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**Part 2** 

**Review of Etiological Factors** 


**Part 2** 

**Review of Etiological Factors** 

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**4** 

*USA* 

**Acquisition of Active Avoidance Behavior as a** 

**Precursor to Changes in General Arousal** 

*University of Medicine & Dentistry of New Jersey – New Jersey Medical School,* 

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a multi-symptom condition that includes three primary psychological features: reexperiencing, avoidance and emotional numbing, and hyperarousal (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Historically, reexperiencing and hyperarousal have been the most studied features, from a neurobiological perspective, using various animal models. In these animal models, changes in defensive reflexive behaviors serve as the assessment measures for these symptoms; thus, both startle reactivity and freezing are now commonly used measures. Freezing behavior is advantageous because of its easy implementation; either the naked eye or an automated motor-tracking system can determine the duration and/or frequency of freezing behavior. In addition, freezing can occur in response to a specific fear-eliciting stimulus or to a fear-experienced context (Doyle & Yule, 1959; Bouton & Bolles, 1980; Fanselow, 1980). Because of these stimulus-response properties, freezing is the response commonly used to assess the experiencing of memories of conditioned stimuli that previously caused a heightened state of fear. At times, the acoustic startle response is used as an assessment of stimulus-elicited fear reactions (Davis, 1986; Hitchcock & Davis, 1987). Under this guise, similar stimuli used in conditioned freezing are experienced by the animal prior to a quick onset, relatively loud, acoustic stimulus. The result is a startle response that is enhanced over baseline levels, which is

However, in the case of PTSD, arousal is not necessarily tied to a memory or triggered by an explicit learned association. There are several examples of patients with PTSD exhibiting exaggerated startle responses in the absence of a known trigger (Butler et al., 1990; Orr et al., 1995; Yehuda et al., 1998; Orr et al., 2002). In fact, human longitudinal studies have found changes in startle reactivity occur over a period of time following the associated trauma (Shalev et al., 1998). Although there are possible confounding variables with any repeated test, such as developing an aversion to the startle testing context, there is a difference with PTSD patients as they fail to habituate to the startle test over months (Shalev et al., 1998). Increases in startle magnitudes can be elicited in rats in order to model this feature of PTSD by exposing them to inescapable shock. Interestingly, like some of the symptoms of PTSD,

**1. Introduction** 

termed fear-potentiated startle.

**1.1 Increased defensive reactions as a sign of PTSD** 

Thomas M. Ricart, Richard J. Servatius and Kevin D. Beck

 **in an Animal Model of PTSD** 

*Veteran Affairs New Jersey Health Care System,* 
