**1. Introduction**

Within this chapter, the objective is:

To review literature on the theoretical and pedagogical underpinnings of distance education, specifically transactional distance theory and the concepts of structure, interaction and autonomy.

## **1.1 Search strategies**

Data bases were searched including: Scopus, Psychinfo, Web of Knowledge, Medline ERIC and CINAHL to identify potentially relevant material using the following terms:

(Effective or successful or valuable or useful) and (DL or distance learning or computer assisted learning or e-learning or elearning or online learning or online education or distance education or technology enhanced learning or computer mediated learning or computer based learning or ICT).

In Scopus alone, this wielded over 9000 results consisting of:


The choice of databases reflected the heterogeneous nature of the research in the area of technology, education, and social sciences. Unless reviewing theoretical literature (learning or organisational theories), only technological literature published in the last 10 years was reviewed. Striving to strike a balance between comprehensiveness (or sensitivity) and precision this date restriction was chosen which is common practice in literature reviews. This time frame appears to be congruent with other literature reviews in this area including: 9 years [2] and 8 years [3]. The focus was specifically on higher education and online courses if possible (for example, excluded blended learning). Both synchronous and asynchronous delivery, were included. Abstracts of all identified papers were read and full copies of articles that appeared relevant were saved as electronic files in endnote. Duplicates were deleted. E-books, books and photocopied chapters of traditional books were used and organised manually by topics. Citation searches were done on all articles that related directly to transactional distance theory or reviews of DL. Searches were limited to English language books and journals.

#### **1.2 Overview**

Distance education was first introduced into mainstream lexicon in the 1970s [4]. There were early attempts to define it, and controversies around what it actually was. One of the barriers (and 40 years on, the most revolutionary argument for me) was basically this: Is distance education a geographic separation of learners and teachers, or a pedagogical concept? Moore suggested the latter. He developed Transactional Distance Theory (TDT) in an attempt to demonstrate and explain that distance education was more concerned with pedagogy than geography [4, 5].

#### **1.3 Results**

In 1973, Moore initially defined TDT as a psychological and communications gap that was a function of the interplay of *structure,* and *dialogue.* It was the cognitive space between teachers and students that must be crossed yet was a place of potential misunderstanding between the teacher and the learner. This space was continuous, relative and never exactly the same. Ideally, this distance or space needed to be minimised or shortened. Even in traditional education there was transactional distance and therefore the actual theory was a subset, albeit specialised, of conventional

**63**

**Figure 1.**

*Transactional Distance Theory: A Critical View of the Theoretical and Pedagogical…*

teaching and learning, [6]. However, in DL, due to the unique environment teachers and learners experienced more of a distance due to the physical distance (and if asynchronous, time) that separated these two groups. Therefore, transactional distance theory, more specifically, the transactional distance between teacher and learner was potentially more problematic at a distance and may have contributed to students' feelings of isolation, reduced motivation and engagement and eventually attrition in early DL [5]. Moore originally suggested that developers of DL must consider two variables that affect transactional distance: structure and dialogue [4]. Structure was the rigidity or flexibility of the instructional methods and strategies whilst dialogue referred to the interaction between the instructor and learner during a DL experience. Transactional distance was a function of dialogue and structure. With less dialogue and more structure, the transactional distance was higher (**Figure 1**). In a course with little transactional distance, learners have guidance through ongoing dialogue [7]. This would be more appropriate, or attractive to learners who were less secure in managing their own learning. Moore later recognised with minimal dialogue, students were forced to make their own decisions for themselves and generally exercise autonomy [5]. Working with Kearsley, he later identified three interactive components or constructs [8] that needed to be considered to shorten the transactional distance and provide a meaningful learning experience

• dialogue or interaction between learners and teachers and the new addition; and

This third hypothesised factor, autonomy, interacted with both structure and dialogue and the three together formed a model or theory [9] for understanding

Structure was determined by the actual design of the activity, how the instruction was organised and the use of different media communications [8]. Dialogue could be synchronous, asynchronous and dialogue that was internalised within the student. Learner autonomy related to the individual learner's self-directedness or sense of personal responsibility. There appeared to be a relationship between structure, dialogue and autonomy. The greater the autonomy, the less teacher control

• autonomy or the nature and degree of self-directedness of the learner.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81357*

for students. These included the original two:

online learning [8] (**Figure 2**).

