**1.5 Summary of research on TDT**

*Interactive Multimedia - Multimedia Production and Digital Storytelling*

participation and decrease transactional distance.

behaviour of instructor). In support of TDT, different types of interactions and questions appeared to determine learner participation. According to the authors, of the four experimental procedures one was cancelled and one was biased. The instrument for measuring interaction was not shown to be reliable, the samples were not clearly described and the grouping unclear. Again, dialogue was measured in terms of frequency and duration. However, the results suggested that certain types of question-asking behaviour by the instructor could predict dialogue in the student [20]. The authors claimed that both structure and dialogue were important to success and by increasing dialogue and structure, one could increase student

Two articles were found [22, 23], from very different perspectives, using questionnaires to explore influences of variables in DL and presenting conflicting results. The effects of course format, satisfaction and perceived knowledge gained were examined during an online programme. Satisfaction was broken down into different aspects to relate to the constructs set out by Moore in TDT. A questionnaire was used and the instrument was described. A very low response rate (17%) was not explained, however, there did appear to be a relationship between course design and satisfaction. The more satisfied the learners were with the structure and with interaction, the more satisfied they were with their perceived knowledge gained. This supported Moore's assertion that structure needed to be appropriate for the learner and that low structure and high dialogue could lessen transactional distance. An interesting article, publishing negative findings investigated the impact of individual and instructional variables on 71 (87% return rate) learner's perceived transactional distance [22]. Once again, questionnaires were used to measure student perceptions (on a 23 item sliding scale) and results analysed against four variables. The results did show a high ratio of certain variables to perceived transactional distance. Although peripheral, their findings also included that neither face to face interaction during an online course or previous experience changed transactional distance. Interestingly, some of the results suggested a negative effect between transactional distance and 'online tutoring' or interaction although 'online tutoring' was not clearly described. Content validity of the survey was addressed in that 'experts' and 'educationalists' reviewed the tool and there was a high response rate. The conclusions were that alternative measures of transactional distance (qualitative, observation, interviews) would help understand these phenomena. Predominantly published literature was biased towards positive results [24], so this article was a valuable

In 2009, a review classifying 695 articles on DL was carried out. The focus was to identify gaps and priority areas in DL research. A consensus of 25 experts reviewed research published between 2000 and 2008 [3]. The method and results were clearly described and this was one of the only DL reviews found that included non-English journals. (One of the criticisms of distance education reviews is the focus on 'peer reviewed' English language journals [2]). Fifteen main research areas and strong imbalances were described. They found research 'dreadfully neglected' on organisational change and development, costs and faculty support. These are all addressed in this submission and in my own review. However, closely related to TDT, they identified an imbalance with over 50% of all articles focusing on:

• interaction and communication in learner communities; and

• learner characteristics (including motivation and autonomy).

**66**

alternative perspective.

• instructional design;


## **2. Student experience: structure or design**

'*Educators must recognise that poorly designed educational programs…are not improved by being presented on a Web page*' ([26], p. s87).

#### **2.1 Introduction**

This section of the literature review addresses the three component parts of TDT separately.

#### **2.2 Results**

Formal 'instructional design' (ID) models, a systematic approach for developing educational products, used liberally when designing web-based courses at the University level [16, 27] all contained a number of key elements or components and

#### *Interactive Multimedia - Multimedia Production and Digital Storytelling*

have been widely adapted in e-learning [28]. The four core components of ID as they related to educational programmes are found in **Table 1** [29]:

Various models have adapted ID, but they are based on the desire to provide guidance to designers as they aim to develop effective and consistent educational solutions on a reliable basis [27, 28]. One of the most popular [30] and best documented models [31] was ADDIE, comprised of five stages of instructional design: analysis, design, development, implementation and evaluation. The ADDIE model specifically [31–33] and ID in general [27, 29, 30, 34, 35] have been researched intensely relating education to technology. This systematic approach to ID provides an empirical and replicable process when developing learning materials [31, 33].

