**3. Paired reading**

*Interactive Multimedia - Multimedia Production and Digital Storytelling*

**2. Developing automaticity in reading, writing and spelling**

in structure, and volunteer in mode of function ([1], p. 32).

fluent enough to form the basis for higher mental processing.

Luria [1–3] conceptualised higher mental processes as complex reflex activities, responsible for reflecting and working with the outside world. Following Vygotsky [4, 5, 67], Luria suggested that these reflex processes were social in origin, mediate

Our fluency-based programme has been developed based on these principles. The processes of reading, writing, spelling and comprehension are conceptualised as linked on a functional level, with basic phonological and phonic skills initially being taught as a foundation for use in the processes of reading, writing, spelling and comprehension [61–63]. The use of repetitive paired reading is then combined with the teaching of phonics to provide the basis for developing reading fluency. Once observable difference in reading fluency is noted, the child is taught how to phonologically reference from print to sound to provide a metacognitive basis for developing fluency in writing

In each case where this type of linked intervention across different areas and components has taken place, there has been steady and even progress. There has also been evidence of a backwash effect from application of the methods used in teaching phonological referencing skills into proficiency in one word reading ability as well as fluency in reading sequentially, as well as reciprocal effects from use of reading fluency methods into competencies in writing and spelling. The indications

In terms of Luria's conceptualisation of the development of higher mental processes, the development of automaticity in reading would be essential for its use in the hierarchical processing of information by the working brain. Following Luria [1], automaticity would be developed in reading, writing and spelling when there has been sufficient practice to enable these complex functional acts to become

maintain visual attention.

spelling become more fluent.

the type of paired reading procedures documented in the literature, as the method involves additional repetition to develop phonic associations, rapid naming ability and automaticity in reading. The ebooks are set in large print with wide spaces between words to circumvent and provide maximal visual cues and also to prevent crowding, which has emerged in recent literature as a factor affecting reading in dyslexic children. The oral impress procedure also builds in visual tracking to

Once observable differences in reading fluency are noted, methods involving use of these materials for repetitive paired reading are combined with phonological referencing methods based on print-to-sound recoding, as the basis for developing fluency in writing and spelling. The results have been promising and indicate that the combined use of methods is effective in developing automaticity in reading, while at the same time building skills in print-to-sound translation, which can then be used both for improving word attack and for developing the working memory skills involved in writing and spelling both individual words, and words in sequence. Gains in reading, spelling and sequential spelling scores indicate that combining paired reading with the teaching of phonics and with the teaching of phonological referencing leads to optimal results. Repetition is also necessary in implementation to enable the learner to acquire the phonic skills necessary for accurate visual word recognition, as well as the detailed orthographic representations necessary to write and spell individual words, and words in sequence. As these skills develop, this has effects on reading accuracy and rate of reading, as well as accuracy in writing and spelling. Reading comprehension also improves as the child's reading, writing and

**128**

and spelling.

One of the most successful methods for developing automaticity in reading has been what is called 'paired reading', which is based on the methods pioneered by Heckelman [6, 7] in the 1960s and the information processing model proposed by Laberge and Samuels [8, 9] in the 1970s. Based on positive results, paired reading has been widely used for developing reading ability (e.g. [10–17]) and forms the basis for developing reading fluency in our own programme.

The literature on paired reading reflects some differences in preferred methodology [18], as well as some differences between recommendations concerning the type of materials felt to be most appropriate for use in the process. Overall, however, there is consensus concerning the value of paired reading, with all of the studies indicating the potential of including parents as well as peer tutors as partners in the process of teaching children to read fluently.

Difficulty level of materials is an important variable to consider in developing paired reading programmes, but here there is a lack of consensus. Certain authorities suggest the value of fun reading materials, others the value of instructional level reading materials and others the value of reading material chosen to be at or near frustration level [18].

What is clear from the literature, however, is that the quality of scaffolding and support in paired reading is important, especially where difficult materials are chosen for use in paired reading programmes. How reading errors are corrected would appear to be less important, as the literature suggests that a wide variety of strategies have been used for doing so, particularly by teachers. It would, however, be important that the procedures used in paired reading are clear enough to be consistently used by parents, tutors and teachers, and that recommended procedures for correcting the errors made by children are also defined.

These principles have informed the development of our materials and methods for developing reading fluency, which are described in the section following.

