5. Mindfulness and optimal functioning

attributes of concentration, relaxation, non-judgment, and self-awareness, (ii) the philosophical component espouses the attributes of non-dualism, ultimate reality, and rationality, and (iii) the spiritual component espouses the attributes of self-discipline, present moment, self-actualization, unity, and harmony. These attributes have been discussed in detail in our recent work [3], and will not be

Our proposition of mindfulness is holistic and recognizes the importance of both Western (i.e., the psychological component) and Eastern (i.e., the philosophical component and the spiritual component) ideas and theoretical contributions. From the literature, very little is known about the two non-psychological components that we have proposed. What is unique here, from our conceptualization, is that we consider Buddhism to underpin the nature of the philosophical and the spiritual component of mindfulness. What does this actually mean then, in its totality? Mindfulness, for us as Taiwanese scholars, is more than just a person's psychological state of ease. It is somewhat limited to infer that mindfulness is simply a reflection of a person's purposive concentration to ensure that no judgment is made on any aspect of life at the present time. In other words, we argue that personal experience of mindfulness may serve to amplify

When a person experiences a state of mindfulness, from our conceptualization, he/she seeks 'nearness' to Buddha. Hence, in the teaching of meditation practice, we often ask students to 'visualize' the image of Buddha as a focal point of concentration. In other words, one major difficulty that many novices face is their inability to concentrate when practicing meditation. Non-judgmental concentration in this sense, according to many Buddhist nuns and monks, is a challenging feat to achieve. Nearness to Buddha or perhaps, Buddhism itself, is to reach nirvana (i.e., enlightenment). According to Buddhist beliefs, a state of enlightenment relates to a person's experience of contentment, prosperity, happiness, peace, and harmony [46]. Mindfulness through meditation, in this analysis, is more than just a state of concentration and selfawareness; when we practice meditation in order to experience mindfulness, we seek to explore and understand the meaning of life in a non-materialistic sense. An important aspect of Buddhism is for a person to live a life that is full of richness. Life is not simply concerned with having materialistic wealth. An enriched life for any person for that matter is to not have

Our proposed model of mindfulness is significant for its underpinning of Buddhism, emphasizing the importance of Eastern philosophical beliefs and the nature of spirituality. We argue our conceptualization touches on elements that do not necessarily abide by the natural laws of sciences. This argument posits that understanding of mindfulness in its truest sense requires personal experience that may transcend beyond the realms of reality and the physical world. For example, unlike academic performance, social relationships, and/or achieving economic growth, which are also measurable, mindfulness from our point of view is somewhat different it is not an easily achievable and/or explanatory feat. True, meaningful understanding of mindfulness requires contemplation, reflection, and true faith in Buddhism. When one successfully reaches a state of mindfulness, there is then 'evidence' of inner satisfaction. Mindfulness, in this case, indicates a person's peaceful 'Buddha-like' state of mind, which may detach itself from materialistic things, financial wealth, and worldly success. Moreover, from our point of

beyond the actual psychological state of a person's mindset.

48 Educational Psychology - Between Certitudes and Uncertainties

attachment, other than to have Buddhist faith.

described here.

Optimization, we contend, is an underlying process that could assist in the achievement of optimal functioning. Our recent conceptualization of optimization, derived from previous research [7–9], emphasizes the potential optimizing influences of different psychological, educational, and psychosocial agencies. An important question then is whether and/or to what extent mindfulness, as a multifaceted concept, could operate as a psychological agency and hence, a source of energization in the process of optimization. As a research inquiry into this potentiality, we focus on a methodological conceptualization that we have developed, as shown in Figure 3. This depiction is innovative for its proposition into the optimizing effect of mindfulness.

According to Figure 3 and taking into consideration our proposed model of mindfulness, the practice of meditation would result in the achievement of nirvana. Nirvana enables a person to experience contentment (i.e., realization that one is fine with life as it is), prosperity (i.e., recognition that one is prosperous in terms of well-being—that is, life is good), a sense of happiness (i.e., one's experience of internal happiness), peace and harmony (i.e., one's understanding that life is harmonious with nature and the contextual surroundings), which then operate as energy sources. Our pedagogical practice of meditation involves a number of procedural steps, such as the recitation of specific Buddhist scriptures and chanting (e.g., Amitabha). Visualizing the image of Buddha as we begin would assist with concentration, relaxation, and the experience of 'nothingness'. Unlike Western perspectives perhaps, mindfulness from an Eastern point of view is concerned with a state of ease and one's ability to be 'Buddha-like' and to reach enlightenment.

able to experience a mindset that is full of clarity, clearness, and unhindered thoughts. Mental strength, we contend, may overcome feelings of pessimism, indecisiveness, and uncertainty. Non-academically, for example, mental strength may assist a person to feel confident and efficacious to combat a health issue. Academically, in contrast, mental strength may help a student to confront his/her learning difficulties with determination,

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v. Enable a person to focus on the expenditure of time and effort in order to accomplish a given task at the present time. Mindfulness, from our point of view, may serve to negate stagnation, inaction, and procrastination. Consequently, as a result of mindfulness, a person may feel more motivated and compelled to spend time on practicing, revising, and consolidation. Academically, for example, via means of mindfulness a student may come to realize that effort is intricately linked to personal success. It is through effort likewise, as the student comes to realize, that ensures a lay person is able to achieve a Buddha-like stature.

What is important, from the above, is that mindfulness is a source of energy that is positive, in nature. From our theorization, we argue that a state of mindfulness, which results in a perceived sense of enlightenment, is in accord with the paradigm of positive psychology [1, 2]. Mindfulness, for us, consequently, is concerned with the achievement of happiness and the true meaning of life. This experience of energization, as we explained, may stimulate the buoyancy of intrinsic motivation, personal decisiveness and determination, mental strength, effort expenditure, and one's self-awareness of efficiency. These attributes, in their totality, may then arouse, intensify, and/or sustain a person's internal state of functioning—whether it is physical, emo-

In terms of functioning, consider the importance of cognitive functioning. In the context of academia, cognitive functioning may consist of academic performance and/or the seeking of mastery competence in a subject matter [7]. Achieving an exceptional result in Calculus, for example, may indicate optimal cognitive functioning in mathematics. It is pertinent then that we consider, conceptually and practically, how we could optimize a student's academic learning experiences, which may be subject to both performance and mastery-based criteria. The totality of mindfulness, according to our conceptualization, is concerned with a person's achievement of nirvana. This experience, from our own personal recalls of understanding, knowledge, and experiences over the years, reflects the true meaning of life—to detach oneself and feel unpressured from the competitive and materialistic world. We argue that a mindset void of everything in life, except the fulfillment of contentment, prosperity, happiness, peace and harmony would bring forth a state of serenity and tranquility. Here, at this personal state, a student does not feel pressured and appreciate everything there is to know, regardless of his/her existing level of understanding. What this would mean for a student then, is that academic learning is a personal journey that is full of enrichments and no ends. Acquiring knowledge, in this regard, is autonomous, personal, and free from extraneous influences. Failures and successes, in this case, are irrelevant as the true meaning of learning is to experience life itself. Learning Calculus or any other academic subject matters, in this instance, is part and parcel of being a person where there is no specific 'timezone'. Importantly, focusing on the philosophical and/or religious beliefs of Buddhism, one realizes that

learning is an endless journey that has no destiny to achieve.

and to persist despite this hardship.

tional, cognitive, or social.

Figure 3. The relationship between mindfulness and optimal functioning.

From our postulation, a state of nirvana would serve as a source of energization—in this sense, we contend that mindfulness would vitalize a person to recognize that there is no greater cause than for him/her to attain a Buddha-like stature. What does this mean for the process of optimization? A Buddha-like stature would, in our consideration:


able to experience a mindset that is full of clarity, clearness, and unhindered thoughts. Mental strength, we contend, may overcome feelings of pessimism, indecisiveness, and uncertainty. Non-academically, for example, mental strength may assist a person to feel confident and efficacious to combat a health issue. Academically, in contrast, mental strength may help a student to confront his/her learning difficulties with determination, and to persist despite this hardship.

v. Enable a person to focus on the expenditure of time and effort in order to accomplish a given task at the present time. Mindfulness, from our point of view, may serve to negate stagnation, inaction, and procrastination. Consequently, as a result of mindfulness, a person may feel more motivated and compelled to spend time on practicing, revising, and consolidation. Academically, for example, via means of mindfulness a student may come to realize that effort is intricately linked to personal success. It is through effort likewise, as the student comes to realize, that ensures a lay person is able to achieve a Buddha-like stature.

What is important, from the above, is that mindfulness is a source of energy that is positive, in nature. From our theorization, we argue that a state of mindfulness, which results in a perceived sense of enlightenment, is in accord with the paradigm of positive psychology [1, 2]. Mindfulness, for us, consequently, is concerned with the achievement of happiness and the true meaning of life. This experience of energization, as we explained, may stimulate the buoyancy of intrinsic motivation, personal decisiveness and determination, mental strength, effort expenditure, and one's self-awareness of efficiency. These attributes, in their totality, may then arouse, intensify, and/or sustain a person's internal state of functioning—whether it is physical, emotional, cognitive, or social.

From our postulation, a state of nirvana would serve as a source of energization—in this sense, we contend that mindfulness would vitalize a person to recognize that there is no greater cause than for him/her to attain a Buddha-like stature. What does this mean for the process of

i. Enable a person to feel intrinsically motivated with life itself at the present time, regardless of any obstacles and/or difficulties that may exist. This intrinsic motivation emphasizes the importance of a person's inclination towards individual growth and non-materialistic matters. For example, in a non-academic sense, a person may feel intrinsically motivated to assist others to be at peace, content, and be happy with themselves. Academically, in contrast, intrinsic motivation may reflect a student's inner desire to seek new knowledge

ii. Instill a strong sense of decisiveness and determination to persist in a course of action, academically and/or non-academically. This personal resolve reflects an autonomous and determined mindset, such as a person's decision to encounter and resolve a problem despite his/her uncertainty. Academically, for example, a sense of decisiveness could compel a student to choose an appropriate course of action (e.g., seeking help from someone capable) for his/her learning purposes. Non-academically, likewise, a person may act on his/her determination to make sound decisions that could impact on others.

iii. Ensure there is consideration of organization, structured thinking, and efficiency in one's course of action. There is self-awareness of the implication of wasted time and effort, and the weighing of resources that are available. From mindfulness, one is able to accomplish a task or a set of tasks with clear deliberation. Non-academically, for example, a person may seek out pathways to expeditiously complete a task at work, despite numerous disruptions. Academically, likewise, a student may choose an appropriate cognitive strat-

iv. Instill high-energized mental strength to enable a person to face difficulties and obstacles with a sense of resolute and positivity. Consequently as a result of mindfulness, one is

egy to learn Calculus in order to minimize his/her time wasting.

optimization? A Buddha-like stature would, in our consideration:

Figure 3. The relationship between mindfulness and optimal functioning.

50 Educational Psychology - Between Certitudes and Uncertainties

for interest and intellectual curiosity purposes.

In terms of functioning, consider the importance of cognitive functioning. In the context of academia, cognitive functioning may consist of academic performance and/or the seeking of mastery competence in a subject matter [7]. Achieving an exceptional result in Calculus, for example, may indicate optimal cognitive functioning in mathematics. It is pertinent then that we consider, conceptually and practically, how we could optimize a student's academic learning experiences, which may be subject to both performance and mastery-based criteria. The totality of mindfulness, according to our conceptualization, is concerned with a person's achievement of nirvana. This experience, from our own personal recalls of understanding, knowledge, and experiences over the years, reflects the true meaning of life—to detach oneself and feel unpressured from the competitive and materialistic world. We argue that a mindset void of everything in life, except the fulfillment of contentment, prosperity, happiness, peace and harmony would bring forth a state of serenity and tranquility. Here, at this personal state, a student does not feel pressured and appreciate everything there is to know, regardless of his/her existing level of understanding. What this would mean for a student then, is that academic learning is a personal journey that is full of enrichments and no ends. Acquiring knowledge, in this regard, is autonomous, personal, and free from extraneous influences. Failures and successes, in this case, are irrelevant as the true meaning of learning is to experience life itself. Learning Calculus or any other academic subject matters, in this instance, is part and parcel of being a person where there is no specific 'timezone'. Importantly, focusing on the philosophical and/or religious beliefs of Buddhism, one realizes that learning is an endless journey that has no destiny to achieve.