### *2.2.1 A critical view of instructional design*

Although there was a plethora of research suggesting these models were the clear way to structure DL, there were critics as well. Much of what is termed 'e-learning' was still based on the recursive decomposition of knowledge and skill principles of ID [28]. The supporters of rigid ID tended to be training organisations with a training philosophy whose intellectual base consisted of principles derived from behaviourism and associationism [28]. A well-known and published author in the field of ID in America, looked critically at four different 'tools' based on ID, including the ADDIE model. He critiqued all four for their expertise required, lack of collaborative learning, lack of authenticity and linear nature [32].

#### *2.2.2 Structure or instructional design and transactional distance theory*

Instructional design seemed uniquely poised to bridge the knowledge gap in the provision of DL by identifying what historically had been done in education and describing new directions in course design and structure [7]. This gap in knowledge relative to course design was especially applicable in the area of medical and allied health education [27]. Forty years ago, Moore prophetically discussed design or structure as being imperative in successful DL environments [4]. In 2010, design was addressed again and it was suggested it was an ideal term to use as it bridged both theory and practice [36]. Using surveys only, the structural factors affecting DL were investigated focusing on satisfaction, assessment of learning outcomes and perceived achievement of learning outcomes [37, 38]. 38,000 students taking 264 online courses in New York, were studied, analysing course documents and student questionnaires (38% return rate) [37]. In another study, 21 online courses were investigated using expert reviews of learning designs and student perception surveys [38] . Both studies demonstrated a correlation between greater structural consistency within the course, student satisfaction and perceived learning, used at least two methods of data collection and multiple raters for analysis of the data. However, the persistent attempt to quantify and measure people's perceptions of satisfaction and perceived learning is questionable given the complex nature of these constructs.

**69**

learning.

*Transactional Distance Theory: A Critical View of the Theoretical and Pedagogical…*

they felt they had learned more than totally open and flexible courses.

Regardless, students were more satisfied with courses that had defined structure and

In a study using closed question surveys followed by interviews, data was collected data from 76 students who were asked to identify either challenges or useful components to their online experience [39]. The students were all undertaking a full degree using different technologies and structures, y*et al*l from a distance. The closed response questions were followed by nine semi-structured interviews. Two researchers conducted the interviews and data was thematically analysed and used to substantiate and extend earlier results from the questionnaire. The results suggested (89%) that the design of the course was the most important component of a successful e-learning experience [39] which supported the necessity and importance of instructional design, regardless of the mode of delivery. The sample size was small; the response rate of the survey was not given, nor was the relationship of the interviewees to the students. However, this is one of the few studies using mixed methods that have approached instructional design and student learning or satisfaction from a less positivist approach. Multiple sources of data collection were used which may have allowed researchers to validate and

Two studies both investigated structure in relationship to student satisfaction and perceived learning [23, 41]. One surveyed 6088 (31% return rate) DL students in New York and compared levels of structure and instructional design to student satisfaction [41]. The other surveyed 201 (17% response rate) learners in a Midwestern American University comparing levels of satisfaction with structure and design, satisfaction and perceived knowledge gained [23]. Both of these studies used closed questions and rating scales, the questions were not clear to the reader and the response rates were low. However, in both studies, the central role of structure and student satisfaction or perceived knowledge gained was supported. In one of the few studies specifically addressing context, Benson and Samarawickrema [42] compared six case studies of 'successful' DL initiatives in Australia. Definitions and programmes were clarified and their focus was to illustrate how e-learning designs (specifically those using Web 2.0 technologies) were instrumental in increasing success and decreasing transactional distance. With a practical focus and rich contextual description, these cases suggested that by carefully structuring and designing a course, transactional distance can be decreased. They also highlighted that design must be variable and provide a clear strategy for an analytic approach that is responsive to both the learners and the context of their

**2.3 Summary of research on instructional design or structure**

tion and an increase in perceived learning.

ods to assess the learning outcomes.