• structure of the instructional programs;

*Relationship of structure and dialogue to transactional distance [4].*

#### *Transactional Distance Theory: A Critical View of the Theoretical and Pedagogical… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81357*

teaching and learning, [6]. However, in DL, due to the unique environment teachers and learners experienced more of a distance due to the physical distance (and if asynchronous, time) that separated these two groups. Therefore, transactional distance theory, more specifically, the transactional distance between teacher and learner was potentially more problematic at a distance and may have contributed to students' feelings of isolation, reduced motivation and engagement and eventually attrition in early DL [5]. Moore originally suggested that developers of DL must consider two variables that affect transactional distance: structure and dialogue [4]. Structure was the rigidity or flexibility of the instructional methods and strategies whilst dialogue referred to the interaction between the instructor and learner during a DL experience. Transactional distance was a function of dialogue and structure. With less dialogue and more structure, the transactional distance was higher (**Figure 1**).

In a course with little transactional distance, learners have guidance through ongoing dialogue [7]. This would be more appropriate, or attractive to learners who were less secure in managing their own learning. Moore later recognised with minimal dialogue, students were forced to make their own decisions for themselves and generally exercise autonomy [5]. Working with Kearsley, he later identified three interactive components or constructs [8] that needed to be considered to shorten the transactional distance and provide a meaningful learning experience for students. These included the original two:


This third hypothesised factor, autonomy, interacted with both structure and dialogue and the three together formed a model or theory [9] for understanding online learning [8] (**Figure 2**).

Structure was determined by the actual design of the activity, how the instruction was organised and the use of different media communications [8]. Dialogue could be synchronous, asynchronous and dialogue that was internalised within the student. Learner autonomy related to the individual learner's self-directedness or sense of personal responsibility. There appeared to be a relationship between structure, dialogue and autonomy. The greater the autonomy, the less teacher control

**Figure 1.** *Relationship of structure and dialogue to transactional distance [4].*

*Interactive Multimedia - Multimedia Production and Digital Storytelling*

• undergraduate education;

• systematic reviews (few);

• an abundance of 'how-to' books;

• anecdotal and promotional articles.

• reams of advocacy papers and success stories; and

were limited to English language books and journals.

• K-12 education;

• editorial and opinion papers;

• work on effective DL investigating specific media or resources;

• comparative studies (i.e. to traditional face to face teaching);

The choice of databases reflected the heterogeneous nature of the research in the area of technology, education, and social sciences. Unless reviewing theoretical literature (learning or organisational theories), only technological literature published in the last 10 years was reviewed. Striving to strike a balance between comprehensiveness (or sensitivity) and precision this date restriction was chosen which is common practice in literature reviews. This time frame appears to be congruent with other literature reviews in this area including: 9 years [2] and 8 years [3]. The focus was specifically on higher education and online courses if possible (for example, excluded blended learning). Both synchronous and asynchronous delivery, were included. Abstracts of all identified papers were read and full copies of articles that appeared relevant were saved as electronic files in endnote. Duplicates were deleted. E-books, books and photocopied chapters of traditional books were used and organised manually by topics. Citation searches were done on all articles that related directly to transactional distance theory or reviews of DL. Searches

Distance education was first introduced into mainstream lexicon in the 1970s [4]. There were early attempts to define it, and controversies around what it actually was. One of the barriers (and 40 years on, the most revolutionary argument for me) was basically this: Is distance education a geographic separation of learners and teachers, or a pedagogical concept? Moore suggested the latter. He developed Transactional Distance Theory (TDT) in an attempt to demonstrate and explain that distance education was more concerned with pedagogy than geography [4, 5].

