**4. Student experience: autonomy**

## **4.1 Introduction**

A hallmark of DL has been its reliance on learner autonomy [63] which was the third hypothesised element of TDT [8] and the focus of this section.

## **4.2 Results**

Literature addressing autonomy in DL, unlike structure or dialogue which was relatively straightforward, was complex and multi-faceted [1]. Major reviews were found discussing autonomy in learning [64] and specifically autonomy in DL [4, 10]. In a review of autonomy and learning, literature was investigated over the last two decades, describing various definitions, and highlighting inconsistencies in the literature [64]. The review was divided into topics; however, there was no explanation as to search criteria or strategies. Autonomy was defined in terms of a redistribution of power concerning the construction of knowledge and the roles of participants. Although, DL was not addressed explicitly, the paper claimed autonomy was '…*a departure from education as a social process'* (p. 116). Over 2000 pieces of literature concerning autonomy were reviewed [4]. This visionary work (preinternet!) explained '*The autonomous learner is not to be thought of as an intellectual Robinson Crusoe, castaway and shut-off in self sufficiency'* ([4], p. 669).

In a later review, research on autonomous learning was reviewed [7] and further, explained that there were two dimensions of autonomy in DL: selfmanagement of pedagogy and self-monitoring of cognition, or metacognition. Both cognitive autonomy and taking responsibility for one's learning were essential. Focusing on the meta-cognitive aspects of learner autonomy, strategies were compared in classroom vs. DL [65]. Using questionnaires followed by verbal reports, the relationship was explored between autonomy and the instructional

**75**

*Transactional Distance Theory: A Critical View of the Theoretical and Pedagogical…*

context of distance learners (n = 274) or classroom learners (n = 143) in a language programme. Variant analysis was applied to the questionnaire data to determine the relationship between learning strategies and context. The results showed that mode of study (distance vs. traditional) was the principal influence of the relationship between students and autonomy (more so than age, level etc.). Distance learners made greater use of metacognitive strategies than classroom learners, especially relating to self-management. A further analysis was done using verbal reports (n = 37) and the data was classified from the transcripts by the researcher and an independent rater. A total of 836 instances of strategies relating to autonomous work were identified. The average instance of strategy use from distance learners was 26.6 whilst a traditional student was 10.2. Instances of using metacognitive strategies in classroom learners was on average four, whilst distance learners reported an average of 15. The results suggested distance learners used more metacognitive strategies than classroom learners [65]. Critically, the numbers in the two groups were uneven and the development of the questions was not well described. However, the dual nature of the study, independent raters, transparency of inter-rater reliability and clear analysis suggested rigour. This study suggested that learners either approach DL with, or develop very quickly, metacognitive and

In a later study, metacognitive knowledge was investigated and experiences in distance education [66]. Thirty one students were interviewed focusing on a model of metacognitive knowledge comprising self, task, strategy and goals. Content analysis was used to identify categories of metacognitive experiences. There was an average of 19.7 instances of metacognitive knowledge per student and in descending order, the four dimensions of metacognition were: self-knowledge, strategy knowledge, task knowledge and knowledge of goals. Each student was able to recount at least one instance of a metacognitive experience. Conclusions included: students appeared to have experienced some, often extremely memorable, metacognitive experiences and metacognitive knowledge of distance students appeared to be primarily about self and strategy and less about tasks and goals. However, these dimensions were highly interactive and not distinct. The quantification of a complex concept such as metacognition, and the suggestion that students can identify a 'metacognitive experience' suggested a positivist approach to a subject containing multiple realties. However, the author attempted rigour in that the methods were clearly explained, two raters were used, and transcripts were revisited for further analysis with discussion to resolve differences. Overall, the metacognitive aspect of autonomy seemed to be occurring and seemed to be important in these student's DL experiences [66]. Knowledge about oneself and strategies were more important for successful learning than knowledge about tasks and goals. This perhaps, suggested that self-monitoring is one of the keys to

Another study investigated how DL students conceptualised the three elements in TDT: structure, dialogue and autonomy [67]. Using a pre-tested and piloted questionnaire, 169 distance education students (72% response rate) were surveyed. Learner autonomy was measured by students indicating which of 11 statements described themselves (i.e. able to learn without lots of guidance, able to develop a personal plan, able to find resources, self-directed, prefer learning in a group, need collaborative learning). The results were analysed using factor analysis and suggested a two-factor solution: independence and interdependence. Independence accounted for 29% of the total variance with a Cronbach's alpha of 0.82. Interdependence (interpersonal, interactive aspects) accounted for 26% of total variance with a Cronbach's alpha of 0.77. The results suggested that the concepts of dialogue, structure and autonomy were complex and that students tended to

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81357*

self-management skills.

autonomy in DL.

#### *Transactional Distance Theory: A Critical View of the Theoretical and Pedagogical… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81357*

context of distance learners (n = 274) or classroom learners (n = 143) in a language programme. Variant analysis was applied to the questionnaire data to determine the relationship between learning strategies and context. The results showed that mode of study (distance vs. traditional) was the principal influence of the relationship between students and autonomy (more so than age, level etc.). Distance learners made greater use of metacognitive strategies than classroom learners, especially relating to self-management. A further analysis was done using verbal reports (n = 37) and the data was classified from the transcripts by the researcher and an independent rater. A total of 836 instances of strategies relating to autonomous work were identified. The average instance of strategy use from distance learners was 26.6 whilst a traditional student was 10.2. Instances of using metacognitive strategies in classroom learners was on average four, whilst distance learners reported an average of 15. The results suggested distance learners used more metacognitive strategies than classroom learners [65]. Critically, the numbers in the two groups were uneven and the development of the questions was not well described. However, the dual nature of the study, independent raters, transparency of inter-rater reliability and clear analysis suggested rigour. This study suggested that learners either approach DL with, or develop very quickly, metacognitive and self-management skills.