Formal instructional design, in its prescriptive and inflexible sense was the basis for most early DL initiatives. Although when subscribing to a learner centred perspective this seems problematic, more progressive models have been developed incorporating constructivist and interactive approaches to planning DL. The amount and type of structure necessary appears to be inconsistent. However, there does appear to be a relationship between the level of structure and student satisfac-

Originally, ID was developed to emphasise 'learning by doing' with immediate feedback on success, careful analysis and atomisation of learning outcomes and above all aligning these learning outcomes with instructional strategies and meth-

The ID approach to e-learning has become widely, yet perhaps unfairly discredited [28]. This may be due to the fact that a number of terms and expressions are

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81357*

crosscheck findings [40].

#### **Components of instructional design**


#### **Table 1.**

*Core components of instructional design relating to educational programmes.*

#### *Transactional Distance Theory: A Critical View of the Theoretical and Pedagogical… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81357*

Regardless, students were more satisfied with courses that had defined structure and they felt they had learned more than totally open and flexible courses.

In a study using closed question surveys followed by interviews, data was collected data from 76 students who were asked to identify either challenges or useful components to their online experience [39]. The students were all undertaking a full degree using different technologies and structures, y*et al*l from a distance. The closed response questions were followed by nine semi-structured interviews. Two researchers conducted the interviews and data was thematically analysed and used to substantiate and extend earlier results from the questionnaire. The results suggested (89%) that the design of the course was the most important component of a successful e-learning experience [39] which supported the necessity and importance of instructional design, regardless of the mode of delivery. The sample size was small; the response rate of the survey was not given, nor was the relationship of the interviewees to the students. However, this is one of the few studies using mixed methods that have approached instructional design and student learning or satisfaction from a less positivist approach. Multiple sources of data collection were used which may have allowed researchers to validate and crosscheck findings [40].

Two studies both investigated structure in relationship to student satisfaction and perceived learning [23, 41]. One surveyed 6088 (31% return rate) DL students in New York and compared levels of structure and instructional design to student satisfaction [41]. The other surveyed 201 (17% response rate) learners in a Midwestern American University comparing levels of satisfaction with structure and design, satisfaction and perceived knowledge gained [23]. Both of these studies used closed questions and rating scales, the questions were not clear to the reader and the response rates were low. However, in both studies, the central role of structure and student satisfaction or perceived knowledge gained was supported.

In one of the few studies specifically addressing context, Benson and Samarawickrema [42] compared six case studies of 'successful' DL initiatives in Australia. Definitions and programmes were clarified and their focus was to illustrate how e-learning designs (specifically those using Web 2.0 technologies) were instrumental in increasing success and decreasing transactional distance. With a practical focus and rich contextual description, these cases suggested that by carefully structuring and designing a course, transactional distance can be decreased. They also highlighted that design must be variable and provide a clear strategy for an analytic approach that is responsive to both the learners and the context of their learning.

#### **2.3 Summary of research on instructional design or structure**

Formal instructional design, in its prescriptive and inflexible sense was the basis for most early DL initiatives. Although when subscribing to a learner centred perspective this seems problematic, more progressive models have been developed incorporating constructivist and interactive approaches to planning DL. The amount and type of structure necessary appears to be inconsistent. However, there does appear to be a relationship between the level of structure and student satisfaction and an increase in perceived learning.

Originally, ID was developed to emphasise 'learning by doing' with immediate feedback on success, careful analysis and atomisation of learning outcomes and above all aligning these learning outcomes with instructional strategies and methods to assess the learning outcomes.

The ID approach to e-learning has become widely, yet perhaps unfairly discredited [28]. This may be due to the fact that a number of terms and expressions are

*Interactive Multimedia - Multimedia Production and Digital Storytelling*

*2.2.1 A critical view of instructional design*

they related to educational programmes are found in **Table 1** [29]:

collaborative learning, lack of authenticity and linear nature [32].

