**4. MLE and cognitive modifiability: research perspective**

The effects of parent-child interaction on cognitive development captured the interest of researchers for several decades [1–8, 14, 19–22, 29, 31, 44–49]. The general hypothesis in studies deriving from the MLE paradigm is that parent-child MLE interactions predict significantly children's cognitive modifiability and that *postteaching* performance on DA is reflecting children's cognitive ability more than *preteaching* performance (i.e., static measure). This hypothesis is based on the idea that adequate parent-child MLE offers children "psychological tools" [7, 8] that serve to expand and differentiate their *zone of proximal development* (ZPD). According to Vygotsky, MLE interactions are more accurate in predicting the upper level of ZPD than static test performance [2]. In the following, the *Observation of Mediation Interaction* scale [13–16] that was used to measure MLE strategies and Tzuriel's DA approach that was used to measure cognitive modifiability are presented. Following these methodological aspects, research that validates the impact of MLE on cognitive modifiability is presented.

children, clinical and measurement versions of assessment, communication aspects, phases of

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In all studies reported below, we used a measurement approach according to which preand postteaching phases are given without mediation and the child's responses are scored; a short-term mediation phase is given between the tests. In the following, an example of a DA measure of young children, the *Children's Analogical Thinking Modifiability* (CATM; [43]) is presented. For further description of Tzuriel's DA measures, readers are referred to Tzuriel [2–5]. The CATM (see **Figure 2**) is composed of three phases of teaching: preteaching, teaching, and postteaching. Each phase is composed of analogies increasing in level of difficulty. The operation of analogy was chosen as it has been considered as a powerful operation that covers a wide range of cognitive processes and as a principal operation related to problem-solving tasks and academic activities [50–53]. The CATM test is composed of 14 items for each of the preteaching, teaching, and postteaching phases. The test materials include 18 colored blocks used to present and solve the analogies, and problem cards for the examiner. The problems are graduated in level of difficulty. The advanced problems require a relatively higher level of abstraction and cognitive functions such as systematic exploratory behavior and simultaneous consideration of a few sources of information. In item 13, for example (**Figure 2**), the child must compare the colors in the first pair of the problem, grasp the principle of opposite position of colors, apply the same principle in the second pair, and then compare the relations of shape and size in the first pair and apply the same relations in the second pair. As can be seen in **Figure 2**, the relation of colors is opposite in the first pair: **top**-yellow changes to **bottom**yellow and **bottom**-red changes to **top**-red. The child must apply the rule of opposite colors to the second pair: **top**-blue changes to **bottom**-blue and **bottom**-yellow changes to **top**-yellow. After finding the correct colors, the child can analyze the relations for the other two dimensions of shape and size. In the teaching phase, the child is mediated to (a) search for relevant dimensions required for solution, (b) understand transformational rules of analogy, (c) use systematic exploratory behavior, (d) verbally anticipate the answer, and (d) improve search efficiency. There are two scoring methods: "all-or-none" (e.g., a score of 1 to full answer) or

"partial credit" (e.g., a score of 1 for each correct dimension of color, shape, and size).

**Figure 2.** Example problem from the *Children's Analogical Thinking Modifiability* [43] (by permission of the author).

assessment, and recording and scoring methods.

#### **4.1. Observation of Mediation Interaction (OMI) scale**

Research on MLE processes has been carried out mostly by videotaping of the interaction and analyzing them later by observers using the *Observation of Mediation Interaction* scale (OMI; [14–17]). For instance, when a parent focuses the child's attention on some aspects of a stimulus, it has been coded as *Intentionality* (*focusing*) only if it was *reciprocated* by the child's response. Transcendence (*expanding*) was coded when the mediator tried to generalize a rule, suggest a concept, or a principle that goes beyond the concreteness of the situation. The OMI is based on an interaction "event" that might contain one or more MLE strategies. A basic assumption of the OMI is that MLE processes observed in a seminatural experimental context reflect the spontaneous MLE processes at home; this has been supported in several studies [13–17]. In all studies, dyads of mothers with their children (or peers or siblings) were videotaped in a seminatural context of an adjunct room of the kindergarten, or in the child's home; both places were familiar to children and their mothers. In a free-play condition, sets of games and play materials were placed on the table in a kindergarten room or at home. Mediators were instructed to play in whatever they want with their child for 15 minutes. More specifically, they are instructed to play in a similar way they are used to play at home. In a structured situation, mediators were given a few problems, which they had to teach their child. The tasks in different studies were composed of analogical problems, picture arrangement, and problems requiring logical inference; all tasks *were not* related to the tasks used in the following DA procedure. It should be emphasized that no directions were given as to how to teach the child. The OMI was found as strongly reliable as measured by interrater reliability and as robustly valid in many studies [2–6, 13–22, 29].