In 1973, Moore initially defined TDT as a psychological and communications gap that was a function of the interplay of *structure,* and *dialogue.* It was the cognitive space between teachers and students that must be crossed yet was a place of potential misunderstanding between the teacher and the learner. This space was continuous, relative and never exactly the same. Ideally, this distance or space needed to be minimised or shortened. Even in traditional education there was transactional distance and therefore the actual theory was a subset, albeit specialised, of conventional

**62**

**1.2 Overview**

**1.3 Results**

**Figure 2.** *Overview of transactional distance theory (3D model).*

there needed to be to decrease the transactional distance and have a successful distance module. Conversely, with less dialogue and more structure, the likelihood of an increased transactional distance, which in turn led to less successful online programmes, was greater [10]. Successful distance environments depended on the teacher providing opportunities for dialogue and 'appropriately' [10] structured learning materials. This became extremely complex. Identifying the level of structure required, facilitating dialogue and encouraging individual learner autonomy was demanding and multifaceted as the greater the structure and the lower the dialogue, the more autonomy the student must demonstrate.

## *1.3.1 Deweyian link*

These three complex factors relate to Dewey's seminal work. He suggested the educational process is a collaborative reconstruction of experience and has two sides: one psychological (cognitive) and one sociological. He warned that neither could be subordinated to the other or neglected without consequence.

**Dialogue or interaction between learners and teachers**: Dialogue, and engaging in interaction forces individuals to construct ideas in a deep learning sense [7]. Dewey [11] supported this constructivist approach to learning. He discussed the need to support learners' in their construction of meaning and argued only through social interaction and interaction with the environment could the learner construct conceptualisations and find solutions. He reasoned that through interpersonal, instructional dialogue the learner gains advantages in the pursuit of knowledge and understanding.

**Structure of the instructional programs:** Dewey described the function of education as improving the reasoning process [12]. Based on active experience, the role of the educator was to shape experience and structure the environment to promote experiences leading to growth. This role was one of a guide, or facilitator encouraging creative interaction and emphasising the development of solving problems and discovering knowledge. These higher order activities are encompassed in Dewey's practical inquiry model which includes four phases: triggering event, exploration, integration and resolution.

**Autonomy or the nature and degree of self-directedness of the learner:** Autonomy, the third factor in TDT is reflected in constructivist views encouraging active, collaborative and responsible learners [13]. The genesis of self-directed learning can be attributed to Dewey [7] who suggested that autonomy helped create the conditions that encourage individuals to exercise initiative, reflection and choice [11].

**65**

*Transactional Distance Theory: A Critical View of the Theoretical and Pedagogical…*

Many researchers [1, 14–16] identified transactional distance as important and viewed TDT and as a basic analytical framework for understanding distance educa-

'Transactional distance theory provides a useful conceptual framework for defining and understanding distance education in general and as a source of

Despite considerable time span over which this theory has evolved, there are critics and little empirical research has been carried out to test the validity and

TDT has been investigated from different perspectives. Two studies were found using questionnaires as data collection tools [18, 19]. Bischoff *et al*. were interested in student perceptions of transactional distance, structure and dialogue [18]. Transactional distance, dialogue and structure were all related to certain 'items' (in reality questions). Each variable was then measured using data generated from fixed questionnaire. Transactional distance was measured by two items, dialogue by one item and structure by three. The results supported Moore's theory showing dialogue and transactional distances were inversely proportional. However, dialogue (a complex variable) was measured by only one item, there was no discussion of quality of dialogue (only quantity) and the actual items being measured were not clearly defined. In an attempt to investigate TDT further and create a clear connection between dialogue, structure and autonomy as they related to learning outcomes, 121 learners were part of a study in a DL environment [19]. Operational definitions were given and they looked at dialogue in terms of frequency and occurrence, structure in terms of delivery and implementation and autonomy in terms of personal ratings of independence. These variables were compared to student's self-assessment. The results found only two variables had significant effects on perceived learning outcomes: the greater the perceived transactional distance, the lower the perceived outcomes and the greater the frequency of discussion, the higher the perceived achievement of learning outcomes. The results support Moore's theory, although as in [18] a simple questionnaire was used, data was collected only once and dialogue