*2.2.2 Structure or instructional design and transactional distance theory*

have been widely adapted in e-learning [28]. The four core components of ID as

Various models have adapted ID, but they are based on the desire to provide guidance to designers as they aim to develop effective and consistent educational solutions on a reliable basis [27, 28]. One of the most popular [30] and best documented models [31] was ADDIE, comprised of five stages of instructional design: analysis, design, development, implementation and evaluation. The ADDIE model specifically [31–33] and ID in general [27, 29, 30, 34, 35] have been researched intensely relating education to technology. This systematic approach to ID provides an empirical and replicable process when developing learning materials [31, 33].

Although there was a plethora of research suggesting these models were the clear way to structure DL, there were critics as well. Much of what is termed 'e-learning' was still based on the recursive decomposition of knowledge and skill principles of ID [28]. The supporters of rigid ID tended to be training organisations with a training philosophy whose intellectual base consisted of principles derived from behaviourism and associationism [28]. A well-known and published author in the field of ID in America, looked critically at four different 'tools' based on ID, including the ADDIE model. He critiqued all four for their expertise required, lack of

Instructional design seemed uniquely poised to bridge the knowledge gap in the provision of DL by identifying what historically had been done in education and describing new directions in course design and structure [7]. This gap in knowledge relative to course design was especially applicable in the area of medical and allied health education [27]. Forty years ago, Moore prophetically discussed design or structure as being imperative in successful DL environments [4]. In 2010, design was addressed again and it was suggested it was an ideal term to use as it bridged both theory and practice [36]. Using surveys only, the structural factors affecting DL were investigated focusing on satisfaction, assessment of learning outcomes and perceived achievement of learning outcomes [37, 38]. 38,000 students taking 264 online courses in New York, were studied, analysing course documents and student questionnaires (38% return rate) [37]. In another study, 21 online courses were investigated using expert reviews of learning designs and student perception surveys [38] . Both studies demonstrated a correlation between greater structural consistency within the course, student satisfaction and perceived learning, used at least two methods of data collection and multiple raters for analysis of the data. However, the persistent attempt to quantify and measure people's perceptions of satisfaction and perceived learning is questionable given the complex nature of these constructs.

**68**

**Table 1.**

**Components of instructional design**

• Evaluating the degree of success of the solution

*Core components of instructional design relating to educational programmes.*

• Analysing the problem • Designing a solution • Implementing the solution used synonymously with ID and although the basis is behaviourism, or a teacher centred model, this is often an unfair association [43].

Many models that are labelled as 'constructivist' are indistinguishable from those derived from the associationist perspective [28].

Recently ID and general DL structure has moved towards creativity and interaction and away from low-level immediate responses [34].

Empirical and case study literature has repeatedly explored the relationship between (a) structure or design and (b) student satisfaction, transactional distance and learning.

There appears to be a close relationship between (a) structure and (b) transactional distance, student satisfaction and increase in perceived learning.

#### **3. Student experience: interaction and communication**

*Learners interact with their environment* ([7], p. 15).

#### **3.1 Introduction**

The published research on DL is abundant, however, the actual student experiences have gone relatively undocumented [44, 45] and are not fully understood [46]. The challenge was to understand, students' use of technology to support higher-order learning, interaction and dialogue [7]. The second factor contributing to an understanding of TDT was interaction, communication or dialogue and is the focus of this section.

#### **3.2 Results**

Communication, interaction and support from faculty and peers is consistently rated as having a major influence on DL [16, 39, 47–53]. However, our understanding of its use is seriously limited [7] by empirical research which has used rating scales and closed questionnaires to explore perceived support and perceived learning. With the exception of two papers, the papers above investigated student satisfaction and barriers or facilitators to DL [51, 52]. They were not directly focused on interaction or dialogue; they were exploring experiences generically. One paper specifically nurses' experiences. The findings supported the other studies; the interaction between the instructor and student, or student to student, was highlighted as integral to a positive learning experience or improved outcome [53].

A highly respected and well published five stage model illustrating online interaction or engagement (**Figure 3**) is found below [54].