#### **4.2. Tzuriel's dynamic assessment approach of learning potential**

Tzuriel's DA approach [2–5] with young children is based on both Vygotsky's sociocultural theory and Feuerstein's MLE theory. The assessment approach is characterized by innovations of test materials, assessment procedures adapted for the developmental stages of young children, clinical and measurement versions of assessment, communication aspects, phases of assessment, and recording and scoring methods.

**4. MLE and cognitive modifiability: research perspective**

26 Educational Psychology - Between Certitudes and Uncertainties

**4.1. Observation of Mediation Interaction (OMI) scale**

valid in many studies [2–6, 13–22, 29].

**4.2. Tzuriel's dynamic assessment approach of learning potential**

Tzuriel's DA approach [2–5] with young children is based on both Vygotsky's sociocultural theory and Feuerstein's MLE theory. The assessment approach is characterized by innovations of test materials, assessment procedures adapted for the developmental stages of young

The effects of parent-child interaction on cognitive development captured the interest of researchers for several decades [1–8, 14, 19–22, 29, 31, 44–49]. The general hypothesis in studies deriving from the MLE paradigm is that parent-child MLE interactions predict significantly children's cognitive modifiability and that *postteaching* performance on DA is reflecting children's cognitive ability more than *preteaching* performance (i.e., static measure). This hypothesis is based on the idea that adequate parent-child MLE offers children "psychological tools" [7, 8] that serve to expand and differentiate their *zone of proximal development* (ZPD). According to Vygotsky, MLE interactions are more accurate in predicting the upper level of ZPD than static test performance [2]. In the following, the *Observation of Mediation Interaction* scale [13–16] that was used to measure MLE strategies and Tzuriel's DA approach that was used to measure cognitive modifiability are presented. Following these methodological aspects, research that validates the impact of MLE on cognitive modifiability is presented.

Research on MLE processes has been carried out mostly by videotaping of the interaction and analyzing them later by observers using the *Observation of Mediation Interaction* scale (OMI; [14–17]). For instance, when a parent focuses the child's attention on some aspects of a stimulus, it has been coded as *Intentionality* (*focusing*) only if it was *reciprocated* by the child's response. Transcendence (*expanding*) was coded when the mediator tried to generalize a rule, suggest a concept, or a principle that goes beyond the concreteness of the situation. The OMI is based on an interaction "event" that might contain one or more MLE strategies. A basic assumption of the OMI is that MLE processes observed in a seminatural experimental context reflect the spontaneous MLE processes at home; this has been supported in several studies [13–17]. In all studies, dyads of mothers with their children (or peers or siblings) were videotaped in a seminatural context of an adjunct room of the kindergarten, or in the child's home; both places were familiar to children and their mothers. In a free-play condition, sets of games and play materials were placed on the table in a kindergarten room or at home. Mediators were instructed to play in whatever they want with their child for 15 minutes. More specifically, they are instructed to play in a similar way they are used to play at home. In a structured situation, mediators were given a few problems, which they had to teach their child. The tasks in different studies were composed of analogical problems, picture arrangement, and problems requiring logical inference; all tasks *were not* related to the tasks used in the following DA procedure. It should be emphasized that no directions were given as to how to teach the child. The OMI was found as strongly reliable as measured by interrater reliability and as robustly In all studies reported below, we used a measurement approach according to which preand postteaching phases are given without mediation and the child's responses are scored; a short-term mediation phase is given between the tests. In the following, an example of a DA measure of young children, the *Children's Analogical Thinking Modifiability* (CATM; [43]) is presented. For further description of Tzuriel's DA measures, readers are referred to Tzuriel [2–5].

