**2.2 Climate change adaptation models**

Adaptation modeling field is wide, varied and is punctuated with largely unclear disciplinary/field boundaries [35]. The definition of what are its constituents is

*Natural Hazards - Impacts, Adjustments and Resilience*

to climate change adversities [7].

levels and scales of governance.

**2. Literature review**

interacting with them, has also increased in recent years [3].

mitigation, as well-as understanding of the complex relationships with ecosystems

While anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions, which aggravates climate change are mainly from rich industrialized countries, the consequences of which are projected to be relatively acute and more serious in developing countries particularly in semi-arid region of Africa, where, for instance, rise in temperature and reduction in precipitation are likely to result in high evaporation, with serious health related consequences [4, 5]. South Africa like many developing countries' national economies and employment heavily rely on climate-fed activities [6], coupled with high poverty levels, limited technological and weak institutional ability to adapt to climate change qualifies for classical case in which urban populations (children, elderly, persons with disabilities and women) are more susceptible

Nonetheless, climate change adaptation strategies and projects on one hand, still focus mainly on sustainable rural adaptation, without much attention on urban areas, especially small and medium towns, where there is increasing household vulnerability and climate change pressures [8]. Current literature on adaptation to climate change in urban areas are largely coastal and big city biased [9–11]. On the other hand the early years of international climate change studies' attention on adaptation as a strategy was compromised by mitigation and impacts [12]. In recent years, several models incorporate mitigation, as an anthropogenic intervention to the changing climate [3] and has rapidly escalated, while models that incorporate adaptation are still in their various stages of development, advancement and yet to reach maturity [13]. Inherently, it has become urgent to focus on approaches and instruments that assist with the reduction and reversal of the prevailing and unescapable climate change hazards, coupled with the need to maximize the immediate manifestation of the net benefits of adaptation [14]. As an essential policy response, local level and individual (including private) households' adaptation strategies to climate change needs to be apportioned the desired priority in climate change policy agendas at all

This chapter aims through a holistic approach, to provide the highlights of the South African governments at several levels and scales of governance to advance adaption and mitigation urban household practices and interventions. This analysis and discussion is conducted within the global context of existing adaptation framework that incorporate the local level and individual households' (private) adaptive practices, efforts and initiatives. Furthermore, the chapter also identifies some of the key issues hindering the success of urban adaptation policies and interventions in the region. In brief, the chapter places in perspective, the basic steps necessary for a more participatory urban management for sustainable households' adaptation to climate-

related hazards in the semi-arid region of Mopani, South Africa.

**2.1 Adaptation, a fundamental component of climate change vulnerability**

The new climate is no longer a doubtful global reality, but a phenomenon that we need to learn to live with for years to come [11]. Its disposition to leaving no facet of human endeavor immune from its negative externalities are unpredictable and presents very worrisome realities for the contemporary society and urban communities [15] largely manifesting beyond alterations in temperature and precipitation threatening the existence of humanity, particularly in Africa, and other developing

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countries [3, 16].

### *Natural Hazards - Impacts, Adjustments and Resilience*

equally open to numerous interpretations, with tagging of several models as adaptation models added another confusing layer to the identity and boundaries controversies [36]. In several contexts of science, models are considered very essential and key in different fields, disciplines and specialties. For instance, Evolutionary models are very important in the biological sciences disciplines while the agent-based models are a dominant feature in the social sciences [37]. Models are painstakingly built, tested, compared and revised in light of practice and feed-back loop for future lessons [36].