This model is used as the basis for analysing and describing how the teacher or 'e-moderator' could support student learning. Other models and conversational frameworks of analysing online discourse [55–57] followed a relatively similar pattern of generating ideas, increasing interaction and information exchange followed by divergent thinking and development. These models have been criticised as being artificial, prescriptive and based on personal experience, not empirical research [9]. Salmon's work specifically has been criticised for its focus on the advancement of individual practitioners and the lack of attention paid to leadership and the institution as a whole. Successful initiatives must be scaffolded by dialogue and promote interaction and participation [54].

As discussed, the majority of the literature included interaction as one of the several factors affecting success in DL. A small amount of literature was found that addressed interaction, dialogue or engagement specifically.

**71**

**Figure 3.**

*Transactional Distance Theory: A Critical View of the Theoretical and Pedagogical…*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81357*

*3.2.1 Learner-learner and instructor-learner dialogue*

*Salmon's [54] five stage model of online learning and teaching (p. 29).*

*3.2.2 Instructor-learner dialogue*

Learner-learner and instructor-learner dialogue was the focus in a study of 38,000 students taking 264 online courses in New York [37]. Course documents and student questionnaires (38% return rate) were analysed. Student perceptions were explored based on learning, interaction with instructor and classmates, and personal level of activity. She found significant correlations with student satisfaction and interaction with the instructor (r = 0.761, p = 0.01) and perceived learning (r = 0.707, p = 0.01). There were also significant correlations between interactions with other students and course satisfaction (r = 0.440, p = 0.01) and perceived learning learned (r = 0.437, p = 0.01). Her findings appeared consistent with the literature in that interaction with instructor and amongst peers was consistently associated with the success of online courses [37]. Although this study was supported by research in a similar vein [7], there were some fundamental issues that were problematic. The survey consisted of multiple-choice and forced-answer questions investigating the 'dimensions' of satisfaction and perceived learning with no explanation as to how these questions were developed. There was no explanation for this quantitative attempt to measure the complex nature of satisfaction and learning.

Instructor-learner dialogue, specifically, examining the relationships between verbal immediacy and affective and cognitive learning in DL was explored. 145 post-graduate students involved in an asynchronous online course were surveyed using a questionnaire based on several verbal immediacy scales (described in detail) and both cognitive and affective learning scales [58]. The verbal immediacy scale consisted of 20 statements concerning instructor behaviour, the affective learning scale six dimensions and the cognitive learning scale was designed to produce a measure of learning loss. The hypothesis of correlation between instructor

*Transactional Distance Theory: A Critical View of the Theoretical and Pedagogical… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81357*

#### **Figure 3.**

*Interactive Multimedia - Multimedia Production and Digital Storytelling*

centred model, this is often an unfair association [43].

tion and away from low-level immediate responses [34].

derived from the associationist perspective [28].

and learning.

**3.1 Introduction**

focus of this section.

**3.2 Results**

used synonymously with ID and although the basis is behaviourism, or a teacher

Many models that are labelled as 'constructivist' are indistinguishable from those

Recently ID and general DL structure has moved towards creativity and interac-

Empirical and case study literature has repeatedly explored the relationship between (a) structure or design and (b) student satisfaction, transactional distance

There appears to be a close relationship between (a) structure and (b) transac-

The published research on DL is abundant, however, the actual student experiences have gone relatively undocumented [44, 45] and are not fully understood [46]. The challenge was to understand, students' use of technology to support higher-order learning, interaction and dialogue [7]. The second factor contributing to an understanding of TDT was interaction, communication or dialogue and is the

Communication, interaction and support from faculty and peers is consistently rated as having a major influence on DL [16, 39, 47–53]. However, our understanding of its use is seriously limited [7] by empirical research which has used rating scales and closed questionnaires to explore perceived support and perceived learning. With the exception of two papers, the papers above investigated student satisfaction and barriers or facilitators to DL [51, 52]. They were not directly focused on interaction or dialogue; they were exploring experiences generically. One paper specifically nurses' experiences. The findings supported the other studies; the interaction between the instructor and student, or student to student, was highlighted as integral to a positive learning experience or improved outcome [53]. A highly respected and well published five stage model illustrating online

