

2017;**11**(2)

Ltd; 1995

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[17] Manifest o tsifrovoi

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[12] Dillon J. Paideia Platonikê: Does the later Platonist programme of education retain any validity today? SCHOLE. Filosofskoe antikovedenie i klassicheskaya traditsiya (Philosophical Classics and Classical Tradition).

[13] Yu D. Lichnost' i kommunikatsiya. Antropologiya ustnogo i pis'mennogo slova v antichnoi kul'ture. (Personality and Communication. Anthropology of Oral and Written Word in Ancient Culture). Sankt Petersburg: RHGA Publishing House; 2015. (In Russian)

[14] González PB. Plato's Idea of the Teacher. Available from: https:// kirkcenter.org/essays/platos-idea-ofthe-teacher/ [Accessed: Jan 2, 2019]

[15] Hadot P. Philosophy as a Way of Life. Spiritual Exercises from Socrates to Foucault. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers

[16] Hadot P. What is ancient philosophy? Harvard University Press Chase M (transl). paperback edition; 2004

obrazovatel'noi srede (Manifesto on the digital educational environment). Available from: https://mel.fm/ obrazovaniye/9541708-edutainme [Accessed: Dec 12, 2018] (In Russian)

Interpretations. Irish Academic Press;

[2] Tredennick H. Aristotle in 23 Volumes. Vol. 18. London: William Heinemann Ltd.; 1989. Available from: http://www.perseus.

tufts.edu [Accessed: Dec 12, 2018]

[Accessed: Dec 12, 2018]

2009

IOS Press; 2003

[3] Hardie RP, Gaye RK. Physics by Aristotle. Available from: http://classics. mit.edu/Aristotle/physics.1.i.html

[4] Ross D. Aristotle. The Nicomachean Ethics. NY: Oxford University Press;

[5] Kennedy GA. Aristotle on Rhetoric. 2nd ed. Oxford University Press; 2007

[6] Hoppe U, Verdejo F, Kay J, editors. Artificial Intelligence in Education Shaping the Future of Learning through Intelligent Technologies. Amsterdam:

[7] Michael B. Stoicism & Teaching: Part One. Available from: https:// modernstoicism.com/stoicism-teaching-

part-one/ [Accessed: Jan 2, 2019]

[8] Chomsky N. Democracy and Education in the 21st Century and Beyond: An Interview With Noam Chomsky. Available from: https://truthout.org/articles/ democracy-and-education-in-the-21st-century-and-beyond-an-interviewwith-noam-chomsky/ [Accessed: Dec 1,

[9] Stefan C. What Are Universities For?

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Section 3

Teaching as Practice

Section 3