The CATM (see **Figure 2**) is composed of three phases of teaching: preteaching, teaching, and postteaching. Each phase is composed of analogies increasing in level of difficulty. The operation of analogy was chosen as it has been considered as a powerful operation that covers a wide range of cognitive processes and as a principal operation related to problem-solving tasks and academic activities [50–53]. The CATM test is composed of 14 items for each of the preteaching, teaching, and postteaching phases. The test materials include 18 colored blocks used to present and solve the analogies, and problem cards for the examiner. The problems are graduated in level of difficulty. The advanced problems require a relatively higher level of abstraction and cognitive functions such as systematic exploratory behavior and simultaneous consideration of a few sources of information. In item 13, for example (**Figure 2**), the child must compare the colors in the first pair of the problem, grasp the principle of opposite position of colors, apply the same principle in the second pair, and then compare the relations of shape and size in the first pair and apply the same relations in the second pair. As can be seen in **Figure 2**, the relation of colors is opposite in the first pair: **top**-yellow changes to **bottom**yellow and **bottom**-red changes to **top**-red. The child must apply the rule of opposite colors to the second pair: **top**-blue changes to **bottom**-blue and **bottom**-yellow changes to **top**-yellow. After finding the correct colors, the child can analyze the relations for the other two dimensions of shape and size. In the teaching phase, the child is mediated to (a) search for relevant dimensions required for solution, (b) understand transformational rules of analogy, (c) use systematic exploratory behavior, (d) verbally anticipate the answer, and (d) improve search efficiency. There are two scoring methods: "all-or-none" (e.g., a score of 1 to full answer) or "partial credit" (e.g., a score of 1 for each correct dimension of color, shape, and size).

**Figure 2.** Example problem from the *Children's Analogical Thinking Modifiability* [43] (by permission of the author).

#### **4.3. The effects of MLE strategies on cognitive modifiability**

The general hypothesis in studies deriving from the MLE theory is that parent-child MLE is more accurate in predicting the cognitive modifiability of the child (i.e., postteaching score) than a static test score (i.e., preteaching score). This hypothesis is based on Vygotsky's theory [7, 8] that proper mediation affords children "psychological tools" that serve to expand their *zone of proximal development* (ZPD). Therefore, the upper level of ZPD measures would be more accurate as a predicted outcome of MLE interactions than static test performance [2]. In a series of studies carried out at Bar-Ilan University laboratory by Tzuriel [2–5, 38], it was demonstrated that MLE strategies directly explain cognitive modifiability of children as measured by DA instruments. In the following, studies demonstrating the relation between parent-child MLE interactions and cognitive modifiability are presented. Because of space limitation, only two example studies are presented.

The main objective of the studies reported below was to validate the relationship between MLE processes and children's cognitive modifiability and support the main hypothesis that the proximal factor of MLE is a causal factor that explains cognitive modifiability. Another objective was to find out which specific combination of MLE strategies predicts children's cognitive modifiability. A summary of findings is presented in **Table 1**.

A major finding repeated in almost all studies was that children's postteaching scores on DA measures were better predicted by MLE mother-child interactions than by static test scores (or preteaching DA scores). Because of space limitations, only two studied are reported here [20, 21]. The most striking finding emerging from **Table 1** is that in 10 out of 12 studies the strategy that has emerged as most powerful in predicting cognitive modifiability was *mediation for Transcendence* (expanding), a finding that will be discussed later.

**Study 1.** In the first study, a sample of kibbutz mother-child dyads (n = 47) was observed in a free-play situation for 20 minutes [20]. The kibbutz young children (22 boys and 25 girls, age range = 4:7–7:8 years) were then administrated the *Raven Colored Progressive Matrices* (RCPM) [54] and the *Children's Inferential Thinking Modifiability* test [40]. Performance on the CITM provides three types of scores: preteaching, postteaching, and gain. The data were analyzed by three stepwise regression analyses, one for each score. In each analysis, the RCPM and MLE-Total scores were assigned as predicting variables. The findings, presented schematically in **Figure 3**, revealed a very interesting pattern of prediction. The preteaching (static) score was predicted only by the RCPM (R = 0.40, *p* < 0.004). The postteaching score was predicted by both MLE-Total and RCPM (R = 0.69, *p* < 0.002). The gain score was predicted only by MLE-Total score (R = 0.43, *p* < 0.001). The interpretation of this progression of prediction was as follows. The preteaching score, which is a static score, was predicted only by the RCPM, which is also a static score. This finding settles with the notion that the common variance of two cognitive tests is higher than the common variance of a cognitive test with an observed behavior (i.e., MLE score). The postteaching score is presumably composed of two components: the previously acquired inferential skills (manifested in preteaching performance) and what has been learned as a function of mediation provided in the teaching phase. It is therefore reasonable to assume that the first component (postteaching score) was attributed to the static RCPM score and the second component (postteaching score) to

