**4. Discussion of the obtained results**

Paper [5] contains comparative results of the research of productivity of different working methods. In the present paper, experiments with workpieces made of HA and PSHM are repeated, but attention is focused on the indices of the quality of the worked surfaces, roughness and accuracy of relative position, and also deviations of their values from theoretically possible ones.

To determine components in **Tables 2** and **3**, the values of separate parameters whose averaged values are given in **Table 4** are determined. Comparison of erosion rates determining the rates of deepening of the cutting dimples is given in **Table 5**. In this case only particular results of the research are shown; they are sufficient for hybridization of the process according to principle (10).


The performed research revealed the following. Any initial deviation of the cut shape, especially during performance of discontinuous working processes, distorts the jet, and further working results only in deterioration of the quality of the product, first of all, due to progressive deviation of the cut shape. It concerns all the types of working. So, **Figure 8** demonstrates a defect of DC cutting in the form of deviation from orthogonality of the edge at partially incomplete cutting of PCD layer.

*Material erosion rate at HAC, LC, LCC, and LB depending on the thickness of the plate.*

**Modes Working by HA (**♦**)/PSHM (**■**)**

A peculiar feature of two-layer DC consists in the fact that workability by a certain method changes on the surface obtained at the section, depending on the structure of the material and physical and mechanical properties. A peculiarity of DC consists in the fact that PCD is not practically worked by HAC, while it can be worked by LCC and WJGL. The carbide base is worked by HAC with high

efficiency.

**183**

**Table 5.**

**Type of working**

HAC *pb* = 320 MPa

LC *Р* = 400 W

LCC *P* = 400 W

WJGL *P* = 400 W

*ma* = 0.6 kg/min. *dc* = 0.21 mm *Dk* = 1.05 mm

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87094*

*Cutting Superhard Materials by Jet Methods (on Functional Approach)*

*f* = 100 Hz

*f* = 150 Hz, *pc* = 0.5 MPa *dc* = 2.8 mm

*f* = 150 Hz *pc* = 1.5 MPa *dc* = 1.05 mm

#### **Table 4.**

*Accuracy and roughness of the surfaces of workpieces made from HA and PSHM at different jet working methods.*

### *Cutting Superhard Materials by Jet Methods (on Functional Approach) DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87094*

**Table 5.**

PCD-layer of the thickness up to 1.0 mm and a hard alloy base of the thickness up

*Recent Advancements in the Metallurgical Engineering and Electrodeposition*

The cuts were performed by methods of hydro-abrasive (HAC), laser (LC) cutting, laser cutting with liquid cooling (LCC), and water-jet-guided laser

equipped with a hydro-abrasive head with water nozzle *dc* = 0.22 mm and a

Experiments were carried out with the use of laser blasting complex LSK-400-5,

HAC was performed with abrasive consumption up to 0.5 kg/min and under liquid pressure of 250 МPа. Garnet sand of granularity of 300 meshes was used as

A high-temperature carbon-carbon composite weave composite was also used.

Paper [5] contains comparative results of the research of productivity of different working methods. In the present paper, experiments with workpieces made of HA and PSHM are repeated, but attention is focused on the indices of the quality of

To determine components in **Tables 2** and **3**, the values of separate parameters whose averaged values are given in **Table 4** are determined. Comparison of erosion rates determining the rates of deepening of the cutting dimples is given in **Table 5**. In this case only particular results of the research are shown; they are sufficient for

**Type of working HAC LC LCC WJGL**

HA *Ra*, μm 12.5 6.3 6.3 3.2

PSHM *Ra*, μm — 6.3–3.2 3.2 2.5–3.2

*Accuracy and roughness of the surfaces of workpieces made from HA and PSHM at different jet working*

*h*, mm/cycle 6.4 5.9 3.5 3.0 δ, mm/5.0 mm 0.3–0.9 0.02–0.15 0.02–0.09 0.02–0.04

*h*, mm/cycle <0.01 3.0–3.2 2.4 1.5–1.75 δ, mm/5.0 mm 0.80 0.05–0.10 0.02–0.05

30 mm/min, 400 W, 100 Hz

— 2.80 mm 1.05 mm

30 mm/min, 400 W, 100 Hz, 0.5 MPa

the worked surfaces, roughness and accuracy of relative position, and also

deviations of their values from theoretically possible ones.

hybridization of the process according to principle (10).