## **4. Our reading fluency programme**

Our programme for developing reading fluency involves use of a paired reading method called the 3 × 3 oral impress method, which involves the reading of paragraphs repetitively. The method is designed to be used with a series of phonically based, large-print books. The books are graded and are written in a way that builds repetition into the words used, as well as phrases used in sentences. They are also printed in a way that aims to avoid clutter [19–21].

Our materials thus aim to present the letters and letter strings associated with particular sounds and to present these visually in an uncluttered format. The 3 × 3 oral impress method is used to ensure that large-print phonically based material is presented to the child repeatedly. Repetitive oral reading is used to develop the association between the visual configuration of the letters within phonically regular words and their sounds as used in the written language the child sees, the spoken language the child hears and the words read by both adult and child.

Luria [1–3] suggests that cerebral organisation would be enhanced by this type of repetitive process, and this was also Heckelman's view when he pioneered the use of paired reading as a procedure. Heckelman [6, 7] reported that 24 students

involved in using what he called 'the neurological impress method' made exceptional gains in reading ability. The mean gain in reading comprehension was 1.9 grade levels after using the method daily for 15 minutes (a total of seven and a quarter hours) over a 6-week period. On the basis of these results, Heckelman suggested that paired reading is 'one of the most direct and fundamental systems of reading' involving a 'combination of reflexive neurological systems'.

Other subsequent researchers (e.g. [8–17, 22–25]) have reported positive effects of use of paired reading methods on reading ability. We have reported similar positive results [18, 26, 27] based on use of repetitive paired reading.

The results to date indicate gains in word reading, sentence reading, as well as gains in spelling and sequential spelling test scores when our 3 × 3 oral impress method has been used with large-print phonically based material and combined with the teaching of phonics as well as with the methods of phonological referencing described later in this chapter. Our work with children with reading, writing and spelling difficulties would support Heckelman's view that gains made are based on increasing neurological integrity [64].

Following Dehaene [28], what the 3 × 3 oral impress method does when used with our phonically based large-print reading fluency books is to present the visual word form area in the brain with strings of letters representing sounds repeatedly. This would have the effect of strengthening the connections between the visual areas in the brain and the areas of the brain involved in processing sounds and oral language, thus enabling the child first to read and then to read fluently.

The model for developing using the phonically based, large-print reading materials to develop reading fluency would be conceptualised as based on the coding and recoding of phonic associations and can be represented as in **Table 1**:

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cortex involved in phonological and language processing.

the rapid reading of a wider range of reading material.

ing and recoding procedures described in the next section.

**5. Developing automaticity in writing and spelling**

are spelled both individually and in sequence.

spelling fluency can be developed.

From the model presented in **Table 1**, it can be seen that use of our phonically based large-print materials for the development of reading fluency is based on repetitive paired reading with the aim of developing rapid and accurate naming of words, and words in sequence. On a central level, the repetitive paired reading methods would involve both forward and reverse processing from the visual and occipital areas of the cortex through the visual word form area to the areas of the

The procedures used in our programme are documented in a user's manual, which includes both theory and the methods used in programme implementation [29], as well as in a parent implementer's manual, which presents a step-by-step approach to implementation [30]. The theory is based on Luria [1–3] who conceptualised reading as a linguistic process in which repetition would be intrinsic to the development of automaticity in the recognition and naming of phonic associations. Following Luria, reading fluency would be developed through repeated stimulation of the areas of the cortex involved in phonological and language processing as well as the areas of the cortex involved in the phonological, morphological and semantic

working memory used for reading individual words, and words in sequence. The methods followed in our programme focus on developing accurate and rapid naming ability for individual words and words in sequence as an intrinsic part of the repetitive methods used to develop automaticity in reading. The procedures used involve initial work with phonically regular words and sentences and then on

Based on Luria's theories of automaticity [31], repetition would thus be intrinsic to the development of fluency in reading. The aim of our programme would to use repetitive paired reading to develop the coding, recoding and working memory abilities necessary for fluent and accurate reading and for self-teaching. Once observable differences in reading fluency have been noted and a child has attained a reading and spelling age at around the 8-year level (Note 1), work on developing writing and spelling fluency would be commenced using the phonological referenc-