the mother-child MLE score. Analysis of the gain score was significantly predicted only by mother-child MLE score. This increasing pattern of progression of prediction across the three regression analyses is quite intriguing as it shows that "*the more the criterion score was saturated with teaching effects, within the testing DA procedure, the higher was the variance contributed by* 

**Table 1.** Studies on MLE strategies and cognitive modifiability: sample characteristics, DA measures, analyses used, and

Reading: LBW = low birth weight, NBW = normal birth weight; LD = learning disabled; ADHD = attention deficit hyperactive disorder; SEM = structural equation modeling; M-C = mother-child; F-C = father-child; T-C = teacher-child; CATM = *Children's Analogical Thinking Modifiability*; CITM = *Children's Inferential Thinking Modifiability*; CMB = *Cognitive* 

**Study 2.** In this study [21], we observed a sample of kindergarten children (n = 48) and their mothers in free-play and structured (teaching) conditions and tested the children with the

*MLE mother-child processes"* ([2], p. 155).

**Study Grade Age n Sample Dyad DA**

3–4 5–8 56 LBW +

3–4 9–10 85 LBW +

1. Tzuriel and Eran [20]

2. Tzuriel and Ernst [21]

4. Tzuriel and Weiss [26]

5. Tzuriel and Hatzir [61]

6. Weitz and Tzuriel [62]

7. Tzuriel and Weitz [28]

8. Tzuriel and Shomron [25]

9. Tzuriel and Bettan [27]

10. Tzuriel and Rokach [31]

11. Tzuriel and Caspi [19]

Age of older sibling.

12. Tzuriel, Rotem and Kashy-Rosenbaum [63]

a

**tests**

Mother-Child Mediated Learning Experience Strategies and Children's Cognitive Modifiability…

K 5–6 47 Typical M-C CITM Regression MLE-Total

3. Tzuriel [60] K 5–6 48 Typical M-C CATM Regression MLE-Total competence

K 5–6 60 Typical M-C + F-C CATM

NBW

NBW

3 8–9a 100 Typical M-C + Peers CMB

*Modifiability Battery* (Analogies Subtest); CF = *Complex Figure*; STI = *Seria-Think Instrument*.

MLE strategies (partially adapted from Tzuriel [5], with permission of the publisher).

K 5–6 100 Typical M-C + T-C CATM ANOVA

K 5–6 48 Typical M-C CATM SEM Transcendence

2 7–8 54 Typical M-C CITM SEM Transcendence

M-C CATM

M-C CMB

2–4 7–10 100 LD M-C CMB SEM Transcendence

K 5–6 72 ADHD M-C CMB SEM Transcendence

3–6 8–12a 90 Typical Siblings CMB SEM Transcendence

CF

CF

CF

STI

**Analysis MLE strategies**

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regulation

intentionality and reciprocity

Transcendence

Transcendence

Regression Transcendence

Regression Transcendence regulation

Regression Transcendence

MANOVA Regression

Regression SEM

Mother-Child Mediated Learning Experience Strategies and Children's Cognitive Modifiability… http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80976 29


a Age of older sibling.

**4.3. The effects of MLE strategies on cognitive modifiability**

28 Educational Psychology - Between Certitudes and Uncertainties

limitation, only two example studies are presented.

cognitive modifiability. A summary of findings is presented in **Table 1**.

*for Transcendence* (expanding), a finding that will be discussed later.

The general hypothesis in studies deriving from the MLE theory is that parent-child MLE is more accurate in predicting the cognitive modifiability of the child (i.e., postteaching score) than a static test score (i.e., preteaching score). This hypothesis is based on Vygotsky's theory [7, 8] that proper mediation affords children "psychological tools" that serve to expand their *zone of proximal development* (ZPD). Therefore, the upper level of ZPD measures would be more accurate as a predicted outcome of MLE interactions than static test performance [2]. In a series of studies carried out at Bar-Ilan University laboratory by Tzuriel [2–5, 38], it was demonstrated that MLE strategies directly explain cognitive modifiability of children as measured by DA instruments. In the following, studies demonstrating the relation between parent-child MLE interactions and cognitive modifiability are presented. Because of space

The main objective of the studies reported below was to validate the relationship between MLE processes and children's cognitive modifiability and support the main hypothesis that the proximal factor of MLE is a causal factor that explains cognitive modifiability. Another objective was to find out which specific combination of MLE strategies predicts children's

A major finding repeated in almost all studies was that children's postteaching scores on DA measures were better predicted by MLE mother-child interactions than by static test scores (or preteaching DA scores). Because of space limitations, only two studied are reported here [20, 21]. The most striking finding emerging from **Table 1** is that in 10 out of 12 studies the strategy that has emerged as most powerful in predicting cognitive modifiability was *mediation* 

**Study 1.** In the first study, a sample of kibbutz mother-child dyads (n = 47) was observed in a free-play situation for 20 minutes [20]. The kibbutz young children (22 boys and 25 girls, age range = 4:7–7:8 years) were then administrated the *Raven Colored Progressive Matrices* (RCPM) [54] and the *Children's Inferential Thinking Modifiability* test [40]. Performance on the CITM provides three types of scores: preteaching, postteaching, and gain. The data were analyzed by three stepwise regression analyses, one for each score. In each analysis, the RCPM and MLE-Total scores were assigned as predicting variables. The findings, presented schematically in **Figure 3**, revealed a very interesting pattern of prediction. The preteaching (static) score was predicted only by the RCPM (R = 0.40, *p* < 0.004). The postteaching score was predicted by both MLE-Total and RCPM (R = 0.69, *p* < 0.002). The gain score was predicted only by MLE-Total score (R = 0.43, *p* < 0.001). The interpretation of this progression of prediction was as follows. The preteaching score, which is a static score, was predicted only by the RCPM, which is also a static score. This finding settles with the notion that the common variance of two cognitive tests is higher than the common variance of a cognitive test with an observed behavior (i.e., MLE score). The postteaching score is presumably composed of two components: the previously acquired inferential skills (manifested in preteaching performance) and what has been learned as a function of mediation provided in the teaching phase. It is therefore reasonable to assume that the first component (postteaching score) was attributed to the static RCPM score and the second component (postteaching score) to

Reading: LBW = low birth weight, NBW = normal birth weight; LD = learning disabled; ADHD = attention deficit hyperactive disorder; SEM = structural equation modeling; M-C = mother-child; F-C = father-child; T-C = teacher-child; CATM = *Children's Analogical Thinking Modifiability*; CITM = *Children's Inferential Thinking Modifiability*; CMB = *Cognitive Modifiability Battery* (Analogies Subtest); CF = *Complex Figure*; STI = *Seria-Think Instrument*.

**Table 1.** Studies on MLE strategies and cognitive modifiability: sample characteristics, DA measures, analyses used, and MLE strategies (partially adapted from Tzuriel [5], with permission of the publisher).

the mother-child MLE score. Analysis of the gain score was significantly predicted only by mother-child MLE score. This increasing pattern of progression of prediction across the three regression analyses is quite intriguing as it shows that "*the more the criterion score was saturated with teaching effects, within the testing DA procedure, the higher was the variance contributed by MLE mother-child processes"* ([2], p. 155).

**Study 2.** In this study [21], we observed a sample of kindergarten children (n = 48) and their mothers in free-play and structured (teaching) conditions and tested the children with the

**Figure 3.** Prediction of CITM preteaching, CITM postteaching, and cognitive modifiability by Raven's score and total MLE score.