0.5 kg/min

Modes of working 100 mm/min, 350 MPa,

**Table 4.**

*methods.*

**182**

During multi-cut laser blasting, the cuts were performed with feed up to 50 mm/min. Impulse Nd:YAG laser with impulse frequency of 75–150 HZ and power of 400 W was used. For realization of the hybrid process, the unit was equipped with a special laser blasting head enabling working with the use of a ring laser nozzle and a mixing chamber to provide hydro-abrasive cutting without disturbance of the position of basic axes of the tools. The beam was focused according to a method providing centering and ingress of all its modes on the focusing lenses of the tube. Optic elements were blown with purified compressed air through a nozzle of ∅ 2.8 mm under excess pressure of 0.05 MPa. During LB the liquid was fed directly into the center of laser focus under the pressure of 25–50 MPa.

to 3.0 mm.

(WJGL).

metering tube *Dk* = 1.05 mm.

**4. Discussion of the obtained results**

abrasive during cutting.

*Material erosion rate at HAC, LC, LCC, and LB depending on the thickness of the plate.*

The performed research revealed the following. Any initial deviation of the cut shape, especially during performance of discontinuous working processes, distorts the jet, and further working results only in deterioration of the quality of the product, first of all, due to progressive deviation of the cut shape. It concerns all the types of working. So, **Figure 8** demonstrates a defect of DC cutting in the form of deviation from orthogonality of the edge at partially incomplete cutting of PCD layer.

A peculiar feature of two-layer DC consists in the fact that workability by a certain method changes on the surface obtained at the section, depending on the structure of the material and physical and mechanical properties. A peculiarity of DC consists in the fact that PCD is not practically worked by HAC, while it can be worked by LCC and WJGL. The carbide base is worked by HAC with high efficiency.

Hence, generation of the surface as an element of the product can be presented in the form of logical multiplication of transformations *W1i*(*tk*) and *W2i*(*tk*) and is described by the expression

$$\mathcal{W}\_p(\mathfrak{t}\_k) = \mathcal{W}\_1^{Fp1}(\mathfrak{t}\_k) \cap \mathcal{W}\_1^{Fv1}(\mathfrak{t}\_k) \cap \mathcal{W}\_1^{Fv2}(\mathfrak{t}\_k) \cap \mathcal{W}\_1^{v1}(\mathfrak{t}\_k) \cdot \mathcal{W}\_1^{Fp1}(\mathfrak{t}\_k) \cap \mathcal{W}\_1^{Fv1}(\mathfrak{t}\_k)$$

Thus, taking into account the condition of provision of initial high-quality formation of a destruction dimple in PCD layer, a hybrid process is to represent a totality of processes of initial WJGL up to the moment of complete cutting of PCD layer and creation of a dimple in WC with further cutting of the plate by HAC (**Figure 9**).

Further research is to be directed to determine rational combinations of hybridization at multi-cut working, at which the number of cuts directly influences the quality of obtained surfaces, and also to the condition of adhesion surfaces in multilayer products.

Comparison of the diagrams of cutting rates of DC and PSHM demonstrates (**Figure 10**) that productivity of the process is determined by obtaining scribe in the superhard layer. HAC cutting of hard alloy base is practically performed in an identical way.

Let the acquisition of an array of properties of a finished product (a sample of a carbon-carbon composite) in the form of sets Fi (l, b, h, r, δ ...) be possible by the implementation of a certain set of technological influences Mj, inherent in one or another method of processing. Each technological effect can be represented as a

set of sets of properties of the tool Tj, the dynamic properties of the processing system Wj, the method of power influence Pj, for which (Tj, Wj, Pj) ∈ Mj, which

*Change in the width of the destruction zone depending on the time of the interaction of the cutting surface with*

*Fi l*ð Þ¼ *; b; h;r; δ*… *М<sup>j</sup>* � *Si:*

Based on the provisions reflected in the work [8], we can record the condition

*Fi l*ð Þ¼ *; b; h;r; δ*… *Tj* � *Si* ∩ *Wj* � *Si* ∩ *Pj,*

which gives a set of variants of processing conversions, the best of which can be