Two articles were found addressing TDT that measured observable behaviour as opposed to student perceptions [20, 21]. Data was collected on 30 interactions between instructors and learners and measured behaviours using the 'systems dynamic model' [21]. Verbal behaviour was measured using a discourse analysis and, combined this with a measure of 'structure' of the programme then identified the variance. By measuring the rate of instructor and learner control, this variance (the ratio between amount of dialogue and extent of structure) was the transactional distance. The results demonstrated that transactional distance varied with dialogue and structure. As dialogue increased, distance decreased; as structure increased, transactional distance increased. This model produced values for transactional distance consistent with Moore's theory and suggested that transactional distance was directly proportional to dialogue and inversely proportional to structure. Although this supported Moore, the quantification of dialogue and structure of a programme was problematic to me. They looked only at one-to-one synchronous communications between learner and teacher. Therefore, the generality of the study is limited and it is hardly representative of the majority of DL trends. The effects of change in structure on dialogue was investigated during an audio-conferenced course [20]. Only structure and dialogue were compared. Over 100 students participated and dialogue was measured in frequency and duration whilst structure was defined by one aspect of instructional design (question asking

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81357*

relationships of the constructs [16, 17].

was measured only by frequency.

tion systems.

**1.4 A critical view of transactional distance theory**

research hypotheses more specifically' ([14], p. 527).

## **1.4 A critical view of transactional distance theory**

*Interactive Multimedia - Multimedia Production and Digital Storytelling*

there needed to be to decrease the transactional distance and have a successful distance module. Conversely, with less dialogue and more structure, the likelihood of an increased transactional distance, which in turn led to less successful online programmes, was greater [10]. Successful distance environments depended on the teacher providing opportunities for dialogue and 'appropriately' [10] structured learning materials. This became extremely complex. Identifying the level of structure required, facilitating dialogue and encouraging individual learner autonomy was demanding and multifaceted as the greater the structure and the lower the

These three complex factors relate to Dewey's seminal work. He suggested the educational process is a collaborative reconstruction of experience and has two sides: one psychological (cognitive) and one sociological. He warned that neither

**Dialogue or interaction between learners and teachers**: Dialogue, and engaging in interaction forces individuals to construct ideas in a deep learning sense [7]. Dewey [11] supported this constructivist approach to learning. He discussed the need to support learners' in their construction of meaning and argued only through social interaction and interaction with the environment could the learner construct conceptualisations and find solutions. He reasoned that through interpersonal, instructional dialogue the learner gains advantages in the pursuit of knowledge and understanding. **Structure of the instructional programs:** Dewey described the function of education as improving the reasoning process [12]. Based on active experience, the role of the educator was to shape experience and structure the environment to promote experiences leading to growth. This role was one of a guide, or facilitator encouraging creative interaction and emphasising the development of solving problems and discovering knowledge. These higher order activities are encompassed in Dewey's practical inquiry model which includes four phases: triggering event,

**Autonomy or the nature and degree of self-directedness of the learner:** Autonomy, the third factor in TDT is reflected in constructivist views encouraging active, collaborative and responsible learners [13]. The genesis of self-directed learning can be attributed to Dewey [7] who suggested that autonomy helped create the conditions that encourage individuals to exercise initiative, reflection and choice [11].

dialogue, the more autonomy the student must demonstrate.

*Overview of transactional distance theory (3D model).*

could be subordinated to the other or neglected without consequence.

*1.3.1 Deweyian link*

**Figure 2.**

exploration, integration and resolution.

**64**

Many researchers [1, 14–16] identified transactional distance as important and viewed TDT and as a basic analytical framework for understanding distance education systems.

