2. The importance of optimal functioning

Positive psychology explores the proactivity of human behavior. This theoretical orientation is nondeficit and suggests that the study of achievable human endeavors is a main priority for consideration [1, 4]. Negative and deficit models of human behavior (e.g., behaviorism) tend to focus on maladaptive functioning (e.g., school disengagement: [5]), pessimism, and preventive measures for rectification purposes. This approach to the study of human behavior is outdated, perhaps, as very little is made to understand about human strengths and the facilitation of self-fulfillment of inner needs.

Positive psychology, credited to Seligman, Csíkszentmihályi, Diener, Maslow, and others is a 'branch' of psychology that focuses on inner strengths, resilience, virtues, and personal flourishing. This theoretical orientation places emphasis on the 'positives' and the selfgratification and self-fulfillment of a person's inner needs [1, 2]. Rather than focusing on weaknesses, shortcomings, and preventive measures, positive psychology delves into positive outlooks in life, such as the personal enrichment of positive emotional functioning (e.g., an extreme sense of happiness), positive social climates, and achievement of optimal functioning [6, 7]. In the context of academia, for example, a secondary school student may project and incline towards positive outlooks in life, and not focus on past and/or current shortcomings and failures. This may consist of personal resolve in the learning of different subject areas for mastery, personal growth, and enjoyment purposes. From a non-educational point of view, likewise, a senior citizen may capitalize on his/her positive feel-good experiences to lead a healthier lifestyle.

We contend that optimal functioning is an important facet of personal development. Optimal functioning varies in accordance with the context at hand, for example, an extreme state of happiness that is sustained (e.g., optimal emotional functioning), exceptional mathematic results (e.g., optimal cognitive functioning), and/or proactive social relationships with others in the community, consequently resulting in the establishment of networks, etc. (e.g., optimal social functioning).

Specific to positive psychology is the tenet that individuals, in general, strive to achieve selffulfillment and live to their fullest potentials [8]. What is of interest for us, as individuals, is how we achieve an internal state of optimal functioning. This is a pervasive issue that a number of scholars, to date, have made concerted attempts to address (e.g., [9, 10]). In the area of student motivation, a number of researchers have proposed different theoretical orientations that could explain students' motivational beliefs, cognition patterns and learning experiences, for example: personal self-efficacy [11, 12], academic buoyancy [13, 14], optimism [15, 16], and hope [17, 18].

Our own research development has also made theoretical, methodological, and empirical contributions to the study of optimal functioning. In particular, for consideration, clarity, and in-depth understanding, our seminal publication in 2016, titled 'Introducing the concept of Optimal Best: Theoretical and methodological contributions', proposed a framework to explain the concept of optimal achievement best [19]. We revised this initial proposition in 2017 and formally introduced our theoretical contribution of optimal functioning, coined as the Framework of Achievement Bests (e.g., [7, 8]). The Framework of Achievement Bests provides theoretical understanding into the process of optimization, which we argue could account and explain a person's achievement of optimal functioning. Like any other inquiries, our theorization of optimization is ongoing in terms of its development [3]. One notable aspect, arising from the recent Phan et al. [7] publication is a focus on the methodological conceptualization of the process of optimization. In this chapter, we want to delve in detail into a methodological model of optimization for investigation that we have just conceptualized. Some aspects of this innovative conceptualization of optimization have briefly been mentioned in Phan et al [26].

#### 2.1. The process of optimization: an overview

1. Introduction

functioning).

Positive psychology [1, 2] is an important paradigm in the field of psychology that focuses on the importance of proactivity in human agency. This theoretical positioning places emphasis on a person's achievement of optimal functioning and his/her state of flourishing. Optimal functioning, in this case, is concerned with the maximization of a person's internal state of functioning,

An important of research inquiry for consideration may entail examination of optimal functioning. What is the best that I can do as a person, both academically and non-academically? How do I achieve my optimal best in a subject matter? These questions are reflective, in nature, and form the basis for personal growth, where appropriate. The best that a person can do (e.g., achieving exceptional wealth), in this case, indicates his/her internal state of optimal functioning mediocracy, for example, may indicate an internal state of low optimal functioning. Understanding the nature of a person's internal state of optimal functioning and how one reaches

Our cross-cultural research collaboration, merging ideas, knowledge, and philosophical beliefs from both Western and Eastern contexts, has so far resulted in an innovative conceptualization of the theoretical concept of mindfulness [3]. We argue, in this chapter, that personal engagement in mindfulness could actually assist a person to achieve a state of optimal best. This postulation regarding the potential role of mindfulness, we contend, may yield a number of educational significance for educators, school administrators, and industry bodies—for example, the design and creation of an educational program, reflecting the tenets of mindfulness [3], which could then optimize a student's internal state of functioning (e.g., optimal cognitive