Fluency in writing and spelling is addressed in our programme through a variety of methods involving not only training in phonics and basic skills in writing and copying, but also by teaching the child phonological referencing skills. This involves teaching the child how to work from print to sound, how to analyse words based on phonic analysis of how words work and how to use the letters and letter combinations used to represent the vowels in words as the basis for remembering how words

The aim is to build phonological, orthographic and morphological awareness through this process, which we call 'phonological referencing'. This is introduced through the Seven Vowel Phonic Analysis System, which is a procedure for teaching children through activities involving mapping the combinations of letters used in writing words to the sounds made when those words are spoken orally. It focuses in particular on developing skills in word attack as well as in spelling, through focusing on the letters and letter combinations used to represent the vowel sounds in words. Following Luria [1–3], the Seven Vowel Phonic Analysis System is applied repetitively. This has effects in improving word attack in reading, as well as providing the phonic analysis skills and phonic associations on which spelling accuracy can be built. This is done by working from printed word to sound and from sound back to print. These phonological recoding skills provide the building blocks on which writing and

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82812*

#### *Training Reading, Writing and Spelling Fluency: Centre-Periphery Dissemination… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82812*

From the model presented in **Table 1**, it can be seen that use of our phonically based large-print materials for the development of reading fluency is based on repetitive paired reading with the aim of developing rapid and accurate naming of words, and words in sequence. On a central level, the repetitive paired reading methods would involve both forward and reverse processing from the visual and occipital areas of the cortex through the visual word form area to the areas of the cortex involved in phonological and language processing.

The procedures used in our programme are documented in a user's manual, which includes both theory and the methods used in programme implementation [29], as well as in a parent implementer's manual, which presents a step-by-step approach to implementation [30]. The theory is based on Luria [1–3] who conceptualised reading as a linguistic process in which repetition would be intrinsic to the development of automaticity in the recognition and naming of phonic associations. Following Luria, reading fluency would be developed through repeated stimulation of the areas of the cortex involved in phonological and language processing as well as the areas of the cortex involved in the phonological, morphological and semantic working memory used for reading individual words, and words in sequence.

The methods followed in our programme focus on developing accurate and rapid naming ability for individual words and words in sequence as an intrinsic part of the repetitive methods used to develop automaticity in reading. The procedures used involve initial work with phonically regular words and sentences and then on the rapid reading of a wider range of reading material.

Based on Luria's theories of automaticity [31], repetition would thus be intrinsic to the development of fluency in reading. The aim of our programme would to use repetitive paired reading to develop the coding, recoding and working memory abilities necessary for fluent and accurate reading and for self-teaching. Once observable differences in reading fluency have been noted and a child has attained a reading and spelling age at around the 8-year level (Note 1), work on developing writing and spelling fluency would be commenced using the phonological referencing and recoding procedures described in the next section.

## **5. Developing automaticity in writing and spelling**

Fluency in writing and spelling is addressed in our programme through a variety of methods involving not only training in phonics and basic skills in writing and copying, but also by teaching the child phonological referencing skills. This involves teaching the child how to work from print to sound, how to analyse words based on phonic analysis of how words work and how to use the letters and letter combinations used to represent the vowels in words as the basis for remembering how words are spelled both individually and in sequence.

The aim is to build phonological, orthographic and morphological awareness through this process, which we call 'phonological referencing'. This is introduced through the Seven Vowel Phonic Analysis System, which is a procedure for teaching children through activities involving mapping the combinations of letters used in writing words to the sounds made when those words are spoken orally. It focuses in particular on developing skills in word attack as well as in spelling, through focusing on the letters and letter combinations used to represent the vowel sounds in words.

Following Luria [1–3], the Seven Vowel Phonic Analysis System is applied repetitively. This has effects in improving word attack in reading, as well as providing the phonic analysis skills and phonic associations on which spelling accuracy can be built. This is done by working from printed word to sound and from sound back to print. These phonological recoding skills provide the building blocks on which writing and spelling fluency can be developed.

