**10. Management and prevention of oxidative stress**

Sperm DNA of healthy males is protected from osmotic stress by two mechanisms;


Enzymatic and nonenzymatic antioxidant like superoxide dismutase (SOD), Catalase, Vitamin C, Vitamin E and Carotenoids react with ROS and neutralize it, thus prevent the onset of osmatic stress and also preserves the function of sperm [67] (**Table 1**).


**37**

*Insights of Sperm Pathology and Its Association with Infertility*

**11. Correlation between biology of male reproduction and sleep**

with the change in the level of melatonin [68]. In male reproductive system, prolactin hormone secreted by anterior pituitary o has also a key role. Prolactin increases in Leydig cells the utterance of LH receptors at physiological level. The latest leads to increased secretion of testosterone promoting spermatogenesis. The increasing pervasiveness of 24/7 constant distribution of entertainment, disrupts the circadian rhythm and impair the duration and quality of sleep on population level. The schedule of sleep and wake is delayed by the use of electronic devices at night time. More over blue light emitted by LED reduces the secretion of melatonin and thus decreases the prolonged, objective and subjective sleepiness. Sleep restriction disrupts the level of gonadal hormone. The level of testosterone is reduced in 10 volunteer's healthy males in 1 week of restricted sleep. While in another examination of sleep restriction of 4–5 hours in 15 men is also associated with reduction in the level of testosterone. Effect of sleep restriction and resting eye movement deprivation was analyzed by Alvarenga et al. on parameter of sperm and expression of testis specific genes in male rat. Both sleep restriction (SR) and rapid eye move-

ment sleep deprivation (RSD) group has decreased viability of sperm [69].

Inflammation is a complexed process of response to tissue damage and injury. It starts with the aggregation of leukocytes and more plasma molecules to infection site. Several factors may be responsible for inflammation in reproductive tract of male. (i) Blockage of ejaculatory duct (ii) epididymitis that causing pain, swelling in scrotal area, penile leakage and presence of blood in urine (iii) sexual transmitted diseases by several agents like *E. coli* (iv) Urethritis (v) testicular torsion is another pathology affects the fertility in male. It occurs due to abnormality in supportive tissue of testis and causing the testis to pervert inside the scrotum which result in severe swelling and pain [70]. During the process of inflammation, the quality of semen is reduced due to abnormal function of accessory glands, sperm transport hindrance and spermatogenesis dysregulation [71, 72]. Cytokines which are either secreted by activated cells or secreted after receiving stimulus might assist help in normal function of reproductive system [73, 74]. Testicular macrophage is the chief source of cytokine in male but Leydig and Sertoli cells are also depicted to secrete cytokines. Two types of changes are seen due to inflammation in male genitalia; an increase in secretion of seminal fluid leads to redness, local heat and depletion in velocity of seminal flow. Cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1) induce the oxidative damages that impair the quality of semen and have bad impact on fertility of male. Raised level of few cytokines in male semen also disrupts the quality, density and morphology of sperm. The increased level of TNF-α is linked with low sperm count, motility and morphology of sperm. In semen raised level of TNF-α induced apoptosis due to proliferation and differentiation of B-cell, T- cell and NK cells. At the site of inflammation, the blood vessels are dilated permitting the leukocytes in high concentration to migrate out of blood and bind with vascular

The whole process of spermatogenesis is controlled by hypothalamic pituitary gonadal axis. Hypothalamus secretes GnRH that stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete LH and FSH. FSH act on the testicular tissue and LH triggers the secretion of testosterone in the testis by Leydig cells. Maximum level of testosterone secretion occurs during sleep. This nocturnal rise in testosterone secretion appears at the same time with the beginning of resting eye movement sleep and it is not concerned

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90950*

**12. Inflammation and infertility**

### **Table 1.**

*Procedure of action and consequences of different antioxidants.*

*Innovations in Assisted Reproduction Technology*

**10. Management and prevention of oxidative stress**

**Antioxidant Mechanism of action Effect**

Carnitine Acts as energy source and neutralize the free radical.

Cysteines Elevates the concentration of GSH synthesized.

factors.

*Procedure of action and consequences of different antioxidants.*

Pentoxifylline Prevents the breakdown of cAMP and

Sperm DNA of healthy males is protected from osmotic stress by two

1.Tightly packed and coiled DNA so that the genetic material is less exposed to

2.Production of ROS is minimized by natural antioxidant present in seminal

Enzymatic and nonenzymatic antioxidant like superoxide dismutase (SOD), Catalase, Vitamin C, Vitamin E and Carotenoids react with ROS and neutralize it, thus prevent the onset of osmatic stress and also preserves the function of sperm

GSH/GPX Scavenges the free radicals Prevents the lipid peroxidation

Catalase Splits down the H2O2 into H2O and O2. Also arrests the lipid peroxidation. Vitamin C Counteracts free radicals Protects the viability and motility of

Vitamin E Counteracts free radicals Blocks the lipid peroxidation

Carotenoids Suppresses the singlet molecular O2. Blocks the lipid peroxidation.

quench the formation of proinflammatory

Neutralizes the superoxide anions Prevents lipid peroxidation.

and enhance the sperm membrane

and enhance the activity of other

Prevents the damage of DNA and

Inhibits lipid peroxidation.

Inhibits lipid peroxidation.

characteristics.

sperm.

antioxidant.

lipid peroxidation.

High concentration of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) plays a considerable part in maintaining the fluidity of the membrane of spermatozoa. ROS enhances the fluidity of membrane and sperm-oocyte fusion rate, during the process of capacitation and acrosomal reaction. Throughout the entire capacitation process, ROS hinder the protein tyrosine phosphate activity and arrest the dephosphorylation and turnoff the phospholipase A2. PLA2 increases the fluidity of the membrane by cleaving the secondary fatty acid from the triglycerol backbone of membrane

**9.4 Sperm-oocyte fusion**

phospholipid [64, 65].

mechanisms;

ROS [66].

[67] (**Table 1**).

Superoxide dismutase

plasma and spermatozoa.

**36**

**Table 1.**