Positive psychology explores the proactivity of human behavior. This theoretical orientation is nondeficit and suggests that the study of achievable human endeavors is a main priority for consideration [1, 4]. Negative and deficit models of human behavior (e.g., behaviorism) tend to focus on maladaptive functioning (e.g., school disengagement: [5]), pessimism, and preventive measures for rectification purposes. This approach to the study of human behavior is outdated, perhaps, as very little is made to understand about human strengths and the

Positive psychology, credited to Seligman, Csíkszentmihályi, Diener, Maslow, and others is a 'branch' of psychology that focuses on inner strengths, resilience, virtues, and personal flourishing. This theoretical orientation places emphasis on the 'positives' and the selfgratification and self-fulfillment of a person's inner needs [1, 2]. Rather than focusing on weaknesses, shortcomings, and preventive measures, positive psychology delves into positive outlooks in life, such as the personal enrichment of positive emotional functioning (e.g., an

whether it is mental, cognitive, emotional, and/or social.

40 Educational Psychology - Between Certitudes and Uncertainties

this state of exceptionality is the central focus of this chapter.

2. The importance of optimal functioning

facilitation of self-fulfillment of inner needs.

How individuals reach their optimal functioning in life is a question that of interest for many scholars. Existing research, interestingly, has explored other theoretical concepts that also connote the importance of optimal functioning: personal best goals [20, 21], flourishing [22, 23], thriving [24, 25], and personal striving [26, 27]. However, despite this development, very little is known about a process that could facilitate achievement of experience of flourishing, thriving, etc.

Optimization is process that could serve to facilitate and optimize a person's state of functioning. Researchers have often used terminologies and phrases such as 'optimizing effect', 'Variable A can optimize Variable B…', and 'human optimization' without truly explaining what they actually mean. The notion of optimization, we contend, is not analogous to the concepts of 'enhancement', 'predictive effect', and/or 'causal flow'. Fraillon's [9] theoretical overview of subjective well-being briefly mentioned the concept of optimization, which the author theorized as the difference between a person's actual best functioning and his/her notional best functioning. This definition, despite its limited scope, provided grounding for the development of our Framework of Achievement Bests [7, 8].

L1T1, for personal benchmarking with the level of optimal best, which is denoted as L2T2, (ii) the requirement of time precedence in order for a person to develop and experience an 'increase' in optimal functioning, and (iii) the activation and enactment of psychological, educational, and/or psychosocial agencies in order to facilitate, mediate, strengthen, and improve a state of functioning from T1 to T2. Overall then, from this explanation, achievement of optimal functioning is made when we are able to gauge into the difference between L2T2 and L1T1 (i.e.,

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Optimization consequently, from our conceptualization, would assist in the achievement of LBT2 from LAT1. Differing from previous theorizations (e.g., [22, 28]), we contend that successful accomplishment of ΔL21 would indicate experience of flourishing. Personal flourishing, in this sense, reflects a person's successful accomplishment of a state of optimal functioning (i.e., L2T2). Our revision of the Framework of Achievement Bests [3, 7] theorizes that the operational nature of optimization involves the activation and enactment (AE) of psychological (e.g., hope: [29]), educational (e.g., an instructional design: [30]), and psychosocial (e.g., teacher-student relationship: [31]) agencies that serve as sources of personal energization (E), which then stimulates the buoyancy of intrinsic motivation (i.e., defined as a person's intrinsic motive to persist a course of action—for example, learning Calculus), personal resolve (i.e., defined as a person's internal state of decisiveness and resolute to strive for optimal functioning), effective functioning (i.e., defined as a person's purposive state of organization, structured thoughts, and behavioral patterns and his/her deliberate intent to succeed), mental strength (i.e., defined as a person's mindset that he/she has the capacity to deal with obstacles, stressors, and pressure), and effort expenditure (i.e., a person's conscious attempt to achieve a particular outcome) in order to arouse, intensify, and sustain (AIS) a person's state of functioning. We consider the importance of these five comparable attributes for their positive nature—that is, individually and/or in

ΔL21), where L1 = realistic achievement best, L2 = optimal achievement best.

combination, they encourage and facilitate a person to achieve optimal outcomes.