*Interactive Multimedia - Multimedia Production and Digital Storytelling*

involving a 'combination of reflexive neurological systems'.

on increasing neurological integrity [64].

tive results [18, 26, 27] based on use of repetitive paired reading.

involved in using what he called 'the neurological impress method' made exceptional gains in reading ability. The mean gain in reading comprehension was 1.9 grade levels after using the method daily for 15 minutes (a total of seven and a quarter hours) over a 6-week period. On the basis of these results, Heckelman suggested that paired reading is 'one of the most direct and fundamental systems of reading'

Other subsequent researchers (e.g. [8–17, 22–25]) have reported positive effects of use of paired reading methods on reading ability. We have reported similar posi-

The results to date indicate gains in word reading, sentence reading, as well as gains in spelling and sequential spelling test scores when our 3 × 3 oral impress method has been used with large-print phonically based material and combined with the teaching of phonics as well as with the methods of phonological referencing described later in this chapter. Our work with children with reading, writing and spelling difficulties would support Heckelman's view that gains made are based

Following Dehaene [28], what the 3 × 3 oral impress method does when used with our phonically based large-print reading fluency books is to present the visual word form area in the brain with strings of letters representing sounds repeatedly. This would have the effect of strengthening the connections between the visual areas in the brain and the areas of the brain involved in processing sounds and oral

The model for developing using the phonically based, large-print reading materials to develop reading fluency would be conceptualised as based on the coding and

language, thus enabling the child first to read and then to read fluently.

recoding of phonic associations and can be represented as in **Table 1**:

**130**

**Table 1.**

*Model for reading fluency development.*

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recoding (print-to-sound translation) performs a self-teaching function enabling the learner to acquire the detailed orthographic representations necessary for fast,

*'Although direct whole-word instruction and contextual guessing have also been proposed as options for developing orthographic knowledge, both theoretical and practical considerations suggest that only phonological recoding offers a viable route to printed word learning (see [34]). According to the self-teaching hypothesis, each successful identification decoding) of a new word in the course of a child's independent reading of text is assumed to provide an opportunity to acquire the word-specific orthographic information on which skilled visual word recognition is founded. Relatively few exposures appear to be sufficient for acquiring orthographic representations, both for skilled readers [37] and for young children [38–41]. In this way, phonological recoding acts as a self-teaching device or built-in teacher enabling a child to independently develop the word-specific orthographic representations essential to skilled reading and spelling'.*

Shahar-Yames and Share [42] suggest that spelling fulfils a self-teaching function in the acquisition of orthographic knowledge because, like decoding in reading, accurate spelling requires close attention to letter order and identity as well as to word-specific spelling-sound mapping. This highlights an additional dimension of reading-writing

Following the theories proposed by Share and his colleagues, our methods focus on teaching the child to map the associations between the letters and letter strings used in the printed word, and the sounds used in speaking the word orally. Our methods then focus on teaching the child to recode these phonic associations back into the writing and typing of both individual words and words in sequence. Working memory is then

The Seven Vowel Phonic Analysis System is used for this purpose, and the procedures used are documented in a user's manual, which includes both theory and the methods used in programme implementation [43], as well as in a parent implementer's manual, which presents a step-by-step approach to implementation [44]. The theory is based on the evidence of a common linguistic awareness manifesting in phonological, orthographic and morphological awareness as suggested by Berninger et al. (2010), and of a universal phonic principle manifesting across different orthographies as suggested by Perfetti et al. (1992). Following McCutchen (1988), it aims to develop linguistic awareness through the metacognitive strategies involved in phonological referencing. The methods used are based on the research of Share and his colleagues [32, 34, 35] and Perfetti and his colleagues [45], which indicates that the coding and recoding of phonic associations is involved in both reading and spelling. They are also based on the insights of Sister Mary Caroline [46] concerning the value of including the /y/ and /w/ as vowels in phonic analysis, as well as the research of Ellis and Hooper [47] and Spencer and Hanley [48] on the comparative ease of decoding Welsh orthography using systems of phonic analysis and association based on seven vowels, as

reciprocity in the compilation of word-specific orthographic representations.

invoked in teaching and testing spelling, using revisualisation techniques.

opposed to systems of phonic association based on five vowels.

In summary, the Seven Vowel Phonic Analysis System focuses on teaching the child to phonologically reference the letters and letter combinations used to represent the vowel sounds from print to sound and from sound back to print. This is done initially by referencing the letters used to represent the vowel sounds in written words back to the sounds made when the words are spoken orally. The letters used to represent the vowel sounds are then analysed and colour-coded, as a basis for improving both word attack ability and for developing and memorising the

phonic associations on which writing and spelling fluency can be built.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82812*

efficient visual word recognition. As Share [36] suggests, at p. 96:

#### **Table 2.**

*Model for writing and spelling fluency development.*

The model for using our phonically based, large-print materials for developing writing and spelling fluency would also be conceptualised as based on the coding and recoding of phonic associations and can be represented as in **Table 2**.