This model is used as the basis for analysing and describing how the teacher or 'e-moderator' could support student learning. Other models and conversational frameworks of analysing online discourse [55–57] followed a relatively similar pattern of generating ideas, increasing interaction and information exchange followed by divergent thinking and development. These models have been criticised as being artificial, prescriptive and based on personal experience, not empirical research [9]. Salmon's work specifically has been criticised for its focus on the advancement of individual practitioners and the lack of attention paid to leadership and the institution as a whole. Successful initiatives must be scaffolded by dialogue and promote

As discussed, the majority of the literature included interaction as one of the several factors affecting success in DL. A small amount of literature was found that

tional distance, student satisfaction and increase in perceived learning.

**3. Student experience: interaction and communication**

*Learners interact with their environment* ([7], p. 15).

interaction or engagement (**Figure 3**) is found below [54].

addressed interaction, dialogue or engagement specifically.

interaction and participation [54].

**70**

*Salmon's [54] five stage model of online learning and teaching (p. 29).*

#### *3.2.1 Learner-learner and instructor-learner dialogue*

Learner-learner and instructor-learner dialogue was the focus in a study of 38,000 students taking 264 online courses in New York [37]. Course documents and student questionnaires (38% return rate) were analysed. Student perceptions were explored based on learning, interaction with instructor and classmates, and personal level of activity. She found significant correlations with student satisfaction and interaction with the instructor (r = 0.761, p = 0.01) and perceived learning (r = 0.707, p = 0.01). There were also significant correlations between interactions with other students and course satisfaction (r = 0.440, p = 0.01) and perceived learning learned (r = 0.437, p = 0.01). Her findings appeared consistent with the literature in that interaction with instructor and amongst peers was consistently associated with the success of online courses [37]. Although this study was supported by research in a similar vein [7], there were some fundamental issues that were problematic. The survey consisted of multiple-choice and forced-answer questions investigating the 'dimensions' of satisfaction and perceived learning with no explanation as to how these questions were developed. There was no explanation for this quantitative attempt to measure the complex nature of satisfaction and learning.

#### *3.2.2 Instructor-learner dialogue*

Instructor-learner dialogue, specifically, examining the relationships between verbal immediacy and affective and cognitive learning in DL was explored. 145 post-graduate students involved in an asynchronous online course were surveyed using a questionnaire based on several verbal immediacy scales (described in detail) and both cognitive and affective learning scales [58]. The verbal immediacy scale consisted of 20 statements concerning instructor behaviour, the affective learning scale six dimensions and the cognitive learning scale was designed to produce a measure of learning loss. The hypothesis of correlation between instructor

immediacy and affective learning was supported (r = 0.73, p < 0.01). The hypothesis of positive correlation between instructor immediacy and cognitive learning was supported (r = .054, p < 0.01). The verbal immediacy scale was based on other scales developed in a traditional face to face environment, yet the use of them in a non –traditional asynchronous environment was not justified. These students were all studying humanities and may not represent other post graduates as their requirement for instructor interaction may be unique. Regardless, the conclusion included a positive relationship between instructor immediacy and affective learning. Students who rated their instructors as more verbally immediate expressed improved affective and cognitive learning. Although immediacy of feedback was part of the original aim, it was not the focus for review. The majority of the literature found investigated the value and necessity of speed in asynchronous interactions. Learner-learner and instructor-learner interaction has been shown to be effective in creating successful DL environments, but what has become key is timely interactions [7]. Timely interaction related to Moore's [4] concept of TDT. This psychological separation was an interaction between levels of dialogue and levels of structure or autonomy. Therefore, the greater, and faster, and more involved the level of interaction or dialogue was, the lower the level of psychological feeling of separation there would be [7]. Timeliness of interactions, frequency, occurrence, type of interaction and immediacy are all areas that need to be examined more in distance education research [7].