In a later study, metacognitive knowledge was investigated and experiences in distance education [66]. Thirty one students were interviewed focusing on a model of metacognitive knowledge comprising self, task, strategy and goals. Content analysis was used to identify categories of metacognitive experiences. There was an average of 19.7 instances of metacognitive knowledge per student and in descending order, the four dimensions of metacognition were: self-knowledge, strategy knowledge, task knowledge and knowledge of goals. Each student was able to recount at least one instance of a metacognitive experience. Conclusions included: students appeared to have experienced some, often extremely memorable, metacognitive experiences and metacognitive knowledge of distance students appeared to be primarily about self and strategy and less about tasks and goals. However, these dimensions were highly interactive and not distinct. The quantification of a complex concept such as metacognition, and the suggestion that students can identify a 'metacognitive experience' suggested a positivist approach to a subject containing multiple realties. However, the author attempted rigour in that the methods were clearly explained, two raters were used, and transcripts were revisited for further analysis with discussion to resolve differences. Overall, the metacognitive aspect of autonomy seemed to be occurring and seemed to be important in these student's DL experiences [66]. Knowledge about oneself and strategies were more important for successful learning than knowledge about tasks and goals. This perhaps, suggested that self-monitoring is one of the keys to autonomy in DL.

Another study investigated how DL students conceptualised the three elements in TDT: structure, dialogue and autonomy [67]. Using a pre-tested and piloted questionnaire, 169 distance education students (72% response rate) were surveyed. Learner autonomy was measured by students indicating which of 11 statements described themselves (i.e. able to learn without lots of guidance, able to develop a personal plan, able to find resources, self-directed, prefer learning in a group, need collaborative learning). The results were analysed using factor analysis and suggested a two-factor solution: independence and interdependence. Independence accounted for 29% of the total variance with a Cronbach's alpha of 0.82. Interdependence (interpersonal, interactive aspects) accounted for 26% of total variance with a Cronbach's alpha of 0.77. The results suggested that the concepts of dialogue, structure and autonomy were complex and that students tended to

*Interactive Multimedia - Multimedia Production and Digital Storytelling*

and immediacy impacted on student satisfaction.

discussion for it to be adopted successfully.

learning [16, 39, 47–53].

sion of information.

education.

**4.1 Introduction**

**4.2 Results**

**4. Student experience: autonomy**

• Literature overwhelmingly suggested that learner-instructor and learner-

• Online 'community' or collaboration was an important variable in online classes. Without this online discourse online courses became a mere transmis-

• Several frameworks for designing and analysing interaction in DL were found all aimed at student's progression into higher levels of thinking [54–57].

• E-moderators took on multiple roles: they moderated or facilitated discussion, answered emails and managed the flow of content or responses. Their presence

• Students required usefulness, value or relevance in online interaction or

• The roles that interaction and dialogue play in DL is not well understood Moore (1973) warned this area should not be underestimated and argued no other area of study will have a greater impact on the future of distance

A hallmark of DL has been its reliance on learner autonomy [63] which was the

Literature addressing autonomy in DL, unlike structure or dialogue which was relatively straightforward, was complex and multi-faceted [1]. Major reviews were found discussing autonomy in learning [64] and specifically autonomy in DL [4, 10]. In a review of autonomy and learning, literature was investigated over the last two decades, describing various definitions, and highlighting inconsistencies in the literature [64]. The review was divided into topics; however, there was no explanation as to search criteria or strategies. Autonomy was defined in terms of a redistribution of power concerning the construction of knowledge and the roles of participants. Although, DL was not addressed explicitly, the paper claimed autonomy was '…*a departure from education as a social process'* (p. 116). Over 2000 pieces of literature concerning autonomy were reviewed [4]. This visionary work (preinternet!) explained '*The autonomous learner is not to be thought of as an intellectual* 

third hypothesised element of TDT [8] and the focus of this section.

*Robinson Crusoe, castaway and shut-off in self sufficiency'* ([4], p. 669).

In a later review, research on autonomous learning was reviewed [7] and further, explained that there were two dimensions of autonomy in DL: selfmanagement of pedagogy and self-monitoring of cognition, or metacognition. Both cognitive autonomy and taking responsibility for one's learning were essential. Focusing on the meta-cognitive aspects of learner autonomy, strategies were compared in classroom vs. DL [65]. Using questionnaires followed by verbal reports, the relationship was explored between autonomy and the instructional

learner interaction was important to student satisfaction and the facilitation of

**74**

describe themselves as both independent and interdependent. The lack of correlation also suggested these features of autonomy were essential, but separate and distinct attributes. Although the attempt to quantify with statistical analysis something as complex as autonomy was fundamentally flawed, this study provided a particularly interesting idea: an individual's autonomy as a distance learner should be understood as including their abilities to work with others, or be interdependent. Autonomy is multi-faceted and interdependence appeared to be essential. These results suggested that there may be an attempt to move beyond the focus of independence in this environment and move towards 'interdependence'. Other) earlier findings support this 'personal control' [68]. It is suggested successful adult learners demonstrated appropriate dependency needs when participating in DL including: help, approval and support, leadership of others and sharing efforts and responsibility.