From the model presented in **Table 2**, it can be seen that use of our phonically based, large-print materials for the development of writing and spelling fluency is based on repetitive coding and recoding of phonic associations. As the recoding process involves both working from printed word to sound and from sound back to print, the use of our methods of phonological referencing would be based on widely distributed central processing. This would involve the visual and occipital areas of the cortex, the areas of the cortex involved in phonological and language processing and the areas of the cortex involved in phonological, morphological and orthographic working memory for words when written individually and for words when written in sequence.

Following Luria, repetition would be intrinsic to the development of automaticity in writing and spelling fluency. As with reading fluency, the aim would be to develop the coding, recoding and working memory abilities necessary for fluent and accurate writing and spelling and for self-teaching. This would be done through phonological referencing, using our Seven Vowel Phonic Analysis System.

#### **6. What is phonological referencing?**

The notion of phonological referencing has its basis in the 'self-teaching' model proposed by Jorm and Share [32–35]. According to this model, phonological

*Training Reading, Writing and Spelling Fluency: Centre-Periphery Dissemination… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82812*

recoding (print-to-sound translation) performs a self-teaching function enabling the learner to acquire the detailed orthographic representations necessary for fast, efficient visual word recognition.

As Share [36] suggests, at p. 96:

*Interactive Multimedia - Multimedia Production and Digital Storytelling*

The model for using our phonically based, large-print materials for developing writing and spelling fluency would also be conceptualised as based on the coding

From the model presented in **Table 2**, it can be seen that use of our phonically based, large-print materials for the development of writing and spelling fluency is based on repetitive coding and recoding of phonic associations. As the recoding process involves both working from printed word to sound and from sound back to print, the use of our methods of phonological referencing would be based on widely distributed central processing. This would involve the visual and occipital areas of the cortex, the areas of the cortex involved in phonological and language processing and the areas of the cortex involved in phonological, morphological and orthographic working memory

and recoding of phonic associations and can be represented as in **Table 2**.

for words when written individually and for words when written in sequence.

**6. What is phonological referencing?**

*Model for writing and spelling fluency development.*

Following Luria, repetition would be intrinsic to the development of automaticity in writing and spelling fluency. As with reading fluency, the aim would be to develop the coding, recoding and working memory abilities necessary for fluent and accurate writing and spelling and for self-teaching. This would be done through phonological referencing, using our Seven Vowel Phonic Analysis System.

The notion of phonological referencing has its basis in the 'self-teaching' model

proposed by Jorm and Share [32–35]. According to this model, phonological

**132**

**Table 2.**

*'Although direct whole-word instruction and contextual guessing have also been proposed as options for developing orthographic knowledge, both theoretical and practical considerations suggest that only phonological recoding offers a viable route to printed word learning (see [34]). According to the self-teaching hypothesis, each successful identification decoding) of a new word in the course of a child's independent reading of text is assumed to provide an opportunity to acquire the word-specific orthographic information on which skilled visual word recognition is founded. Relatively few exposures appear to be sufficient for acquiring orthographic representations, both for skilled readers [37] and for young children [38–41]. In this way, phonological recoding acts as a self-teaching device or built-in teacher enabling a child to independently develop the word-specific orthographic representations essential to skilled reading and spelling'.*

Shahar-Yames and Share [42] suggest that spelling fulfils a self-teaching function in the acquisition of orthographic knowledge because, like decoding in reading, accurate spelling requires close attention to letter order and identity as well as to word-specific spelling-sound mapping. This highlights an additional dimension of reading-writing reciprocity in the compilation of word-specific orthographic representations.

Following the theories proposed by Share and his colleagues, our methods focus on teaching the child to map the associations between the letters and letter strings used in the printed word, and the sounds used in speaking the word orally. Our methods then focus on teaching the child to recode these phonic associations back into the writing and typing of both individual words and words in sequence. Working memory is then invoked in teaching and testing spelling, using revisualisation techniques.