#### *3.2.3 Learner-learner dialogue*

Learner-learner interaction is essential [10]. Two recent studies were found specifically addressing collaboration and peer interaction on performance in DL. One investigated social performance in computer supported collaborative learning [51], while another [52] analysed participants' experiences thematically in web conferences. In the first study, 39 undergraduate students were assigned to groups with either specialised collaborative activities and structure or none [51]. Data was collected on group performance using self and peer assessments and a rating scale for both behaviour and performance. These terms were all defined, although the rating scales were not validated or transparent. The group exposed to the specialised collaborative activities demonstrated a perceived increase in team development, ability to deal with team conflict and a more positive attitude towards collaborative problem solving [51]. The second study explored dialogue relating to learning in participants undertaking web conferences on leadership. Using data from two series of online seminars lasting over a year, the authors analysed all recorded 'text chat' data using thematic analysis. Validity was addressed by making the analysis process transparent, the analysis itself was done by three researchers and the final data was compared to the literature. Themes identified relating to learning were: social interaction, information giving, internalisation, co-construction of knowledge and multi-process learning. The results of both of these studies suggest that online activities that promote learner-learner interaction are important for effective team performance and collaborative learning [51, 52].

#### **3.3 Alternative approaches**

Adults, as learners, need to see relevance or usefulness in their learning activities [59]. Therefore, these learners needed to see how interacting with their peers would benefit them and have relevance to their learning. Two slightly eclectic

**73**

are unpublished [24].

DL environments.

learner and learner-content.

**3.4 Summary of research on dialogue and interaction**

*Transactional Distance Theory: A Critical View of the Theoretical and Pedagogical…*

Bandura [61] suggesting that a community of learning requires:

• involvement-reflective action and interpretive practice;

• technology-enabling and self-efficacy with ICT; and

studies were found that addressed this from alternative viewpoints. One of the few longitudinal studies within this entire review followed groups of adult learners over 15 years [60]. This three-stage ethnographic-action research study tracked learners and their learning community at a virtual university in Australia as they undertook a Masters of Arts degree. The cycles, agents of change and staged findings were well explained. Conclusions suggested peer dialogue provided the mechanism for deep learning experiences and a sense of community. They related their findings to

The aim of this interpretive study was to explore how post-graduates could be guided to create conditions for effective peer discourse. In order to understand this, a study using traditional scientific methods would be inappropriate. Of the four concepts listed as necessary, the social relevance or usefulness appeared to play the biggest role to students. This study was not addressing whether group interaction was valuable but what conditions were necessary for it to occur and be valuable for students. Supporting these findings, but from an alternative angle, a case study was presented in which the interaction between learners was a failure [62]. This empirical positivist study used a questionnaire survey and statistical analysis addressing several hypotheses of why students did not participate in an online discussion forum at a University in West London. Hypotheses included low level of usage was due to either: attitudes of the student, low perceived usefulness of discussion board or technological complexity. The results from the 24 questions showed statistically significant results in that low perceived usefulness of the discussion board was the primary cause for its failure. The questionnaire consisted of scaled questions only and the development of the tool itself was not discussed. Although not made explicit, it appears that only 10% of the potential students completed the questionnaire. However, the conclusions support another study [60] that usefulness or relevance is necessary for successful learner-learner interactions. The approach to present findings of an unsuccessful initiative was unique. One of the general biases with published materials is the possibility of publication bias where negative studies

• Interaction or dialogue was clearly related to student satisfaction and perceived learning whilst relevance, usefulness and immediacy of interactions appeared to be the most integral issues in decreasing TD and contributing to successful

• Interaction/dialogue/engagement were terms used simultaneously in the literature and there were three different divisions: instructor-learner, learner-

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81357*

• relevance-social and situational;

• acceptance-recognition by peers.

## *Transactional Distance Theory: A Critical View of the Theoretical and Pedagogical… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81357*

studies were found that addressed this from alternative viewpoints. One of the few longitudinal studies within this entire review followed groups of adult learners over 15 years [60]. This three-stage ethnographic-action research study tracked learners and their learning community at a virtual university in Australia as they undertook a Masters of Arts degree. The cycles, agents of change and staged findings were well explained. Conclusions suggested peer dialogue provided the mechanism for deep learning experiences and a sense of community. They related their findings to Bandura [61] suggesting that a community of learning requires:

• relevance-social and situational;

*Interactive Multimedia - Multimedia Production and Digital Storytelling*

distance education research [7].

performance and collaborative learning [51, 52].

