**4.1 Key challenges**

*Lagoon Environments around the World - A Scientific Perspective*

Technological advances in RAS and data processing algorithms enable more comprehensive data sets to be produced that facilitate more informed management decisions. The increased quality and quantity of data collected provides a robust foundation for the use of more advanced statistical methods than the estimation of

*Image depicting the structure-from-motion methodology developed by Palma et al. [36] to sample corals without the need for destructive sampling. Overall view of the sampled area within the marine protected area of Portofino (Punta del Faro, Italy); (a) detailed view of a scanned coral branch and the automated estimation of its surface area; (b) sequence of images showing the implementation of the estimation of the surface area of corals on-site using SfM methods: (b1) point cloud generation, (b2) delineation of outmost boundary and (b3)* 

measures of central tendency and dispersion.

*estimation of the coral surface area via a small set of polygons.*

**152**

**Figure 7.**

Remote sensing approaches including the use of satellites, UAVs, remotecontrolled boats and underwater vehicles provide the potential for significant advances in the understanding of the environmental characteristics and functioning of lagoons. They can facilitate a better understanding of the temporal and spatial variation of environmental quality parameters, of habitat extent and condition, of risks, pressures and resultant responses and of the effectiveness of mitigation measures. They can contribute to coordinating and implementing nature-related policies [2], to the standardization of monitoring programmes ([34]) and to identifying environmental management priorities. They could also be used to better understand climate change impacts.

Recent studies [2] have highlighted the need to increase research and technology development (RTD) to enhance current lagoon management practices. For example, current understanding of the functioning and ecological quality of European lagoons is currently impaired by limited and incomplete data sets [2] such as lack of water quality measurements, gauging records, climate stations or water level stations. Further data weaknesses identified included insufficient water quality data in spatial and temporal dimensions for lagoon model calibration and validation. Based on a total of four case study areas, the work by Stålnacke et al. [2] concluded that effective lagoon management critically depends on high-quality data in geospatial format. Such data can be obtained with the remote sensing RAS solutions described in previous sections. However, there are several challenges to the deployment of remote sensing approaches and their widespread uptake by those responsible for the management and oversight of lagoons. Many of the techniques are still predominately the domain of the research community. There is as yet no purpose driven overarching monitoring and surveillance protocol for lagoons into which the use of remote sensing can be easily positioned. Thought has to be given to the use that will be made of the data that will be collected. For example, is it being collected because it is now possible to collect it or it will inform and improve the management of a lagoon.

Remote sensing approaches clearly have an important role to play in the baseline assessment of a lagoon enabling detailed characterizations of habitats, morphology and quality. They can then be used to determine how these parameters vary within and between years including the impact of climate change. In addition, they can enable a better assessment of the condition of a lagoon, the pressures, responses and effectiveness of interventions, than existing methodologies. Whether such detailed characterizations are needed for all lagoons will be for individual managers and organizations to determine.

There are few agreed protocols for the collection and interpretation of data using these techniques. This can limit their use in demonstrating compliance with legislative requirements. However, if remote sensing techniques do gain greater utilization in terms of routine monitoring including for legislative purposes, then this will significantly increase data transfer and storage capabilities and requirements. These monitoring approaches generate significant quantities of data that will have to be managed—the transfer and storage of this data could be a challenge. Agreed data collection and analysis protocols would facilitate the exchange of information and enable intercountry comparisons to be made.

These technologies produce information that has not routinely been available previously [31, 38], for example, spatial and temporal variations in a range of water quality parameters obtained using on-water platforms with a variety of probes [39]. Such information will enable modeling outputs to be ground-truthed and better management decisions to be made. Although this information will enable a greater understanding of lagoons, it will require expenditure that previously was not required. Business cases will therefore need to be made to justify expenditure on initial characterization studies and then for routine surveillance. Such capital and revenue requirements could form a barrier to entry of these techniques into routine use. It may take a significant time before these techniques have widespread uptake by wildlife trusts, government agencies and regulatory bodies.

Some of the techniques will substantially reduce the cost of data collection and improve the health and safety of those collecting the information such as the use of small boat-mounted ACDP sensors to measure flow. However, for others it was not possible to collect the type of information that can now be gathered such as the spatial distribution of water quality parameters. To collect such information would therefore result in costs that were not previously incurred. Additional funding will therefore be necessary, and the case is made as to why such information is useful and justifies the level of expenditure proposed.

### **4.2 Technology acceptance**

Technological uptake and integration in standard monitoring programmes will depend upon the factors highlighted in previous sections as well as the costeffectiveness of the technology and the acceptance of the results produced by government agencies.

There could be resistance to the use of such systems because of the associated cost or initial capital investment. In addition, some people will resist the introduction of new technologies. Innovation is not always welcomed. There can be a level of conservatism in people working in a science or technical area to new approaches. It is not the way that they were taught to do things, and efficiencies can lead to some people losing their jobs or having to do something else. For example, the use of UAVs may be constrained by concerns that the technology can be used to violate individuals' privacy, their link to war-fare and the risk of collision with aircraft [40, 41]. Technological advances occur very fast within the context of RAS. However, the rate-determining step in their uptake can be the associated business and governance processes.

Technology acceptance and adoption models could be used to determine the key factors that will drive the uptake of remote sensing RAS monitoring solutions [42]. These models consider internal antecedents of behaviour-like attitudes, values and intentions, norms, incentives and institutional constraints to provide an estimate of the likelihood of technology uptake. Further research is required to better understand how the uptake of RAS-based remote sensing technology for lagoon environment monitoring can be facilitated.

#### **4.3 Concluding remarks**

Lagoons have been difficult environmental features to characterize and assess with the typically used monitoring approaches. They are extensive, and their characteristics vary spatially and temporally. Remote sensing approaches and RAS developments therefore provide new opportunities to better understand and assess lagoon environments. They also provide the means of better understanding what management approaches work in practice and assessing the effectiveness of interventions. They can also be used to inform the design of routine monitoring programmes.

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**Author details**

Monica Rivas Casado1

\*, Marco Palma<sup>2</sup>

\*Address all correspondence to: m.rivas-casado@cranfield.ac.uk

2 Università Politecnica delle Marche, Ancona, Italy

1 Cranfield University, Bedfordshire, UK

provided the original work is properly cited.

and Paul Leinster1

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

*Autonomous Systems for the Environmental Characterization of Lagoons*

However, there are real challenges in translating research and development and investigative approaches into repeatable and robust monitoring techniques that can be used on a routine and standardized basis for regulatory and compliance purposes. There will therefore need to be a concerted effort if the clear benefits that the developing remote sensing and RAS technologies provide are to be realized in the management of lagoon environments. The risk of not using such techniques and approaches is that the lagoon environments will continue to suffer environmental

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90405*

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

degradation.

**Conflict of interest**

*Autonomous Systems for the Environmental Characterization of Lagoons DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90405*

However, there are real challenges in translating research and development and investigative approaches into repeatable and robust monitoring techniques that can be used on a routine and standardized basis for regulatory and compliance purposes. There will therefore need to be a concerted effort if the clear benefits that the developing remote sensing and RAS technologies provide are to be realized in the management of lagoon environments. The risk of not using such techniques and approaches is that the lagoon environments will continue to suffer environmental degradation.