The Seven Vowel Phonic Analysis System is used for this purpose, and the procedures used are documented in a user's manual, which includes both theory and the methods used in programme implementation [43], as well as in a parent implementer's manual, which presents a step-by-step approach to implementation [44]. The theory is based on the evidence of a common linguistic awareness manifesting in phonological, orthographic and morphological awareness as suggested by Berninger et al. (2010), and of a universal phonic principle manifesting across different orthographies as suggested by Perfetti et al. (1992). Following McCutchen (1988), it aims to develop linguistic awareness through the metacognitive strategies involved in phonological referencing.

The methods used are based on the research of Share and his colleagues [32, 34, 35] and Perfetti and his colleagues [45], which indicates that the coding and recoding of phonic associations is involved in both reading and spelling. They are also based on the insights of Sister Mary Caroline [46] concerning the value of including the /y/ and /w/ as vowels in phonic analysis, as well as the research of Ellis and Hooper [47] and Spencer and Hanley [48] on the comparative ease of decoding Welsh orthography using systems of phonic analysis and association based on seven vowels, as opposed to systems of phonic association based on five vowels.

In summary, the Seven Vowel Phonic Analysis System focuses on teaching the child to phonologically reference the letters and letter combinations used to represent the vowel sounds from print to sound and from sound back to print. This is done initially by referencing the letters used to represent the vowel sounds in written words back to the sounds made when the words are spoken orally. The letters used to represent the vowel sounds are then analysed and colour-coded, as a basis for improving both word attack ability and for developing and memorising the phonic associations on which writing and spelling fluency can be built.

The logic of mapping phonological associations is outlined in the following sections, while the use of seven vowels as opposed to five vowels is linked to the research on which it is based.

## **7. Teaching the child to map phonological associations**

As certain children battle to establish the relationships between sounds and letters, what we call 'phonological referencing' is designed to teach the child how to map the associations between the letters used in written words, and the sounds made when the words are spoken orally. The process is designed to work on a metacognitive level (McCutchen, 1988).

Like many other programmes based on current research in the field, the methods used in the Seven Vowel Phonic Analysis System are based on the evidence from the work of the National Reading Panel in the United States that English should be phonically taught (Ehri, 2004), and that the teaching of phonics should be systematic (i.e. planned and taught in a particular order). The Seven Vowel Phonic Analysis System is thus introduced at a particular stage in the child's learning of phonic associations and rules. It is then accompanied by ongoing systematic phonics instruction, based on the errors made in the child's writing and spelling.

The Seven Vowel Phonic Analysis System teaches the child to map the correspondence between the letters and letter combinations used to represent the vowel sounds in written words and the sounds made when the words are spoken orally. The reason for focusing on this is that there is convergent evidence indicating that children, no matter what language they speak or how it is written, go through a process where they attempt to match the sounds they hear in the spoken word to the letters or symbols they see when the language is written.

The research of Perfetti and his colleagues (Perfetti et al., 2003; [45]), for example, indicates that Chinese children will attempt at the earliest stage possible to relate the pictographs in their written language to the language they speak, and the sounds on which their spoken language is based. Similar results are found in children learning those languages in which letters (as opposed to pictures) are used to map the sounds in spoken language into writing.

#### **8. Transparent versus opaque written languages**

A number of studies have indicated that children find it easiest to learn to read and spell when the system of mapping the sounds they hear in the spoken word to the letters or symbols they see in written language is transparent and easy to understand and use, as opposed to opaque and more difficult to understand and use [49–52].

In Wales in the United Kingdom, there are schools in which reading is taught in Welsh (an orthographically transparent language), as well as schools in which reading is taught in English (an orthographically opaque language). A study conducted by Ellis and Hooper [47] in Northern Wales, for example, demonstrated that the consistency of spelling-to-sound patterns in Welsh allowed children to rapidly learn the Welsh alphabetic code, leading to rapid reading acquisition based on a strategy of lettersound decoding. Conversely, children learned the more ambiguous English orthographic code more slowly, and it failed to generalise well to other words. Similar results were reported by Spencer and Hanley [48], working with Northern Welsh children.