We argue that the differential influences of psychological, educational, and psychosocial agencies are subject to the contextual situation at hand, as well as the timely opportunity that may arise. For example, the optimization of physical functioning (e.g., a football player's scoring of goals) may benefit more from psychological (e.g., the use of self-efficacy beliefs to convince the football player's resolve) and/or psychosocial (e.g., the provision of an adequate environment for training) agencies, whereas educational agencies (e.g., the teaching of an effective instructional design) would be more appropriate in the optimization of cognitive functioning (e.g., a student's academic performance in mathematics). In a similar vein, we argue that on a daily basis, the provision of opportunities for optimization purposes may vary in accordance with the contextual situation and/or other reasons. What this means then, from our conceptualization, is that at any point in time, not all different types of agencies may be available for usage. The source of energization from psychological, educational, and psychosocial agencies, we contend, may then stimulate the buoyancy of five distinctive and comparable attributes (e.g., intrinsic motivation). The same argument here is that influences from these five attributes to arouse, intensify, and sustain an internal state of functioning also vary. In other words, as an example, the optimizing impact of a psychosocial agency (e.g., teacher-student relationship) on emotional functioning may only stimulate intrinsic motivation and personal resolve. In a

Our theorization of the Framework of Achievement Bests, derived from Phan et al.'s [19] article, postulates the dichotomy of levels of best practice by which there are there are different levels of a person's functioning—for example: realistic achievement best, defined as a person's actual level of functioning at the present time, and optimal achievement best, defined as a person's indication at the present time of the maximization of his/her competence in a subject matter. In the context of academia, for example, realistic achievement best focuses on a student's actual demonstration of knowledge and/or skills (e.g., I can solve 20 easy arithmetic problems and get 90% correct). Optimal achievement best, in contrast, emphasizes a student's mastery competence of his/her learning, which in this case reflects the best of his/her ability (e.g., I know that I can solve more complex arithmetic problems and get 85% correct). Our theorization [7, 8], this case, contends that reaching optimal achievement best from realistic achievement best would require some 'form' of optimization.

Adapting from our recent work [3, 7], Figure 1 illustrates a methodological conceptualization of the process of optimization that we recently developed. We argue that in order to understand the process of optimization, it is important for us to expand on the tenets of optimal functioning. In this analysis, from our conceptualization, an achievement of optimal functioning requires the fulfillment of three main criteria: (i) that there is a point of reference, denoted as

Figure 1. Optimization and levels of best practice. Adapted from Phan & Ngu [8] and Phan et al. [7].

L1T1, for personal benchmarking with the level of optimal best, which is denoted as L2T2, (ii) the requirement of time precedence in order for a person to develop and experience an 'increase' in optimal functioning, and (iii) the activation and enactment of psychological, educational, and/or psychosocial agencies in order to facilitate, mediate, strengthen, and improve a state of functioning from T1 to T2. Overall then, from this explanation, achievement of optimal functioning is made when we are able to gauge into the difference between L2T2 and L1T1 (i.e., ΔL21), where L1 = realistic achievement best, L2 = optimal achievement best.

Optimization is process that could serve to facilitate and optimize a person's state of functioning. Researchers have often used terminologies and phrases such as 'optimizing effect', 'Variable A can optimize Variable B…', and 'human optimization' without truly explaining what they actually mean. The notion of optimization, we contend, is not analogous to the concepts of 'enhancement', 'predictive effect', and/or 'causal flow'. Fraillon's [9] theoretical overview of subjective well-being briefly mentioned the concept of optimization, which the author theorized as the difference between a person's actual best functioning and his/her notional best functioning. This definition, despite its limited scope, provided grounding for the development

Our theorization of the Framework of Achievement Bests, derived from Phan et al.'s [19] article, postulates the dichotomy of levels of best practice by which there are there are different levels of a person's functioning—for example: realistic achievement best, defined as a person's actual level of functioning at the present time, and optimal achievement best, defined as a person's indication at the present time of the maximization of his/her competence in a subject matter. In the context of academia, for example, realistic achievement best focuses on a student's actual demonstration of knowledge and/or skills (e.g., I can solve 20 easy arithmetic problems and get 90% correct). Optimal achievement best, in contrast, emphasizes a student's mastery competence of his/her learning, which in this case reflects the best of his/her ability (e.g., I know that I can solve more complex arithmetic problems and get 85% correct). Our theorization [7, 8], this case, contends that reaching optimal achievement best from realistic

Adapting from our recent work [3, 7], Figure 1 illustrates a methodological conceptualization of the process of optimization that we recently developed. We argue that in order to understand the process of optimization, it is important for us to expand on the tenets of optimal functioning. In this analysis, from our conceptualization, an achievement of optimal functioning requires the fulfillment of three main criteria: (i) that there is a point of reference, denoted as

Figure 1. Optimization and levels of best practice. Adapted from Phan & Ngu [8] and Phan et al. [7].

of our Framework of Achievement Bests [7, 8].

