**Author details**

*Rainfall - Extremes, Distribution and Properties*

spatial patterns of rainfall accumulation at the ground.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

This study illustrates the importance of specifying region-based CCN for modeling studies of aerosol-cloud-rainfall interactions and provides a first indication of the range of the uncertainty in the spatial variability of precipitation that can be attributed to aerosol sensitivity in the region. Nevertheless, detailed results from this simulation are specific for the specific storm, and in order to acquire a comprehensive understanding of regional aerosol-cloud-rainfall interactions, and the impact of IGP aerosol on rainfall in the Central Himalayas, more case studies need to be analyzed of climatologically relevant storm regimes and associated aerosol.

This research was supported by the Pratt School of Engineering.

A sensitivity study to examine the impact of CCN hygroscopicity on aerosolcloud-precipitation interactions (ACPI) was conducted for a premonsoon storm in Central Nepal on May 15, 2009 during a major pollution event in the IGP using the WRF model as described in Section 2. CCN spectra used in this study included estimates from the in-situ measured aerosol size distribution and bulk hygroscopicity during JAMEX09 in Central Nepal [26, 37, 38]. Three distinct types of CCN activation spectra were used: the standard continental spectrum available in WRF, the CCN spectrum measured during the run-up of IGP pollution to the Kathmandu valley, here referred to as remote aerosol, and the CCN spectrum measured after the rainfall event when the remote aerosol was washed out and mostly aerosol from local sources is replenished in the atmosphere, here referred to as local aerosol. An iterative method to estimate maximum supersaturation based on [46] was integrated to the double moment microphysics of MY05 [41] and implemented in WRF 8.3.1. The estimation of the maximum supersaturation in the code allows for a sensitivity study with CCN spectra fitted to the modified power law scheme of [45]. The results show that the differences in cumulative precipitation patterns between the standard and remote aerosols are small within 20%, but the differences between the simulations with remote and local aerosols are on the order of 25–50% and higher (**Figures 5** and **6**). Interestingly, these large differences could be mapped for two catchments critical for hydropower (KWR) and water resources (IDR) in Central Nepal with much lower precipitation produced with the remote aerosol than with the local aerosol. The structure and spatial extent of the vertical wind component was observed to change among the simulations due to both microphysical and dynamic forcing, with topographic forcing playing an important role in the spatial organization of long-lived updrafts on upwind slopes at mid and high elevations. Analysis of the space-time organization of precipitation, vertical winds and microphysics suggests that sustained graupel production is favored in long-lived updrafts (enhanced and maintained by terrain induced lifting and secondary convection) for slower CCN activation spectra (i.e., local aerosol). Higher graupel mixing ratios result in heavy localized rainfall. Because of role of the terrain in locking the spatial organization of vertical velocities depending on synoptic forcing, changes in CCN type as described by its activation spectra strongly impact the

**4. Summary and conclusions**

**88**

**Acknowledgements**

**Conflict of interest**

Ana P. Barros\*, Prabhakar Shrestha, Steven Chavez and Yajuan Duan Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA

\*Address all correspondence to: barros@duke.edu

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