South Africa is also a country in which both transparent and opaque orthographies are taught in schools. There are schools in which children are taught to read in Afrikaans (an orthographically transparent language) and schools in which reading is taught in English (an orthographically opaque language). De Sousa et al. [53]

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reported that bilingual English- and Afrikaans-speaking children showed greater spelling accuracy in the spelling of Afrikaans words and non-words compared to their spelling of English words and non-words. The bilingual children's ability to spell in Afrikaans and English was correlated, signifying a cross-language relationship for spelling both languages, but with language background and orthographic depth exerting an influence on the nature and development of spelling strategies used to spell in an orthographically different first language and second language. These results would support Perfetti and Zhang's claim [54] that learning to read is learning how one's writing system encodes one's language. As Perfetti and Dunlap [45] suggest, children need to work out how the graphic forms work and how these map on to spoken language. This is the departure point of the Seven Vowel Phonic Analysis System. The Seven Vowel Phonic Analysis System focuses on the mapping of phonic associations and on the particular letters and combinations used to represent the vowel sounds in English. It attempts to make the task of mapping the sounds children hear in words on to the letters used when the words are written clear, logical, consistent and easy. This is done by teaching the child how to phonologically reference the letters and letter combinations used in written words back to the sounds made when the words are

Use of the Seven Vowel Phonic Analysis System does not need changes in the way words are spelled. It is a system for enabling the way in which words are written and spelled in English to become more transparent, easier to map, and easier to learn and remember. Following Luria [1–3], the system is applied repetitively, working from print to sound, and from sound back to print, as the basis for developing

The logic of the Seven Vowel Phonic Analysis System is based on research, which indicates that ease in learning to write and spell is associated with the phonic complexity of words in English [55–57]. In terms of this evidence, a system of phonic analysis that makes written English more transparent for children, and therefore

It has also made sense empirically with the children and parents with whom I have worked, who have found the Seven Vowel Phonic Analysis System logical, easy to understand, and easy to apply and use. Used repetitively, it has effects on word attack, thus increasing fluency in reading. It can also form the basis for developing

These conclusions are based on clinical evidence, both from initial case studies and from subsequent implementation of the Seven Vowel Phonic Analysis System with a number of children with reading, writing and spelling difficulties. These results are outlined in the previous publications in the programme [58–60], as well

In summary, the Seven Vowel Phonic Analysis System works on the assumption that understanding of phonic associations can be enhanced by working back from the printed word to the sounds made when the word is spoken orally. This is done through a process of phonological referencing, in which the child is taught how to

Once these associations have been mapped from print to sound, they can then be used as the basis for recoding from sound back to print. As the child becomes more rapid and accurate in the phonological referencing and recoding processes involved, the process of usage can become automatic. And once usage has become automatic, it can then be used as the basis for self-teaching involving the process of phonologi-

cal recoding referred to by Share and his colleagues [32, 34, 35, 42].

**9. The logic of the Seven Vowel Phonic Analysis System**

easier to understand and use, makes sense logically.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82812*

spoken orally.

fluency in writing and spelling.

fluent writing and spelling.

as in the section following.

map these associations.

#### *Training Reading, Writing and Spelling Fluency: Centre-Periphery Dissemination… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82812*

reported that bilingual English- and Afrikaans-speaking children showed greater spelling accuracy in the spelling of Afrikaans words and non-words compared to their spelling of English words and non-words. The bilingual children's ability to spell in Afrikaans and English was correlated, signifying a cross-language relationship for spelling both languages, but with language background and orthographic depth exerting an influence on the nature and development of spelling strategies used to spell in an orthographically different first language and second language.

These results would support Perfetti and Zhang's claim [54] that learning to read is learning how one's writing system encodes one's language. As Perfetti and Dunlap [45] suggest, children need to work out how the graphic forms work and how these map on to spoken language. This is the departure point of the Seven Vowel Phonic Analysis System.

The Seven Vowel Phonic Analysis System focuses on the mapping of phonic associations and on the particular letters and combinations used to represent the vowel sounds in English. It attempts to make the task of mapping the sounds children hear in words on to the letters used when the words are written clear, logical, consistent and easy. This is done by teaching the child how to phonologically reference the letters and letter combinations used in written words back to the sounds made when the words are spoken orally.

Use of the Seven Vowel Phonic Analysis System does not need changes in the way words are spelled. It is a system for enabling the way in which words are written and spelled in English to become more transparent, easier to map, and easier to learn and remember. Following Luria [1–3], the system is applied repetitively, working from print to sound, and from sound back to print, as the basis for developing fluency in writing and spelling.