'Transactional distance theory provides a useful conceptual framework for defining and understanding distance education in general and as a source of research hypotheses more specifically' ([14], p. 527).

Despite considerable time span over which this theory has evolved, there are critics and little empirical research has been carried out to test the validity and relationships of the constructs [16, 17].

TDT has been investigated from different perspectives. Two studies were found using questionnaires as data collection tools [18, 19]. Bischoff *et al*. were interested in student perceptions of transactional distance, structure and dialogue [18]. Transactional distance, dialogue and structure were all related to certain 'items' (in reality questions). Each variable was then measured using data generated from fixed questionnaire. Transactional distance was measured by two items, dialogue by one item and structure by three. The results supported Moore's theory showing dialogue and transactional distances were inversely proportional. However, dialogue (a complex variable) was measured by only one item, there was no discussion of quality of dialogue (only quantity) and the actual items being measured were not clearly defined.

In an attempt to investigate TDT further and create a clear connection between dialogue, structure and autonomy as they related to learning outcomes, 121 learners were part of a study in a DL environment [19]. Operational definitions were given and they looked at dialogue in terms of frequency and occurrence, structure in terms of delivery and implementation and autonomy in terms of personal ratings of independence. These variables were compared to student's self-assessment. The results found only two variables had significant effects on perceived learning outcomes: the greater the perceived transactional distance, the lower the perceived outcomes and the greater the frequency of discussion, the higher the perceived achievement of learning outcomes. The results support Moore's theory, although as in [18] a simple questionnaire was used, data was collected only once and dialogue was measured only by frequency.

Two articles were found addressing TDT that measured observable behaviour as opposed to student perceptions [20, 21]. Data was collected on 30 interactions between instructors and learners and measured behaviours using the 'systems dynamic model' [21]. Verbal behaviour was measured using a discourse analysis and, combined this with a measure of 'structure' of the programme then identified the variance. By measuring the rate of instructor and learner control, this variance (the ratio between amount of dialogue and extent of structure) was the transactional distance. The results demonstrated that transactional distance varied with dialogue and structure. As dialogue increased, distance decreased; as structure increased, transactional distance increased. This model produced values for transactional distance consistent with Moore's theory and suggested that transactional distance was directly proportional to dialogue and inversely proportional to structure. Although this supported Moore, the quantification of dialogue and structure of a programme was problematic to me. They looked only at one-to-one synchronous communications between learner and teacher. Therefore, the generality of the study is limited and it is hardly representative of the majority of DL trends. The effects of change in structure on dialogue was investigated during an audio-conferenced course [20]. Only structure and dialogue were compared. Over 100 students participated and dialogue was measured in frequency and duration whilst structure was defined by one aspect of instructional design (question asking behaviour of instructor). In support of TDT, different types of interactions and questions appeared to determine learner participation. According to the authors, of the four experimental procedures one was cancelled and one was biased. The instrument for measuring interaction was not shown to be reliable, the samples were not clearly described and the grouping unclear. Again, dialogue was measured in terms of frequency and duration. However, the results suggested that certain types of question-asking behaviour by the instructor could predict dialogue in the student [20]. The authors claimed that both structure and dialogue were important to success and by increasing dialogue and structure, one could increase student participation and decrease transactional distance.