**3.3 Alternative approaches**

*3.2.3 Learner-learner dialogue*

immediacy and affective learning was supported (r = 0.73, p < 0.01). The hypothesis of positive correlation between instructor immediacy and cognitive learning was supported (r = .054, p < 0.01). The verbal immediacy scale was based on other scales developed in a traditional face to face environment, yet the use of them in a non –traditional asynchronous environment was not justified. These students were all studying humanities and may not represent other post graduates as their requirement for instructor interaction may be unique. Regardless, the conclusion included a positive relationship between instructor immediacy and affective learning. Students who rated their instructors as more verbally immediate expressed improved affective and cognitive learning. Although immediacy of feedback was part of the original aim, it was not the focus for review. The majority of the literature found investigated the value and necessity of speed in asynchronous interactions. Learner-learner and instructor-learner interaction has been shown to be effective in creating successful DL environments, but what has become key is timely interactions [7]. Timely interaction related to Moore's [4] concept of TDT. This psychological separation was an interaction between levels of dialogue and levels of structure or autonomy. Therefore, the greater, and faster, and more involved the level of interaction or dialogue was, the lower the level of psychological feeling of separation there would be [7]. Timeliness of interactions, frequency, occurrence, type of interaction and immediacy are all areas that need to be examined more in

Learner-learner interaction is essential [10]. Two recent studies were found specifically addressing collaboration and peer interaction on performance in DL. One investigated social performance in computer supported collaborative learning [51], while another [52] analysed participants' experiences thematically in web conferences. In the first study, 39 undergraduate students were assigned to groups with either specialised collaborative activities and structure or none [51]. Data was collected on group performance using self and peer assessments and a rating scale for both behaviour and performance. These terms were all defined, although the rating scales were not validated or transparent. The group exposed to the specialised collaborative activities demonstrated a perceived increase in team development, ability to deal with team conflict and a more positive attitude towards collaborative problem solving [51]. The second study explored dialogue relating to learning in participants undertaking web conferences on leadership. Using data from two series of online seminars lasting over a year, the authors analysed all recorded 'text chat' data using thematic analysis. Validity was addressed by making the analysis process transparent, the analysis itself was done by three researchers and the final data was compared to the literature. Themes identified relating to learning were: social interaction, information giving, internalisation, co-construction of knowledge and multi-process learning. The results of both of these studies suggest that online activities that promote learner-learner interaction are important for effective team

Adults, as learners, need to see relevance or usefulness in their learning activities [59]. Therefore, these learners needed to see how interacting with their peers would benefit them and have relevance to their learning. Two slightly eclectic

**72**


The aim of this interpretive study was to explore how post-graduates could be guided to create conditions for effective peer discourse. In order to understand this, a study using traditional scientific methods would be inappropriate. Of the four concepts listed as necessary, the social relevance or usefulness appeared to play the biggest role to students. This study was not addressing whether group interaction was valuable but what conditions were necessary for it to occur and be valuable for students. Supporting these findings, but from an alternative angle, a case study was presented in which the interaction between learners was a failure [62]. This empirical positivist study used a questionnaire survey and statistical analysis addressing several hypotheses of why students did not participate in an online discussion forum at a University in West London. Hypotheses included low level of usage was due to either: attitudes of the student, low perceived usefulness of discussion board or technological complexity. The results from the 24 questions showed statistically significant results in that low perceived usefulness of the discussion board was the primary cause for its failure. The questionnaire consisted of scaled questions only and the development of the tool itself was not discussed. Although not made explicit, it appears that only 10% of the potential students completed the questionnaire. However, the conclusions support another study [60] that usefulness or relevance is necessary for successful learner-learner interactions. The approach to present findings of an unsuccessful initiative was unique. One of the general biases with published materials is the possibility of publication bias where negative studies are unpublished [24].