Since this material is resistant to temperature effects, the only way to treat it is

Take into account the following processing methods: R1, milling; R2, processing with abrasive disc; R3, processing by the renovator (reciprocating motion); R4, drilling; and R5, hydro-abrasive cutting. For these methods, the maximum stresses and diagrams of stress distribution at the intersection of the cut in the workpieces

The cutting modes, as well as the parameters of the applied tool, directly determine not only the processing performance but also the thickness of the destruction of the surface layer, which must be taken into account when processing samples for

On the other hand, in the process of processing, there is wear of the tool: the change of angles on the cutting edge and curing abrasive grains. All this leads to the fact that even in stable cutting modes, the parameters of the surface layer are changed. The change in the width of the destruction zone (**Figure 10**) measured on the natural samples (shown as separate points in the diagram) shows the following. The "hardness" of the hydro-abrasive jet leads to the fact that the power circuit of the interaction is constantly changing and, consequently, the components are increasing, that is, the flow will then simply blur the machined sample, which requires

minimization of the time of finding the jet in a stationary state.

gives the opportunity to perform with the properties of Si, output quality

*Cutting Superhard Materials by Jet Methods (on Functional Approach)*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87094*

parameters to be presented as:

**Figure 10.**

*the tool.*

for providing output processing parameters as

selected according to a certain criterion.

mechanical abrasive cutting.

are determined.

mechanical tests.

**185**

#### **Figure 8.**

*PCD layer after WJGL (а) and a plane of adhesion of PCD with WC (b).*

**Figure 9.** *Making a cut in PCD and PSHM workpieces.*

*Cutting Superhard Materials by Jet Methods (on Functional Approach) DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87094*

#### **Figure 10.**

Hence, generation of the surface as an element of the product can be presented in the form of logical multiplication of transformations *W1i*(*tk*) and *W2i*(*tk*) and is

Thus, taking into account the condition of provision of initial high-quality formation of a destruction dimple in PCD layer, a hybrid process is to represent a totality of processes of initial WJGL up to the moment of complete cutting of PCD layer and creation of a dimple in WC with further cutting of the plate by HAC

Further research is to be directed to determine rational combinations of hybridization at multi-cut working, at which the number of cuts directly influences the quality of obtained surfaces, and also to the condition of adhesion surfaces in

Comparison of the diagrams of cutting rates of DC and PSHM demonstrates (**Figure 10**) that productivity of the process is determined by obtaining scribe in the superhard layer. HAC cutting of hard alloy base is practically performed in an

Let the acquisition of an array of properties of a finished product (a sample of a carbon-carbon composite) in the form of sets Fi (l, b, h, r, δ ...) be possible by the implementation of a certain set of technological influences Mj, inherent in one or another method of processing. Each technological effect can be represented as a

*Fv2*ð Þ *tk* <sup>∩</sup>*W1*

*n1*ð Þ� *tk W1*

*Fp1*ð Þ *tk* <sup>∩</sup>*W1*

*Fv1*ð Þ *tk*

*Fv1*ð Þ *tk* <sup>∩</sup>*W1*

*Recent Advancements in the Metallurgical Engineering and Electrodeposition*

described by the expression

*Fp1*ð Þ *tk* <sup>∩</sup>*W1*

*PCD layer after WJGL (а) and a plane of adhesion of PCD with WC (b).*

*Wр*ð Þ¼ *tk W1*

multilayer products.

identical way.

**Figure 8.**

**Figure 9.**

**184**

*Making a cut in PCD and PSHM workpieces.*

(**Figure 9**).

*Change in the width of the destruction zone depending on the time of the interaction of the cutting surface with the tool.*

set of sets of properties of the tool Tj, the dynamic properties of the processing system Wj, the method of power influence Pj, for which (Tj, Wj, Pj) ∈ Mj, which gives the opportunity to perform with the properties of Si, output quality parameters to be presented as:

$$\text{Fi } (l, b, h, r, \delta..) = \mathcal{M}\_{\hat{f}} \cdot \mathbb{S}\_i.$$

Based on the provisions reflected in the work [8], we can record the condition for providing output processing parameters as

$$\operatorname{Fi}\left(l,b,h,r,\delta\ldots\right) = T\_{\dot{f}} \cdot \mathbb{S}\_{i} \cap \mathcal{W}\_{\dot{f}} \cdot \mathbb{S}\_{i} \cap P\_{\dot{f}^{\*}}$$

which gives a set of variants of processing conversions, the best of which can be selected according to a certain criterion.