## **9. The logic of the Seven Vowel Phonic Analysis System**

The logic of the Seven Vowel Phonic Analysis System is based on research, which indicates that ease in learning to write and spell is associated with the phonic complexity of words in English [55–57]. In terms of this evidence, a system of phonic analysis that makes written English more transparent for children, and therefore easier to understand and use, makes sense logically.

It has also made sense empirically with the children and parents with whom I have worked, who have found the Seven Vowel Phonic Analysis System logical, easy to understand, and easy to apply and use. Used repetitively, it has effects on word attack, thus increasing fluency in reading. It can also form the basis for developing fluent writing and spelling.

These conclusions are based on clinical evidence, both from initial case studies and from subsequent implementation of the Seven Vowel Phonic Analysis System with a number of children with reading, writing and spelling difficulties. These results are outlined in the previous publications in the programme [58–60], as well as in the section following.

In summary, the Seven Vowel Phonic Analysis System works on the assumption that understanding of phonic associations can be enhanced by working back from the printed word to the sounds made when the word is spoken orally. This is done through a process of phonological referencing, in which the child is taught how to map these associations.

Once these associations have been mapped from print to sound, they can then be used as the basis for recoding from sound back to print. As the child becomes more rapid and accurate in the phonological referencing and recoding processes involved, the process of usage can become automatic. And once usage has become automatic, it can then be used as the basis for self-teaching involving the process of phonological recoding referred to by Share and his colleagues [32, 34, 35, 42].

*Interactive Multimedia - Multimedia Production and Digital Storytelling*

**7. Teaching the child to map phonological associations**

letters or symbols they see when the language is written.

to map the sounds in spoken language into writing.

**8. Transparent versus opaque written languages**

research on which it is based.

metacognitive level (McCutchen, 1988).

The logic of mapping phonological associations is outlined in the following sections, while the use of seven vowels as opposed to five vowels is linked to the

As certain children battle to establish the relationships between sounds and letters, what we call 'phonological referencing' is designed to teach the child how to map the associations between the letters used in written words, and the sounds made when the words are spoken orally. The process is designed to work on a

Like many other programmes based on current research in the field, the methods used in the Seven Vowel Phonic Analysis System are based on the evidence from the work of the National Reading Panel in the United States that English should be phonically taught (Ehri, 2004), and that the teaching of phonics should be systematic (i.e. planned and taught in a particular order). The Seven Vowel Phonic Analysis System is thus introduced at a particular stage in the child's learning of phonic associations and rules. It is then accompanied by ongoing systematic phonics instruction, based on the errors made in the child's writing and spelling. The Seven Vowel Phonic Analysis System teaches the child to map the correspondence between the letters and letter combinations used to represent the vowel sounds in written words and the sounds made when the words are spoken orally. The reason for focusing on this is that there is convergent evidence indicating that children, no matter what language they speak or how it is written, go through a process where they attempt to match the sounds they hear in the spoken word to the

The research of Perfetti and his colleagues (Perfetti et al., 2003; [45]), for example, indicates that Chinese children will attempt at the earliest stage possible to relate the pictographs in their written language to the language they speak, and the sounds on which their spoken language is based. Similar results are found in children learning those languages in which letters (as opposed to pictures) are used

A number of studies have indicated that children find it easiest to learn to read and spell when the system of mapping the sounds they hear in the spoken word to the letters or symbols they see in written language is transparent and easy to understand and use, as opposed to opaque and more difficult to understand and use [49–52]. In Wales in the United Kingdom, there are schools in which reading is taught in Welsh (an orthographically transparent language), as well as schools in which reading is taught in English (an orthographically opaque language). A study conducted by Ellis and Hooper [47] in Northern Wales, for example, demonstrated that the consistency of spelling-to-sound patterns in Welsh allowed children to rapidly learn the Welsh alphabetic code, leading to rapid reading acquisition based on a strategy of lettersound decoding. Conversely, children learned the more ambiguous English orthographic code more slowly, and it failed to generalise well to other words. Similar results were reported by Spencer and Hanley [48], working with Northern Welsh children. South Africa is also a country in which both transparent and opaque orthographies are taught in schools. There are schools in which children are taught to read in Afrikaans (an orthographically transparent language) and schools in which reading is taught in English (an orthographically opaque language). De Sousa et al. [53]

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