**5. Causes of climate**

*Rainfall - Extremes, Distribution and Properties*

environmental concern of this region (**Figure 1**).

significantly consulted to meet the objectives.

**4. Major economic livelihoods**

**3. Climate situation**

the area.

countries in the region. Topographically, the Eastern African region is very com-

The greatest rift in the world (Eastern Great Rift) is located in this region, and earthquake and a volcanic eruption are active [15]; the volcanic eruption of 2010 that occurred in the Danakil Depression of Ethiopia and Eritrea is a good example [16]. The elevation of the region ranges from the highlands of Ethiopia to the Danakil Depression below sea level; the Danakil Depression (local name Dallol) is the hottest place on the surface of the Earth (>60°C). Lakes Victoria, Tana, Abaya, and Turkana are the biggest surface water located along the rift valley [17–19]. The Lake Tana in Ethiopia is the source of Blue Nile River, which is a tributary of the Nile River [20]. Drought due to climate change and land gradation is the major

Various studies from both local and international level indicate that climate change is a major agenda in the area [1]. This is important because Eastern Africa is among the worst vulnerable regions to climate change impacts [2, 3]. Although the region has been hit by this change, there are spatial differences on the magnitude of the impacts. The areas experiencing semiarid climates (especially Central Tanzania, Northeastern Kenya, and Uganda) suffer the most than those experiencing equatorial (Southern Uganda and Kenya and parts of Northern Tanzania) and tropical climates [12, 15, 22]. Overall, climate variability has been a critical driver of year-to-year impacts on both managed and unmanaged ecosystems in

In order to properly understand its ecological impacts, it is essential to quantify

how various ecosystems have historically responded to climate variability and to characterize the uncertainty in projected impacts. In this aspect, the general understanding dynamics of farmer adaptation and decision-making is particularly important. Now, the present study explores the major causes, vulnerability, impacts, and adaptations and mitigation measures. Rigorous literature has been

The major economic livelihood in the region is crop production, livestock keeping, and mixed crop-livestock production. In the latter agroecosystem, the crop residues are useful in supporting the feeding of livestock in addition to meadows and pastures. Likewise, animal manure is useful in fertilizing the farms. FAOSTAT [10] shows that crop production accounts for about 70%, while livestock accounts for about 30% of the total worth of agricultural production in the region. Despite being dominant among the pastoral communities only, the latter plays a key role both as a source of animal products and as a key input to production in the region. Among the dominant pastoral societies are the Maasai (Tanzania and Kenya), Turkana, Kalenjin, Kisii, Embu (Kenya), and Karamojong and Banyankole (Uganda) who mainly herd cattle, sheep, goats, and donkey for various purposes. Agricultural practices in the region are traditional, dominated by small-scale farms mainly under 2 ha per each household, and are characterized by low inputs of physical capital, fertilizers, and pesticides [23]. FAOSTAT [10] further observed that more than 90% of the agricultural production is rain-fed, thus making the practice not a dependable one on the face of the changing climate [3, 5, 12]. The

plex, including mountains, valleys, rifts, rivers, ridges, and lakes.

**38**

Despite the monotony of explaining the causes of climate change, it is fairly pretty to highlight these causes especially those with anthropogenic characteristics. Apart from natural causes that seem to have natural balance, anthropogenic activities in both developed and developing countries have been observed by various studies to have increased greenhouse gases in the atmosphere [3, 4]. In developing countries, deforestation and other forms of environmental degradation release thousands of tons of carbon in the atmosphere [18]. Subsequently, animal husbandry has been observed to emit lots of CH4 in the atmosphere. In addition, since most developing countries are dumpsite of various fabricated industrial goods, e.g., refrigerators which in turns emit CFCs, it is realizable that this system contributes significantly to the emission of this dangerous greenhouse gas. While that happens in developing countries, their counterparts (i.e., developed countries) emit more greenhouse gases through the pollution from industries. Since the focus of the present study is on developing countries, much of the examples and discussion will be recapped from the study area.

One can ask how the developing countries have significant contribution to greenhouse gases. The answer can be difficult especially on the quantification; however, the ways of doing so are obvious. The dominant agricultural systems and other livelihoods reflect the level of greenhouse emission from the case study area [3]. Since agriculture and animal husbandry are the major socioeconomic livelihoods in the areas, it is understandable that the expansion of agricultural farm and intensification of umber herds have significant contribution to greenhouse emission.

On the aspect of whether climate is changing or not, even most lobbyists and pessimists to climate change agree on the changes; however, they pose a zest for inquiry on whether the change is significant or needs to be ranked higher than other challenging factors.