On a general note a classification of models on climate change adaptation was further made in line with the existing ones by [36] who identified two distinct typologies or categories of adaptation models, these include:

a.Adaptation Centered Models (ACMs); and

b.Impact Centered Models (ICMs);

Over time, advancement in understanding the consequences of climate change and policy interpretations and the associated challenges has occasioned a shift in global priority in climate change policy [37–40]. At the onset, an undeviating cause–effect style prevailed, then climate situations forms the foundation upon which future climate impacts is estimated, which then outlines the needs for adaptation. With this linear concept, on one hand, adaptation to climate change is divorced from social activities and processes where needs are informed by scientific manipulations [41, 42] on one hand. On the other hand, a more comprehensive approach where the risk assessment is guided by management of past climatic hazards experience, and adaptation recommendation are determined by the option's probability to reduce the prevailing and future climate risks while synergizing with other policy objectives, and existing management activity [43]. The later concept is currently in vogue and has enjoyed patronage from researchers, academics and policy makers, informed by its openness and comprehensiveness. Upon the determination and assessment of the needs, the choice of the form of adaptation will be made from the following identified three adaptation options:


These options are not new, but the policies in various forms of decision models about them in Mopani District like other municipalities is currently characterized by limited attention and priorities [44]. Thus, making the success of the municipal adaptation efforts to appear unsuccessful.

However, a probe into the available literature and survey analysis with respect to climate change adaptation and the various adopted models in the study area, revealed some essential issues. These are policy related issues; Climate change issue; and adaptation issues. These issues form the fundamentals upon which the following identified gaps are considered critical in the existing models. These include:

### *2.2.1 Gaps regarding climate change adaptation models*

With respect to climate change adaptation and the various adopted models, survey revealed some essential issues related to policy; Climate change issue; and

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projected.

program and projects interventions.

*Households' Adaptation to Climate Change Hazards in Semi-Arid Region of Mopani, South…*

adaptation issues. These issues form the fundamentals upon which the following identified gaps are considered critical in the existing models. These include:

Our findings revealed that many models on climate change adaptation, apart from being highly mathematical in nature, are based on methodological ideas that originate from the advanced economies [45], limiting their applicability in local African communities' context. This is because the assumptions upon which the models are largely based are alien to the prevailing realities in the region particularly in Semi-arid region of Mopani District in South Africa. In addition, several of these models are largely rural biased [46], or centered on metropolitan, big and coastal cities [47]. Similarly, some are rather infrastructure or sector-specific adaptation framework such as water, transport agriculture and energy sectors [48–52], while rather than local community based adaptation models, other models have focused on macro level postulations [53]. Hence the need for a flexible householdbased conceptual framework model that is participatory and applicable at all levels

Several studies have advocated for household-based climate change adaptation strategy to be anchored by municipal planning agency [54–56]. The study acknowledges that most local municipalities in the district are still relying on macro level climate change adaptation formulated policies from the national government. Despite that the impacts of climate change on both human and environment are well acknowledged in the various municipalities' planning instruments (Integrated Development Plans, Spatial Development Framework etc.), yet, little evidence exist to indicate the efforts to pragmatically and coherently address the

During data collection, our interactions with the community members, revealed that municipal governments were rather relying on reactive adaptation procedure rather than proactive. The delay in reporting of incidence of hazards have resulted in more costly, more devastating and sometimes unrepairable situations. Due to the devastating consequences often occasioned by late reporting of climate change emergencies, the climate change adaptation challenges are complex, dynamic and

For adaptation to be beneficial and cost effective, it should not be solely reactionary but rather proactive and anticipatory [57]. Changing climate is no longer in doubt so also is the likelihood of the trend to proceed to the coming century at an unprecedented rate in history, as projected [20, 58] with strong signals to a rising hazards for regions of such countries that are already water-stressed, like Mopani District, Limpopo province [5, 59] and other semi-arid regions of Africa are also

Hence for effective communities adaptation, government at all levels have pivotal roles to play, particularly within the global context of adaptation framework as guided by the current regime. On this basis the chapter highlights the various steps taken by the South African governments (National, Provincial, District and Local Municipalities) with regard to adaptation needs of the citizens, through policies,

*2.2.1.1 Gaps in relations to the current climate change adaptation models*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94759*

of policy and decision making.

*2.2.1.2 Gaps related to policies*

*2.2.1.3 Gaps related to reporting climate change events*

contextual, thereby requiring urgent attention by stakeholders.

challenges [44].

*Households' Adaptation to Climate Change Hazards in Semi-Arid Region of Mopani, South… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94759*

adaptation issues. These issues form the fundamentals upon which the following identified gaps are considered critical in the existing models. These include:
