**7. Conclusions**

the expected goal and produce knowledge. It means to choose, use, and master knowledge, skills, and abilities appropriate in a given context, to set and/or solve a given problem" [7] The acquired experience has shown that Earth Sciences are the discipline that more promote citizenship and transversal skills and, furthermore, develops the ideas of system and complexity. It is surprising how these skills can be easily applicable, malleable, and adaptable to different contexts and contents of Earth Sciences, where they become tools to think, observe, connect,

The goal is to be able to understand that every single phenomenon, a landslide, a flood, a volcanic eruption, or an earthquake, is part of the global system: all are connected to each other. It is possible to pass from a single case to a general law of nature. In the case of the approaches traditionally used in the sciences, inductive and deductive reasoning, in which the rule is given from the beginning, the definition of a law occurs regularly, and with relative ease. In the case of the abductive process, such as in the Problem-based Learning, ability to synthesize becomes an essential element: understanding why landslides can fall or earthquakes occur

More precisely, the analysis of the phenomena studied by the Earth Sciences, phenomena are

• the ability to synthesize and generalize, which implies being able to collect many cases in a

• the capacity for abstraction, which implies being able to formulate a rule that describes the events of the case: the characteristics of a rock, the morphology of the slope, and the

In the case of natural phenomena, of course, the variables are many and not always easy to connect: this represents a challenge for the scientist and for the student. It is not always possible to define a law, but we can always find a cause-effect relationship. Each landslide or any meteorological phenomenon can be triggered by a person kicking a stone or by the beat of a

It is not superfluous to recall the strong cultural importance of Earth Sciences, which is not obvious: in the past, too many have considered that the science of the Earth, like other scientific disciplines, is simply "technical" and has no cultural depth. Instead, Earth Sciences offer a unique possibility of a conceptualized phenomenon through time and space, in a complex

Understanding how the Earth works requires the retrospection that makes inferences about the past; it requires to interpret the present as the result of large-scale natural experiments: Earth Sciences prepare the ground for understanding the complex relationships between the

relate, research, solve, and communicate.

70 Educational Psychology - Between Certitudes and Uncertainties

requires a general ability to synthesize [8, 9].

more general case that involves them all;

geographical position.

butterfly's wings.

**6. Epistemology**

and interactive historical approach.

sciences and for making hypotheses about the possible future.

not always predictable but interconnected, allows to promote:

The promotion of Earth Sciences' teaching-learning in Italian schools requests to pass through tools, both theoretical and practical. On a practical level, it is necessary to identify effective educational tools: objects, models, and paths, similar to those presented. At the theoretical level, it is necessary to reconsider the different educational approaches, choosing the most effective ones, the ones most closely related to the own way to teach, the most consistent and significant with respect to the topic we want to develop.

[4] Occhipinti S. INVITED TALK. Promoting Earth Sciences Teaching-Learning in the Italian Schools: The Need of a Great Professionalism of Effective Educational Approaches and of an Extensive Cooperation. 2016. Available from: https://rendiconti.socgeol.it/297/ article-3974/promoting-earth-sciences-teaching-learning-in-the-italian-schools-improving-students-skills-and-competence-diffusing-new-effective-educational-approaches-

Educational Tools and Methodological Approaches to Enhance Interest and to Grow Skills…

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89371

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[5] Gravina T, Greco R, Boccardi V, Cossu C, Piccioni E, Occhipinti S. Could participation in a science Olympiad engage students in studying earth science? The results from the participants in Italian Earth Science Olympiad. In: VIII GeoSciEd 2018—The 8th Quadrennial Conference of the International Geoscience Education Organization (IGEO); 2018

[6] Orion N et al. A holistic approach for science education for all. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science & Technology Education, Science & Technology Education. 2007;**3**(2):111-118

[7] Thomas JW. A Review of Research on Project-Based Learning. 2000. Available from:

[8] PISA OECD. Result on Focus–Sciences. 2015. Available from: https://www.oecd.org/

[9] European Parliament. Recommendation 2006/962/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 December 2006 on Key Competences for Lifelong Learning. 2006.

[10] Praturlon A. Un discorso epistemologico sulla complessità nelle Scienze della Terra.

[11] Frodeman R. Geological Reasoning, The Earth Sciences, Philosophy and the Claims of

http://www.bie.org/research/study/review\_of\_project\_based\_learning

Available from: https://eur-lex.europa.eu › legal-content › TXT

the Community. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall; 1995

extending-cooperation-and-networking.html

pisa/pisa-2015-results-in-focus.pdf

Geoitalia. 2011;**36**:5-25

Teachers must naturally be aware of the system of knowledge that constitutes the discipline and of the innumerable interconnections that exist among the different branches of the Earth Sciences. A sector of educational research should be dedicated to research what to teach/learn because it is particularly meaningful and identifies the different conceptual nodes: deep time, flows, relationships, and complexity.

This requires a network of resources to build relationships between universities and schools, trying to bridge the gap between research and education. Only clearly defined and strongly shared objectives can bring teachers and geologists, aware of the importance of this discipline, of its field of research and of its development, for the protection and enhancement of the environment, natural or artificial.

Finally, it should be a priority for all those who are interested in this discipline to define a shared, coherent, and focused epistemological state for the Earth Sciences. This will allow to recognize that all the disciplines that constitute Earth Sciences are interconnected: only then, we would be closer to a model and a unified vision of our discipline. But everyone must be equally aware that this knowledge, with its plots and intuitions, is essential to develop basic skills for the student and for the citizens of today and the future.