Since this material is resistant to temperature effects, the only way to treat it is mechanical abrasive cutting.

Take into account the following processing methods: R1, milling; R2, processing with abrasive disc; R3, processing by the renovator (reciprocating motion); R4, drilling; and R5, hydro-abrasive cutting. For these methods, the maximum stresses and diagrams of stress distribution at the intersection of the cut in the workpieces are determined.

The cutting modes, as well as the parameters of the applied tool, directly determine not only the processing performance but also the thickness of the destruction of the surface layer, which must be taken into account when processing samples for mechanical tests.

On the other hand, in the process of processing, there is wear of the tool: the change of angles on the cutting edge and curing abrasive grains. All this leads to the fact that even in stable cutting modes, the parameters of the surface layer are changed.

The change in the width of the destruction zone (**Figure 10**) measured on the natural samples (shown as separate points in the diagram) shows the following. The "hardness" of the hydro-abrasive jet leads to the fact that the power circuit of the interaction is constantly changing and, consequently, the components are increasing, that is, the flow will then simply blur the machined sample, which requires minimization of the time of finding the jet in a stationary state.

**Figure 11.** *Emerging stresses under different processing methods and their effect on the width of the destruction zone.*

When processing materials with diamond disks or saw blades, there is no significant change in the width of the destructive zone.

We also propose rather simple regressive dependences of the width of the destruction on the function of maximum stresses in the cutting area *δ* = *f*(*σmax*):

$$\begin{aligned} \delta\_1 &= 0.55 \exp^{0.1 \sigma\_{\text{max}}}; \\ \delta\_2 &= 0.74 \exp^{0.08 \sigma\_{\text{max}}}, \end{aligned} \tag{16}$$

the treated material, as well as the manifestation of quasi-cleaved properties of

of the thickness of the destructive layer at >2% of the measurement basis.

In this case, the main condition for obtaining the desired result is the restriction

The application of the proposed approach allows for the task of obtaining a sample *a b h* from a cubic blank in A B L sizes, to offer the following possible technological operations: R2-R1; R2-R5; and R2-R4-R5. When optimizing the process by the criterion of minimizing the processing time for a given level of quality, a variant of the functionally oriented process (R2)-(R4)-(R5) is obtained,

Such a sequence of operations allows us to make full use of all the benefits of hydro-abrasive cutting (a significant reduction in the processing time) and to avoid

Application of the functional approach makes it possible to reveal rational succession of TP steps, find optimal conditions and points of occurrence of harmful functions, eliminate them (or invert), and also determine the possibility of hybridization of the process. Such an approach can be used in working of composite

The performed research with the use of HAC, LC, LCC, and WJGL has enabled studying of the intensity of destruction area introduction into the worked piece and finding out the functional features of a particular process that are caused by the working conditions. It has been shown that the hypothesis of quasistationary rate of destruction is unacceptable for such materials, which is caused by the structure and high hardness of the material. It has also been determined that when deepening increases, the rate of jet introduction has a pronounced tendency toward reduction. A peculiar feature of cutting two-layer composites including a PCD layer based on HA has been analyzed, and it has been shown that the use of functional approach principles makes it possible to propose a hybrid process and corresponding hybrid tool (combining WJGL and HAC), enabling efficient and productive cutting of such plates. Besides, conditions for essential improvement of working process efficiency

To improve the considered approach, it is necessary to orientate further research to optimization of working conditions and search for ways of improvement of cut

*Intensity of scribe development (а) in workpieces from PCD (*♦*) and PSHM (*■*) (linear feed rate, 35 mm/*

carbon reinforcing fibers.

**5. Conclusions**

**Figure 13.**

**187**

the scheme of which is shown in **Figure 12**.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87094*

workpieces from laminated superhard materials.

have been demonstrated (**Figures 13** and **14**).

*min; impulse passing frequency, 75 Hz) and a cut product (b).*

material destruction at the time of the breakdown by the jet.