Hence, from the preceding section, mindfulness could serve to optimize a person's cognitive growth. At the same time, of course, we contend that as a psychological agency, mindfulness could also optimize physical (e.g., a healthy lifestyle), emotional (e.g., happiness), and social (e.g., social relationship and friendship) functioning. Considering that ultimately mindfulness is concerned with enlightenment, we argue that the positive psychological, philosophical, and spiritual nature of a person's mindset would help:

model has also led us to consider mindfulness, in its totality, as a psychological agency that

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We recognize that there are some major complexities, which pose difficulties in the assessment and measurement of the conceptualization that is depicted in Figure 3. Social sciences research would require rigorous methodological designs that enable, for example, the quantification of variables and statistical inferences of their relationships [50]. From a Western perspective then, as we previously described, researchers have focused on the factorial structures of mindfulness (e.g., [47, 48]). In this analysis, researchers have varied in their conceptualizations and the subsequent results found from factor analyses—from a one-factor model [51] through to a sixfactor model [52]. The issue, however, is that our proposed model of mindfulness is nonconventional, and takes into account Buddhism as an underlying focus of inquiry. How do we measure and assess Buddhism in its entirety? More importantly, referring to our proposition, how do we measure and assess the extent to which one has reached a state of enlightenment? We contend that the notion of spirituality, which is one main component of mindfulness, is extremely difficult to gauge at and/or to measure and assess. Delving into the nature of a person's contemplation, reflection, and his/her true faith in Buddhism, we contend, is not an easy task to determine. A traditional methodological approach that consists of the use of a Likert-scale measure is somewhat problematic and/or limited, as a subject's response may not

necessarily indicate his/her 'inner' feeling and experience of enlightenment.

is beyond the scope of our understanding at the present time.

From our theoretical positioning, enlightenment upon successful meditation would enable a person to experience a Buddha-like stature that, in this sense, reflects contentment, prosperity, happiness, peace and harmony. Some Buddhist nuns and monks, likewise, would argue that in-depth practice of meditation would also enable some to experience transcendence—the perceived ability of a person to exist in another realm that is outside the existing time-space realm. Hence, in a similar vein, we gather that it is non-feasible and non-viable to consider the use of the traditional methodological approaches. In this analysis, it would be more enriching and insightful if we could develop non-traditional methodological means to seek understanding into the nature of our proposed model of mindfulness. As practicing Buddhists, for example, Authors 3, 4, 5, and 6 of this chapter have considered the potentiality of methodological designs that the natural laws of physics may not be able to explain. How this is possible

In a similar vein, we recognize the complexity of mindfulness as a psychological agency of the process of optimization. This conceptualization, indeed, is complex and difficult to validate, especially when we consider the limitations of traditional quantitative methods. Notwithstanding the obstacles that we have discussed, over the past couple of years we have explored an interesting line of inquiry, namely, the proposition and development of 'methodological conceptualization' that could address a particular area of research. This research-based approach is innovative as emphasis is placed on a researcher's synthesis of existing studies, in-depth knowledge, and strongly rationalized postulation. The main focus of this discourse is to initiate social dialogs, and to encourage researchers to make theoretical, methodological, and/or empirical contributions to the conceptualized inquiry. A proposition, we contend from our research-based discourse, may be accepted, advanced, and/or revised. Other researchers, for example, may offer

could operate to optimize a person's state of functioning.