42 Educational Psychology - Between Certitudes and Uncertainties

achievement best would require some 'form' of optimization.

Optimization consequently, from our conceptualization, would assist in the achievement of LBT2 from LAT1. Differing from previous theorizations (e.g., [22, 28]), we contend that successful accomplishment of ΔL21 would indicate experience of flourishing. Personal flourishing, in this sense, reflects a person's successful accomplishment of a state of optimal functioning (i.e., L2T2). Our revision of the Framework of Achievement Bests [3, 7] theorizes that the operational nature of optimization involves the activation and enactment (AE) of psychological (e.g., hope: [29]), educational (e.g., an instructional design: [30]), and psychosocial (e.g., teacher-student relationship: [31]) agencies that serve as sources of personal energization (E), which then stimulates the buoyancy of intrinsic motivation (i.e., defined as a person's intrinsic motive to persist a course of action—for example, learning Calculus), personal resolve (i.e., defined as a person's internal state of decisiveness and resolute to strive for optimal functioning), effective functioning (i.e., defined as a person's purposive state of organization, structured thoughts, and behavioral patterns and his/her deliberate intent to succeed), mental strength (i.e., defined as a person's mindset that he/she has the capacity to deal with obstacles, stressors, and pressure), and effort expenditure (i.e., a person's conscious attempt to achieve a particular outcome) in order to arouse, intensify, and sustain (AIS) a person's state of functioning. We consider the importance of these five comparable attributes for their positive nature—that is, individually and/or in combination, they encourage and facilitate a person to achieve optimal outcomes.

We argue that the differential influences of psychological, educational, and psychosocial agencies are subject to the contextual situation at hand, as well as the timely opportunity that may arise. For example, the optimization of physical functioning (e.g., a football player's scoring of goals) may benefit more from psychological (e.g., the use of self-efficacy beliefs to convince the football player's resolve) and/or psychosocial (e.g., the provision of an adequate environment for training) agencies, whereas educational agencies (e.g., the teaching of an effective instructional design) would be more appropriate in the optimization of cognitive functioning (e.g., a student's academic performance in mathematics). In a similar vein, we argue that on a daily basis, the provision of opportunities for optimization purposes may vary in accordance with the contextual situation and/or other reasons. What this means then, from our conceptualization, is that at any point in time, not all different types of agencies may be available for usage.

The source of energization from psychological, educational, and psychosocial agencies, we contend, may then stimulate the buoyancy of five distinctive and comparable attributes (e.g., intrinsic motivation). The same argument here is that influences from these five attributes to arouse, intensify, and sustain an internal state of functioning also vary. In other words, as an example, the optimizing impact of a psychosocial agency (e.g., teacher-student relationship) on emotional functioning may only stimulate intrinsic motivation and personal resolve. In a similar vein, a psychological agency (e.g., personal self-efficacy for academic learning) to optimize cognitive functioning may stimulate intrinsic motivation, mental strength, personal resolve, and effort expenditure. An effective educational agency (e.g., the use of an appropriate instructional design), likewise, may instead stimulate intrinsic motivation, effective functioning, and effort expenditure.

Our theorization of the concept of optimization, expanding on from our original Framework of Achievement Bests, suggests that unlike associative (i.e., r) and predictive (i.e., β) effects, the impact of optimization would result in a person experiencing some form of 'energy', which then could enable the achievement of optimal functioning. One interesting facet for consideration is whether and to what extent we could actually 'quantify' the process of optimization. The quantification of optimization, from our point of view, considers the magnitude (or strength) of a person's experience of energization. In our recent work [3, 8], for example, we introduced the concepts of intensity of optimization (i.e., defined as the amount of resources that would be needed to optimize a person's level of functioning) and scope of optimization (i.e., defined as the amount of time and effort that would be needed to optimize a person's level of functioning). The magnitude of optimization, in this case, is postulated to encompass both intensity and scope. A level of optimal functioning that is relatively simple from a current level is likely to require minimal optimization. In contrast, however, a level of optimal functioning that is more complex (e.g., L1T1: knowing how to solve equations with one unknown, x: <sup>x</sup> + 52 <sup>=</sup> �<sup>10</sup> ! L2 T2: knowing how to solve quadratic equations with two unknowns, <sup>x</sup> and y: (x + y) <sup>2</sup> = 4 and �4<sup>x</sup> + 10<sup>y</sup> = 20) would require a greater amount of optimization.