Two articles were found [22, 23], from very different perspectives, using questionnaires to explore influences of variables in DL and presenting conflicting results. The effects of course format, satisfaction and perceived knowledge gained were examined during an online programme. Satisfaction was broken down into different aspects to relate to the constructs set out by Moore in TDT. A questionnaire was used and the instrument was described. A very low response rate (17%) was not explained, however, there did appear to be a relationship between course design and satisfaction. The more satisfied the learners were with the structure and with interaction, the more satisfied they were with their perceived knowledge gained. This supported Moore's assertion that structure needed to be appropriate for the learner and that low structure and high dialogue could lessen transactional distance. An interesting article, publishing negative findings investigated the impact of individual and instructional variables on 71 (87% return rate) learner's perceived transactional distance [22]. Once again, questionnaires were used to measure student perceptions (on a 23 item sliding scale) and results analysed against four variables. The results did show a high ratio of certain variables to perceived transactional distance. Although peripheral, their findings also included that neither face to face interaction during an online course or previous experience changed transactional distance. Interestingly, some of the results suggested a negative effect between transactional distance and 'online tutoring' or interaction although 'online tutoring' was not clearly described. Content validity of the survey was addressed in that 'experts' and 'educationalists' reviewed the tool and there was a high response rate. The conclusions were that alternative measures of transactional distance (qualitative, observation, interviews) would help understand these phenomena. Predominantly published literature was biased towards positive results [24], so this article was a valuable alternative perspective.

In 2009, a review classifying 695 articles on DL was carried out. The focus was to identify gaps and priority areas in DL research. A consensus of 25 experts reviewed research published between 2000 and 2008 [3]. The method and results were clearly described and this was one of the only DL reviews found that included non-English journals. (One of the criticisms of distance education reviews is the focus on 'peer reviewed' English language journals [2]). Fifteen main research areas and strong imbalances were described. They found research 'dreadfully neglected' on organisational change and development, costs and faculty support. These are all addressed in this submission and in my own review. However, closely related to TDT, they identified an imbalance with over 50% of all articles focusing on:

**67**

**2.1 Introduction**

separately.

**2.2 Results**

*Transactional Distance Theory: A Critical View of the Theoretical and Pedagogical…*

• TDT had roots in humanistic and behavioural ideologies.

ness using closed questionnaires and scales were common.

include interview or observational data [18–22, 25].

**2. Student experience: structure or design**

*improved by being presented on a Web page*' ([26], p. s87).

third factor, autonomy was later added [8].

successful distance education [8].

lack of clarity in follow up research.

learning outcomes).

transactional distance.

Although not highlighted by the authors of this review, these corresponded directly with Moore's three components of TDT. Admittedly, TDT appears to be a descriptive, rather that predictive theory, but there is a clear collaboration with outcome variables [9]. Furthermore, Moore's concept of transactional distance was a significant paradigm shift for educationalists as it grounded the concept of distance in distance education in a social science framework and not in its usual physical science interpretations [7]. Whether there are strong empirical studies supporting Moore's theory or not, it is evident his three components continue to be a priority in

• Structure and dialogue were the initial factors in Moore's [4] TDT theory and a

• Moore did not define any of the constructs operationally [17], which has led to

• Studies investigating the complex constructs of autonomy and self-directed-

• The majority of published work investigating TDT has been approached from a positivist paradigm looking for correlation and statistically significant relationships between complex concepts (for example, autonomy and perceived

• None of the studies found supported or totally negated the proposition of

'*Educators must recognise that poorly designed educational programs…are not* 

This section of the literature review addresses the three component parts of TDT

Formal 'instructional design' (ID) models, a systematic approach for developing educational products, used liberally when designing web-based courses at the University level [16, 27] all contained a number of key elements or components and

• All of the studies reviewed suggested that future research into this area should

• Structure, dialogue and autonomy were related, dynamic and necessary, in

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81357*

research [2, 3, 16].

**1.5 Summary of research on TDT**


*Transactional Distance Theory: A Critical View of the Theoretical and Pedagogical… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81357*

Although not highlighted by the authors of this review, these corresponded directly with Moore's three components of TDT. Admittedly, TDT appears to be a descriptive, rather that predictive theory, but there is a clear collaboration with outcome variables [9]. Furthermore, Moore's concept of transactional distance was a significant paradigm shift for educationalists as it grounded the concept of distance in distance education in a social science framework and not in its usual physical science interpretations [7]. Whether there are strong empirical studies supporting Moore's theory or not, it is evident his three components continue to be a priority in research [2, 3, 16].
