**1. Introduction**

An estimated 20% of children have reading difficulties or have not learned to read fluently. This chapter describes a reading, writing and spelling programme based on a series of ebooks, which form part of a fluency-based intervention which is being used in work with children with reading difficulties by therapists, teachers and parents. The ebooks are based on the theories of the Russian neuropsychologist Luria [1–3], who proposed that automaticity is necessary for any acts (including reading, writing and spelling) to become fluent. Fluent acts then form the basis for higher level processing.

Following Luria, the ebooks are designed to be used with a form of oral impress procedure based on paired reading. This is simple to implement and differs from

the type of paired reading procedures documented in the literature, as the method involves additional repetition to develop phonic associations, rapid naming ability and automaticity in reading. The ebooks are set in large print with wide spaces between words to circumvent and provide maximal visual cues and also to prevent crowding, which has emerged in recent literature as a factor affecting reading in dyslexic children. The oral impress procedure also builds in visual tracking to maintain visual attention.

Once observable differences in reading fluency are noted, methods involving use of these materials for repetitive paired reading are combined with phonological referencing methods based on print-to-sound recoding, as the basis for developing fluency in writing and spelling. The results have been promising and indicate that the combined use of methods is effective in developing automaticity in reading, while at the same time building skills in print-to-sound translation, which can then be used both for improving word attack and for developing the working memory skills involved in writing and spelling both individual words, and words in sequence.

Gains in reading, spelling and sequential spelling scores indicate that combining paired reading with the teaching of phonics and with the teaching of phonological referencing leads to optimal results. Repetition is also necessary in implementation to enable the learner to acquire the phonic skills necessary for accurate visual word recognition, as well as the detailed orthographic representations necessary to write and spell individual words, and words in sequence. As these skills develop, this has effects on reading accuracy and rate of reading, as well as accuracy in writing and spelling. Reading comprehension also improves as the child's reading, writing and spelling become more fluent.

## **2. Developing automaticity in reading, writing and spelling**

Luria [1–3] conceptualised higher mental processes as complex reflex activities, responsible for reflecting and working with the outside world. Following Vygotsky [4, 5, 67], Luria suggested that these reflex processes were social in origin, mediate in structure, and volunteer in mode of function ([1], p. 32).

In terms of Luria's conceptualisation of the development of higher mental processes, the development of automaticity in reading would be essential for its use in the hierarchical processing of information by the working brain. Following Luria [1], automaticity would be developed in reading, writing and spelling when there has been sufficient practice to enable these complex functional acts to become fluent enough to form the basis for higher mental processing.

Our fluency-based programme has been developed based on these principles. The processes of reading, writing, spelling and comprehension are conceptualised as linked on a functional level, with basic phonological and phonic skills initially being taught as a foundation for use in the processes of reading, writing, spelling and comprehension [61–63]. The use of repetitive paired reading is then combined with the teaching of phonics to provide the basis for developing reading fluency. Once observable difference in reading fluency is noted, the child is taught how to phonologically reference from print to sound to provide a metacognitive basis for developing fluency in writing and spelling.

In each case where this type of linked intervention across different areas and components has taken place, there has been steady and even progress. There has also been evidence of a backwash effect from application of the methods used in teaching phonological referencing skills into proficiency in one word reading ability as well as fluency in reading sequentially, as well as reciprocal effects from use of reading fluency methods into competencies in writing and spelling. The indications

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*Training Reading, Writing and Spelling Fluency: Centre-Periphery Dissemination…*

the fluency-based intervention programme described in this chapter.

basis for developing reading fluency in our own programme.

ners in the process of teaching children to read fluently.

for correcting the errors made by children are also defined.

**4. Our reading fluency programme**

printed in a way that aims to avoid clutter [19–21].

the child hears and the words read by both adult and child.

would thus be that there is commonality of influence across the different areas of

One of the most successful methods for developing automaticity in reading has been what is called 'paired reading', which is based on the methods pioneered by Heckelman [6, 7] in the 1960s and the information processing model proposed by Laberge and Samuels [8, 9] in the 1970s. Based on positive results, paired reading has been widely used for developing reading ability (e.g. [10–17]) and forms the

The literature on paired reading reflects some differences in preferred methodology [18], as well as some differences between recommendations concerning the type of materials felt to be most appropriate for use in the process. Overall, however, there is consensus concerning the value of paired reading, with all of the studies indicating the potential of including parents as well as peer tutors as part-

Difficulty level of materials is an important variable to consider in developing paired reading programmes, but here there is a lack of consensus. Certain authorities suggest the value of fun reading materials, others the value of instructional level reading materials and others the value of reading material chosen to be at or near

What is clear from the literature, however, is that the quality of scaffolding and

These principles have informed the development of our materials and methods

Our programme for developing reading fluency involves use of a paired reading method called the 3 × 3 oral impress method, which involves the reading of paragraphs repetitively. The method is designed to be used with a series of phonically based, large-print books. The books are graded and are written in a way that builds repetition into the words used, as well as phrases used in sentences. They are also

Our materials thus aim to present the letters and letter strings associated with particular sounds and to present these visually in an uncluttered format. The 3 × 3 oral impress method is used to ensure that large-print phonically based material is presented to the child repeatedly. Repetitive oral reading is used to develop the association between the visual configuration of the letters within phonically regular words and their sounds as used in the written language the child sees, the spoken language

Luria [1–3] suggests that cerebral organisation would be enhanced by this type of repetitive process, and this was also Heckelman's view when he pioneered the use of paired reading as a procedure. Heckelman [6, 7] reported that 24 students

for developing reading fluency, which are described in the section following.

support in paired reading is important, especially where difficult materials are chosen for use in paired reading programmes. How reading errors are corrected would appear to be less important, as the literature suggests that a wide variety of strategies have been used for doing so, particularly by teachers. It would, however, be important that the procedures used in paired reading are clear enough to be consistently used by parents, tutors and teachers, and that recommended procedures

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82812*

**3. Paired reading**

frustration level [18].

would thus be that there is commonality of influence across the different areas of the fluency-based intervention programme described in this chapter.