With the possible quantification of optimization, we consider a related theoretical concept, which we coin as the index of optimization. We propose that the index of optimization, denoted as γ, is intricately associated with the difference between a person's current level of functioning and his/her level of optimal functioning (i.e., ΔL21). The quantification of the index of optimization, from our proposition, is as follows:

$$
\gamma = \mathbf{A}\mathbf{E} + \mathbf{E} + \mathbf{A}\mathbf{I} \mathbf{S} \tag{1}
$$

of a person's experience of energization. Our interest for discussion entails the extent to which

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Mindfulness is a psychological process that emphasizes on a person's meditational state. It is defined as "the unfailing master key for knowing the mind and is thus the starting point; the perfect tool for shaping the mind, and is thus the focal point; and the lofty manifestation of the achieved freedom of the mind, and is thus the culminating point" [32]. In other words, as Kabat-Zinn [32] explains, mindfulness is concerned with a person's moment-to-moment, nonjudgmental self-awareness, which is cultivated by his/her directed attention towards the present moment, non-reactively and non-judgmentally. An envisage of mindfulness as a meditational practice suggests a state of consciousness and self-awareness that may be strengthened over

The psychological construct of mindfulness is postulated to closely associate with the positive psychology paradigm [1, 4, 34] for its characteristics and emphasis on positive yields. Central to this theoretical contention is the fact that mindfulness is meaningful, and contradicts with the negativities that may exist in life such as pessimism and mindlessness [35]. Mindfulness, in this sense, is a feat of human agency that reflects to a large extent the essence of a person's temperament, personality, and state of mind. Engaging in the meditational practice of mind-

i. A person's experience of a present state in any social milieu, which may reveal clear focus and personal contentment. Non-judgmental concentration at the present time, in itself,

ii. The subsequent outcomes that may arise from the aftermath experience of mindfulness, including positive emotions (e.g., happiness), weakening in negative emotions (e.g., anxiety), and improvement in personal functioning (e.g., performance in a subject matter). Engagement in mindfulness practices, in this sense, emphasizes personal experience both the present moment and the future state of functioning. The two aforementioned yields signify and support the use of mindfulness theories [41–43] in educational and non-educational contexts. Educationally, in this case, it has been noted that there are a number of educational programs for usage in the practice of mindfulness (e.g., Master Mind Program: [44], Mindfulness Education: [45]). For example, Schonert-Reichl and Lawlor [45] recently explored the effectiveness of the Mindfulness Education (ME) program, which involves a universal teacher-taught preventive intervention that focuses on "facilitating the development of students' emotional and social competence via a series of lessons in which 'mindful attention awareness' is taught and practiced, and in which students engage in lessons designed to promote optimism and positive affect" (p. 138). The results of the study showed, for example, that adolescents who participated in the ME program improved on their optimistic

could serve to instill and facilitate an internal state of calmness, ease, and clarity.

mindfulness, as a psychological agency, could energize a person to achieve optimal best.

3. Overview of mindfulness

the course of time [33].

beliefs.

fulness produce two important yields [36–40], namely:

where γ = index of optimization, AE = activation and enactment of psychological, educational, and psychosocial agencies, E = the experience of energization, which consists of the stimulation and buoyancy of motivation, personal resolve, effective functioning, mental strength, and effort expenditure, and AIS = arousal, intensity, and sustainability.

This postulation regarding the index of optimization and, more importantly, the quantification of optimization is innovative, as it connotes that, likewise, it is possible to measure, assess, and quantify a person's level of optimal functioning. The index of optimization, in this case, reflects the totality of AE, E, and AIS, and equates to a person's experience of flourishing—that is, γ ≈ ΔL21. In other words, from our theoretization, a person's energy is likely to assist and result in a level of optimal functioning. At this stage, however, we recognize one notable issue that is unresolved: the calculation of the index of optimization. Despite this uncertainty, we argue that our expanded theorization of optimization is effectual for its explanatory account of a person's state of flourishing. The acquisition of a source of energization, in this case, is of interest for us to discuss in detail. The psychological agency, as we explained [7], may serve as a major source of a person's experience of energization. Our interest for discussion entails the extent to which mindfulness, as a psychological agency, could energize a person to achieve optimal best.
