4. Mindfulness from an Eastern perspective

Meiklejohn et al.'s [33] in-depth review is also interesting, indicating the effectiveness of mindfulness programs for both teachers and students, alike. A number of programs have been developed from different countries to teach and facilitate engagement in mindfulness practices (e.g., Inner Kids Programs from the United States for Pre K-8; Mindfulness in Schools Project (MiSP) from England for children aged 14–18 years; Sfat Hakeshev (The Mindfulness Language) from Israel for children aged 6–13 years). The results arising from implementations of these

i. For teachers—(i) the cultivation of mindful skills and knowledge in everyday lives, both insider and outside of classroom settings, (ii) improvement in subjective well-being experiences, (iii) improve effectiveness in providing emotional, behavioral, and instructional support to students, (iv) improve engagement and prosocial relationships with students and co-workers, alike, and (v) decrease negative emotions (e.g., anxiety level) and

ii. For students—(i) strengthen students' capacity to self-regulate attention, (ii) facilitate students' capacities to relate to any experience, whether pleasurable, neutral, stressful, or difficult, (iii) decrease negative emotional functioning (e.g., anxiety level) and behavioral problems, (iv) improvement in social skills and academic performance, (v) increase in optimism, subjective happiness, and mindful awareness, and (vi) improvement in

The above mentioning provides empirical grounding for further rigorous scientific research development into the efficacy of interventions and programs into mindfulness. According to Meiklejohn et al. [33], there are three major reasons as to this research inquiry is needed, namely: (i) validating the effectiveness of interventions and programs into mindfulness, (ii) how and why the intervention works, and (iii) predictive effects and under what conditions the intervention would be effective. This recommendation from a psychological point of view is valid, and has credence for implementation. Any theoretical orientation in social sciences, for that matter, requires a cogent conceptualization, which is then followed by strong high-quality empirical evidence for efficacy and effectiveness. The authors, for example, recommend the following issues for guidance in the advancement of mindfulness as a distinct theoretical orientation: establish a theory of change for mindfulness-based programs, expanding the evidence-based for mindfulness-based programs, development and validation of appropriate outcome measures, assess socially valid outcome measures, and address school-based imple-

A persuasive argument could lend itself in terms of providing a conceptualization that focuses on the relationships between mindfulness and levels of personal functioning. This consideration is insightful, aligning to Meiklejohn et al.'s [33] contention for further research development into the operational nature (i.e., predictiveness) of this theoretical construct. The argument here, in this analysis, is that mindfulness could play a central role in the achievement of optimal functioning. Specifically, as discussed in the subsequent sections of this article, it is argued that meditational practice of mindfulness could result in the activation of a series of sub-processes,

which may then assist in the optimization of achievement of optimal functioning.

emotional regulation, feelings of calmness, relaxation, and self-acceptance.

increase motivation towards the profession, in general.

programs indicate, for example:

46 Educational Psychology - Between Certitudes and Uncertainties

mentation barriers.

The preceding section has described the concept of mindfulness. However, we argue that existing research from Western scholars, placing emphasis on the psychological nature of mindfulness alone is somewhat confined. We make this argument consequently as a result of our own research development into this matter, which takes into account the importance of Taiwanese philosophical beliefs, meditation practices, professional and personal experiences, and Buddhist wisdom and knowledge. Our professional development, especially for authors 3, 4, 5, and 6 includes in-depth knowledge and teaching of Asian philosophies to postgraduate students, extensive research undertakings in the area of mindfulness, teaching meditation to undergraduate students, and daily practice of rituals pertaining Buddhism. Our theoretical positioning of mindfulness is more inclusive and proposes a holistic model for consideration.

#### 4.1. A proposed model of mindfulness

A model of mindfulness that we want to consider is shown in Figure 2. This proposed model, which we recently described [3], reflects an integration of both Western and Eastern ideas, knowledge, and philosophical beliefs. Our conceptualization posits mindfulness as a hierarchical and multifaceted structure that encompasses three major components: psychological component, philosophical component, and spiritual component. We contend that this conceptualization of mindfulness is more inclusive, taking into account Eastern ideas, understanding, and philosophical beliefs and the premise of Buddhism. Furthermore, from our proposition, each major component of mindfulness espouses specific attributes—(i) the psychological component espouses the

Figure 2. Conceptualization of mindfulness.

attributes of concentration, relaxation, non-judgment, and self-awareness, (ii) the philosophical component espouses the attributes of non-dualism, ultimate reality, and rationality, and (iii) the spiritual component espouses the attributes of self-discipline, present moment, self-actualization, unity, and harmony. These attributes have been discussed in detail in our recent work [3], and will not be described here.

view, a state of mindfulness would enable a person to live a life that is non-judgmental, nonsubjective, and non-biased. In essence, a positive effect of mindfulness would consist of a person's self-awareness of free will to do things without any negative emotion, and/or to care

The Importance of Mindfulness in the Achievement of Optimal Functioning: Conceptualization for Research…

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79938

49

Existing research has used quantitative methods to seek clarity into the definition, meaning, and structure of mindfulness. For example, using non-experimental designs, a number of researchers have focused on validating the factorial structure of mindfulness (e.g., [47–49]). Evidence from Likert-scale and open-ended surveys, in this case, has led to inconsistent perspectives of the factorial structure of mindfulness [3]. We argue that our proposed conceptualization of mindfulness, especially with its emphasis on the philosophical and spiritual component and their respective attributes is relatively difficult to assess, measure, and evaluate. Referring to the preceding sections, the personal achievement of nirvana is not an easily feat to 'quantify'. Indeed, we recognize the complexity of our proposed model, and contend that other alternative, non-conventional methods may be needed. In a similar vein, we believe that the potential optimizing role of mindfulness in the achievement of optimal functioning is somewhat complex to validate. One notable problem, of course, relates to the issue that we previously outlined, namely, a lack of clarity into the operational nature of optimization. In this section of the chapter, we discuss a methodological conceptualization that could integrate

Optimization, we contend, is an underlying process that could assist in the achievement of optimal functioning. Our recent conceptualization of optimization, derived from previous research [7–9], emphasizes the potential optimizing influences of different psychological, educational, and psychosocial agencies. An important question then is whether and/or to what extent mindfulness, as a multifaceted concept, could operate as a psychological agency and hence, a source of energization in the process of optimization. As a research inquiry into this potentiality, we focus on a methodological conceptualization that we have developed, as shown in Figure 3.

