**4.3 Hydropower development**

Nepal is rich for water resources comprising 6,000 rivers with 220 billion cum annually run off spreading length of over 45,000 km. [44]. An estimated potential

for hydropower to be around 83,000 MW whereas 4300 MW to be technically feasible [45]. The major river basins in Nepal are Sapta Koshi, Karnali, Sapta Gandaki, Mahakali, and the Southern rivers [46]. In Nepal, with total installed capacity of 1,332,858 KW, 14 major hydropower stations, 17 small hydropower plants, 23 Small Hydropower Plant (isolated), Two Thermal Plants and Solar plants are currently in operation generating 56315KW, 577394KW, 4536KW, 53410 KW, and 1350KW energy respectively. Similarly, eight Hydroelectricity Project (HEP) with installed capacity of 943100KW are under construction and nine with installed capacity of 3219200KW are planned and proposed. Hydropower construction is growing development in Nepal due to rapid increment demand of electricity by about 10% every year (NEA) and projected demand for year 2020/2021 to be around 2,203 MW [47]. The hydropower development considerably cause high impacts on construction phase rather than its operation along with cumulative and long-term impacts can harass to sustain ecosystem and biodiversity. As location of the project, size and type of the project, socioeconomic condition the environmental situation, beneficial and harmful impacts of hydropower are considered manifold [48, 49].

Nepal in progress of installation of renewable source of energy such as mini and micro hydropower, solar energy, biomass energy and biogas targeting access public to provide clean, reliable and affordable renewable energy solutions by 2030. As different Nations agreed in Paris in 2015, limit the global average temperature rise to as close as possible to a maximum 2 °C reducing energy-related CO2 emissions by more than 70% by 2050 which can only be achieved with the massive deployment of renewable forms of energy such as wind, solar and hydro, combined with energy efficiency [50]. NEA is responsible to generate electricity, transmission, and distribution but inadequate planning, policy, regulation and inadequate capacity with poor governance leading to underinvestment and difficulty in sustaining the growth of the Hydropower and Economic Growth in Nepal [51].

To institutionalize hydropower sector, Government of Nepal endorsed Water Resources Act, 1992, Water Resources Regulation, 1993, Electricity Act, 1992, Electricity Regulation, 1993 and Hydropower Development Policy, 1992, Hydropower Development Policy, 2001, Water Resources Strategy, 2002 and National Water Plan, 2005. GoN has also prioritized development of hydropower including contemplation of Environment Protection Act, 2019 and Environment Protection Rules, 2020. The perennial nature of Nepalese rivers and the steep gradient flows from Himalayas and high mountains towards the plain of the Terai has largest hydropower potential for hydroelectric projects in Nepal whereas challenges remaining to protection towards ongoing potential impacts on natural environment. Although, hydropower plants provide cost efficient and environment friendly power supply to improve energy services a displacing imported fossil fuels but most of the hydropower constructing in Mountains, Mid hills and Siwalik regions of the country are great threats to biodiversity and ecosystems of the region. Landslide dam outburst floods (LDOFs) is one of the major challenges for hydropower development in Nepal due to its rugged topography, susceptible to landslides, very high relief, and intense precipitation during the monsoon period. Thus, there is a high need to protect the ecosystem together with the hydropower development by improving resilient hydropower infrastructure through good planning, design and sitting, construction, operation and maintenance, contingency planning, and restoring ecofriendly environment [52]. As per nature, extent, magnitude and duration of all observed adverse environmental issues/impacts on cultural and physical, chemical, biological and socio-economic during construction and operation phases of hydropower projects are highlighted in the **Table 1** below.

The climate change impacts significantly higher to water resources and hydropower sector like rising temperatures retreat glacier that in turn causes greater




#### **Table 1.**

#### *Potential Adverse Impacts of Hydropower.*

variability (and eventual reduction) in streamflow, and glacial lake outburst floods posing significant risk to hydropower facilities, infrastructure and human settlements. The climate induced risks to water resources and hydropower facilities related to flooding, landslides, and sedimentation, intense precipitation events, flow variation in dry season. Resiliency of hydropower assets is essential to face of increased frequency of extreme weather events and rapid changes in hydrological patterns to reduce the risk of climate-related disruptions as hydropower contributes significant reduction of GHG emissions. Hydropower plants prevents the emission of about 3 GT CO2 per year (9% of global emissions) compared with conventional coal power plants [53].

#### **4.4 Roads and transportation**

The majority of the population in Nepal does not have reliable and adequate access on transportation services (**Figure 2**). Thus, the development of physical infrastructure services like roadways, railways, waterways, subways, flyovers and ropeways, transport (Air Transport) and transit management and its operation and implementation are rapidly growing. As per data, about 29031 km of roads (53 percent paved roads) and 1952 bridges in the country are in operation [54].

The availability of road infrastructure as per road density, Nepal stands at 139 km per 1000 km<sup>2</sup> [55], where 60% or more road network are concentrated in the lowland (Terai) areas. However, Nepal's 20% population residing in urban areas but Nepal considered fastest urbanizing country with annual growth rate of 5% on an average since 1970s [56]. The Global Competitiveness Report 2016 ranks, Nepal

#### **Figure 2.** *Temporary Means for Access on Mahakali River, Darchula Nepal.*

130 of 138 in infrastructure [57]. Government of Nepal step-up to capital expenditure in infrastructure, in particular, sectors like water, communication, transportation and electricity from 2009 to 2016 received greater priorities [58].

An immense facility and services provides by the infrastructure development accessing agriculture, market, commerce, industry, and social sectors including education, health, communication, livelihood and quality of life but construction and maintenance works adversely affects natural environment. Nepal's young and fragile geology, poverty, vulnerable communities, construction of infrastructures brings significant impacts to the local and regional environmental settings. The major impacts associated with such developmental activities comprises; slop instability and slope failures, landslides and soil erosion, impacts on national parks, conservation areas and wildlife reserves, national forests and agricultural lands and interference with water courses, loss of terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity, river regime change, extraction of sand/gravel, irrigation facilities, run off and sedimentation, occupational health and safety, land acquisition, damages on cultural properties and effects on the unique life of ethnic and minorities communities.
