**2. Location**

*Rainfall - Extremes, Distribution and Properties*

vulnerable region on Earth to climate change impacts [4].

erratic weather tends to underpin crop failure in the region.

particularly the emission of greenhouse gases.

climate impacts.

i. Informal skills ii. Local knowledge iii. Formal education, skills, and technology iv. Informal network v. Formal security network vi. Strength of local institutions

*Source: Modified from Eriksen and Noes [11].*

*Examples of factors that influence vulnerability in the region.*

come up with tangible and scientific information relevant for discussion in various national and international dialogs to shape the future prospects. This is a basis for the Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) to convene a call for papers to elicit rigorous climatic finding in most developing countries especially the sub-Saharan Africa which is the most

Although the whole sub-Saharan Africa experiences unprecedented impacts of climate change, some regions face the worst compared to others [5–7]. Among the regions are Eastern Africa and the Horn of Africa [8, 9]. According to FAOSTAT [10], the Eastern African economy is highly dependent on agriculture, which is dominated by traditional rain-fed small-scale production, and thus, any further

On the other hand, excessive droughts have ruthlessly affected animal husbandry in the region, and much of this effect happens in the already stressed areas like Central Tanzania, Northeastern Kenya, and the driest parts of the Horn of Africa. The vulnerability of the developing countries has been coupled by lack of strong institutions to deal with calamities and environmental disasters (**Table 1**). This has even increased the level of pollution and degradation as a search of alternative livelihoods. The Conference of the Parties (COP) on climate change, i.e., COP15 (Copenhagen in 2009), COP16 (Cancun in 2010), COP17 (Durban in 2011), COP18 (Doha in 2012), COP19 (Warsaw in 2013), and COP20 (Lima in 2014), realized this problem and, thus, proposes measures to reduce environment problem, more

While various climate models from individual authors and the recent IPCC reports have confirmed that global climate change is real and that it is occurring more rapidly [4], there has been a need to establish empirical evidences that indicate the level of vulnerability and adaption especially in developing countries. This is particularly important as it is recognizable that over 66% of the global population is starving, whereas most of this population is in developing countries especially sub-Saharan Africa [3]. Thus, the understanding of actual climate scenarios in the region will inform the discussion for coping and mitigating the

As a response to the call of the Fifth Assessment Report of the IPCC regarding climate change [4], this paper attempts to discuss the causes, vulnerability, and adaptation and mitigation measures that exist in Eastern Africa in order to unveil the real climatic situation to various stakeholders at both local and global levels. This will enable climate practitioners to intensify the curbing of the top greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane gas (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and

**Institutional factors Economic factors Environmental factors**

iii. Access to natural resources iv. Access to communal resources v. Access to alternative economic opportunities

i. Risk environment ii. Degraded environment iii. High dependence of climatesensitive sectors and natural

iv. Communal lands and resources

resources

i. Labor ii. Health

**36**

**Table 1.**

Eastern Africa regions mostly cover Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi, South Sudan, and other parts of the Horn of Africa that entail Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, and Djibouti. This ecological region covers approximately 4,000,000 km2 , where Tanzania is the largest country and the smallest ones are Burundi and Djibouti. The region has a population of over 200 million. The region is bordered with two big water bodies, the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea. Tanzania, Kenya, Eritrea, Djibouti, and Somalia are bordered with the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea, while Ethiopia, Rwanda, Burundi, and Uganda are the landlocked

**Figure 1.** *Land use map of the study area. Source: [21].*

countries in the region. Topographically, the Eastern African region is very complex, including mountains, valleys, rifts, rivers, ridges, and lakes.

The greatest rift in the world (Eastern Great Rift) is located in this region, and earthquake and a volcanic eruption are active [15]; the volcanic eruption of 2010 that occurred in the Danakil Depression of Ethiopia and Eritrea is a good example [16]. The elevation of the region ranges from the highlands of Ethiopia to the Danakil Depression below sea level; the Danakil Depression (local name Dallol) is the hottest place on the surface of the Earth (>60°C). Lakes Victoria, Tana, Abaya, and Turkana are the biggest surface water located along the rift valley [17–19]. The Lake Tana in Ethiopia is the source of Blue Nile River, which is a tributary of the Nile River [20]. Drought due to climate change and land gradation is the major environmental concern of this region (**Figure 1**).