This depiction is innovative for its proposition into the optimizing effect of mindfulness.

According to Figure 3 and taking into consideration our proposed model of mindfulness, the practice of meditation would result in the achievement of nirvana. Nirvana enables a person to experience contentment (i.e., realization that one is fine with life as it is), prosperity (i.e., recognition that one is prosperous in terms of well-being—that is, life is good), a sense of happiness (i.e., one's experience of internal happiness), peace and harmony (i.e., one's understanding that life is harmonious with nature and the contextual surroundings), which then operate as energy sources. Our pedagogical practice of meditation involves a number of procedural steps, such as the recitation of specific Buddhist scriptures and chanting (e.g., Amitabha). Visualizing the image of Buddha as we begin would assist with concentration, relaxation, and the experience of 'nothingness'. Unlike Western perspectives perhaps, mindfulness from an Eastern point of view is concerned with a state of ease and one's ability to be 'Buddha-like' and to reach enlightenment.

our proposed model of mindfulness within the framework of optimization.

5. Mindfulness and optimal functioning

what others may think.

Our proposition of mindfulness is holistic and recognizes the importance of both Western (i.e., the psychological component) and Eastern (i.e., the philosophical component and the spiritual component) ideas and theoretical contributions. From the literature, very little is known about the two non-psychological components that we have proposed. What is unique here, from our conceptualization, is that we consider Buddhism to underpin the nature of the philosophical and the spiritual component of mindfulness. What does this actually mean then, in its totality? Mindfulness, for us as Taiwanese scholars, is more than just a person's psychological state of ease. It is somewhat limited to infer that mindfulness is simply a reflection of a person's purposive concentration to ensure that no judgment is made on any aspect of life at the present time. In other words, we argue that personal experience of mindfulness may serve to amplify beyond the actual psychological state of a person's mindset.

When a person experiences a state of mindfulness, from our conceptualization, he/she seeks 'nearness' to Buddha. Hence, in the teaching of meditation practice, we often ask students to 'visualize' the image of Buddha as a focal point of concentration. In other words, one major difficulty that many novices face is their inability to concentrate when practicing meditation. Non-judgmental concentration in this sense, according to many Buddhist nuns and monks, is a challenging feat to achieve. Nearness to Buddha or perhaps, Buddhism itself, is to reach nirvana (i.e., enlightenment). According to Buddhist beliefs, a state of enlightenment relates to a person's experience of contentment, prosperity, happiness, peace, and harmony [46]. Mindfulness through meditation, in this analysis, is more than just a state of concentration and selfawareness; when we practice meditation in order to experience mindfulness, we seek to explore and understand the meaning of life in a non-materialistic sense. An important aspect of Buddhism is for a person to live a life that is full of richness. Life is not simply concerned with having materialistic wealth. An enriched life for any person for that matter is to not have attachment, other than to have Buddhist faith.

Our proposed model of mindfulness is significant for its underpinning of Buddhism, emphasizing the importance of Eastern philosophical beliefs and the nature of spirituality. We argue our conceptualization touches on elements that do not necessarily abide by the natural laws of sciences. This argument posits that understanding of mindfulness in its truest sense requires personal experience that may transcend beyond the realms of reality and the physical world. For example, unlike academic performance, social relationships, and/or achieving economic growth, which are also measurable, mindfulness from our point of view is somewhat different it is not an easily achievable and/or explanatory feat. True, meaningful understanding of mindfulness requires contemplation, reflection, and true faith in Buddhism. When one successfully reaches a state of mindfulness, there is then 'evidence' of inner satisfaction. Mindfulness, in this case, indicates a person's peaceful 'Buddha-like' state of mind, which may detach itself from materialistic things, financial wealth, and worldly success. Moreover, from our point of view, a state of mindfulness would enable a person to live a life that is non-judgmental, nonsubjective, and non-biased. In essence, a positive effect of mindfulness would consist of a person's self-awareness of free will to do things without any negative emotion, and/or to care what others may think.

Existing research has used quantitative methods to seek clarity into the definition, meaning, and structure of mindfulness. For example, using non-experimental designs, a number of researchers have focused on validating the factorial structure of mindfulness (e.g., [47–49]). Evidence from Likert-scale and open-ended surveys, in this case, has led to inconsistent perspectives of the factorial structure of mindfulness [3]. We argue that our proposed conceptualization of mindfulness, especially with its emphasis on the philosophical and spiritual component and their respective attributes is relatively difficult to assess, measure, and evaluate. Referring to the preceding sections, the personal achievement of nirvana is not an easily feat to 'quantify'. Indeed, we recognize the complexity of our proposed model, and contend that other alternative, non-conventional methods may be needed. In a similar vein, we believe that the potential optimizing role of mindfulness in the achievement of optimal functioning is somewhat complex to validate. One notable problem, of course, relates to the issue that we previously outlined, namely, a lack of clarity into the operational nature of optimization. In this section of the chapter, we discuss a methodological conceptualization that could integrate our proposed model of mindfulness within the framework of optimization.