*Cutting Superhard Materials by Jet Methods (on Functional Approach)*

where *δ*<sup>1</sup> is the destruction of carbon-carbon material and *δ*<sup>1</sup> is the destruction of the carbon polymer, which made it possible to construct and compare diagrams of the development of the width of the destructive zone (**Figure 11**) of the processing of carbon composites, which are formed by various methods.

Thus, we have shown that obtaining qualitative samples of a complex configuration is associated with some complexities due to the heterogeneous structure of

**Figure 12.** *Sequence of sample preparation from carbon fiber blanket as the result of cutting.*

*Cutting Superhard Materials by Jet Methods (on Functional Approach) DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87094*

the treated material, as well as the manifestation of quasi-cleaved properties of carbon reinforcing fibers.

In this case, the main condition for obtaining the desired result is the restriction of the thickness of the destructive layer at >2% of the measurement basis.

The application of the proposed approach allows for the task of obtaining a sample *a b h* from a cubic blank in A B L sizes, to offer the following possible technological operations: R2-R1; R2-R5; and R2-R4-R5. When optimizing the process by the criterion of minimizing the processing time for a given level of quality, a variant of the functionally oriented process (R2)-(R4)-(R5) is obtained, the scheme of which is shown in **Figure 12**.

Such a sequence of operations allows us to make full use of all the benefits of hydro-abrasive cutting (a significant reduction in the processing time) and to avoid material destruction at the time of the breakdown by the jet.

### **5. Conclusions**

When processing materials with diamond disks or saw blades, there is no sig-

We also propose rather simple regressive dependences of the width of the destruction on the function of maximum stresses in the cutting area *δ* = *f*(*σmax*):

*Emerging stresses under different processing methods and their effect on the width of the destruction zone.*

*Recent Advancements in the Metallurgical Engineering and Electrodeposition*

*<sup>δ</sup>*<sup>1</sup> <sup>¼</sup> <sup>0</sup>*:*55 exp <sup>0</sup>*:*1*σ*max *;*

where *δ*<sup>1</sup> is the destruction of carbon-carbon material and *δ*<sup>1</sup> is the destruction of the carbon polymer, which made it possible to construct and compare diagrams of the development of the width of the destructive zone (**Figure 11**) of the processing

Thus, we have shown that obtaining qualitative samples of a complex configuration is associated with some complexities due to the heterogeneous structure of

*<sup>δ</sup>*<sup>2</sup> <sup>¼</sup> <sup>0</sup>*:*74 exp <sup>0</sup>*:*08*σ*max *,* (16)

nificant change in the width of the destructive zone.

**Figure 11.**

**Figure 12.**

**186**

of carbon composites, which are formed by various methods.

*Sequence of sample preparation from carbon fiber blanket as the result of cutting.*

Application of the functional approach makes it possible to reveal rational succession of TP steps, find optimal conditions and points of occurrence of harmful functions, eliminate them (or invert), and also determine the possibility of hybridization of the process. Such an approach can be used in working of composite workpieces from laminated superhard materials.

The performed research with the use of HAC, LC, LCC, and WJGL has enabled studying of the intensity of destruction area introduction into the worked piece and finding out the functional features of a particular process that are caused by the working conditions. It has been shown that the hypothesis of quasistationary rate of destruction is unacceptable for such materials, which is caused by the structure and high hardness of the material. It has also been determined that when deepening increases, the rate of jet introduction has a pronounced tendency toward reduction.

A peculiar feature of cutting two-layer composites including a PCD layer based on HA has been analyzed, and it has been shown that the use of functional approach principles makes it possible to propose a hybrid process and corresponding hybrid tool (combining WJGL and HAC), enabling efficient and productive cutting of such plates. Besides, conditions for essential improvement of working process efficiency have been demonstrated (**Figures 13** and **14**).

To improve the considered approach, it is necessary to orientate further research to optimization of working conditions and search for ways of improvement of cut

**Figure 13.**

*Intensity of scribe development (а) in workpieces from PCD (*♦*) and PSHM (*■*) (linear feed rate, 35 mm/ min; impulse passing frequency, 75 Hz) and a cut product (b).*

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**Figure 14.** *The result of cutting carbon-carbon composites.*

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