**6.3 Psychological factors and psychiatric symptoms**

Meyer et al. (1999) indicated that some psychiatric symptoms and disorders are risk factors for PTSD (Meyer, Taiminen, Vuori, Aijälä, Helenius, 1999). For example, certain personality traits, such as neuroticism and introversion, are associated with an increased risk of PTSD (Lewin, Carr, & Webster, 1998; McFarlane, 1988) while some studies indicate that certain psychiatric disorders may be predictive of chronic PTSD (Engdahl, Dikel, Eberly, & Blank, 1998; McFarlane & Papay, 1992). Then again, other studies have examined the long-term course of PTSD. A longitudinal analysis of the mental health of school children after the great Hanshin Awaji earthquakes indicated that some survivors' psychological reactions emerged early and disappeared early (i.e., within two years after the disaster); however, this is contrary to findings from other studies (Shioyama et al., 2000). Lazaratou et al. (2008) have found that greater numbers of PTSD symptoms emerged during the first 6 months after the earthquake and were associated with a greater impact on the victims' lives 50 years after the event. Uemoto et al. (2000) posited that the best predictor of recovery from chronic PTSD was the initial level of post-traumatic reaction immediately after the accident. However, few data are available on the long-term effects caused by a disaster (Chou et al., 2007).

### **6.4 Post-trauma social resource factors**

Inadequate social support after the trauma adds to the risk of developing PTSD (Chou et al., 2004a; Wang et al., 2000). Not surprisingly, higher levels of post-disaster life events are also related to the risk of developing PTSD (Chang, Connor, Lai, Lee, & Davidson, 2005). Similarly, social stressors such as economic or marital issues or a disruption of one's daily life, including relocation, the death of an intimate partner, or other significant loss problems are associated with a greater risk for developing PTSD.