CATM test (see above). Mothers' socioeconomic status (SES) and intelligence measured by *Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices* (RSPM) [55] were considered as distal factors, MLE strategies as proximal factors, and CATM postteaching score as indicator of cognitive modifiability. Children's performance on the RCPM and the CATM preteaching scores were introduced as static test scores for comparison with the CATM postteaching score. The findings, analyzed by *structural equation modeling* (SEM, see **Figure 4**), show that the MLE strategy of Transcendence significantly predicted the CATM postteaching score and the MLE strategy of Meaning predicted the preteaching score. The children's RCPM score did not predict or was not predicted by any of the variables. None of the distal factors of mother's SES or intelligence predicted cognitive modifiability (i.e., CATM postteaching). The authors interpreted the findings as supporting the MLE theory regarding the causal effects of distal and proximal factors (MLE) on cognitive modifiability. Furthermore, the contribution of the *specific MLE strategy* could be attributed to the phase of testing. The prediction of CATM preteaching score by mediation of Meaning, which includes labeling of information, was interpreted as signifying the importance of verbal labeling of information in first encounters with analogy problems such as the CATM preteaching problems. On the other hand, the prediction of CATM postteaching score by mediation for Transcendence (expanding) indicates the significance of learning of abstract rules, cognitive strategies, and principles such as those mediated in the teaching phase and later assessed in the postteaching phase. Thus, children whose mothers used high level of mediation for Meaning internalized this mechanism of mediation and therefore performed better on the preteaching phase. Children whose mothers used a high level of mediation for Transcendence internalized this specific mechanism and used it later in other learning contexts. These results support the "specificity" [56] of the MLE strategies as predictors of cognitive outcomes.

The SEM analysis approach was applied in a series of seven studies [19–22, 29, 31, 25–28]. In all studies, we established the theoretical model of the effects of distal and proximal factors on cognitive modifiability. The overall results of the SEM analyses were congruent with MLE theory, according to which proximal factors explain individual differences in children's cognitive functioning, whereas distal factors (i.e., SES level, mother's intelligence, child's personality, mother's acceptance-rejection of the child) do not have a direct effect on children's cognitive

**Figure 4.** Structural equation model analysis: the effects of distal factors (mothers' socioeconomic level and intelligence) and proximal factors (MLE strategies) on children's cognitive modifiability (copied by permission from Tzuriel and

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modifiability, although they do explain some of the MLE strategies (proximal factor).

Ernst [21]).

In contradiction to the MLE theory, in two studies, distal factors were found as directly predicting cognitive modifiability; the samples in both studies were composed of children with learning and behavioral difficulties. For example, in a study carried out on kindergarten children with ADHD [51], two MLE strategies, Meaning (β = 0.26) and Transcendence (β = 0.46), predicted cognitive modifiability. Two distal factors severity of the ADHD (β = −0.26) and mother's SES level (β = 0.46) explained directly children's cognitive modifiability; these findings do not correspond Mother-Child Mediated Learning Experience Strategies and Children's Cognitive Modifiability… http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80976 31

CATM test (see above). Mothers' socioeconomic status (SES) and intelligence measured by *Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices* (RSPM) [55] were considered as distal factors, MLE strategies as proximal factors, and CATM postteaching score as indicator of cognitive modifiability. Children's performance on the RCPM and the CATM preteaching scores were introduced as static test scores for comparison with the CATM postteaching score. The findings, analyzed by *structural equation modeling* (SEM, see **Figure 4**), show that the MLE strategy of Transcendence significantly predicted the CATM postteaching score and the MLE strategy of Meaning predicted the preteaching score. The children's RCPM score did not predict or was not predicted by any of the variables. None of the distal factors of mother's SES or intelligence predicted cognitive modifiability (i.e., CATM postteaching). The authors interpreted the findings as supporting the MLE theory regarding the causal effects of distal and proximal factors (MLE) on cognitive modifiability. Furthermore, the contribution of the *specific MLE strategy* could be attributed to the phase of testing. The prediction of CATM preteaching score by mediation of Meaning, which includes labeling of information, was interpreted as signifying the importance of verbal labeling of information in first encounters with analogy problems such as the CATM preteaching problems. On the other hand, the prediction of CATM postteaching score by mediation for Transcendence (expanding) indicates the significance of learning of abstract rules, cognitive strategies, and principles such as those mediated in the teaching phase and later assessed in the postteaching phase. Thus, children whose mothers used high level of mediation for Meaning internalized this mechanism of mediation and therefore performed better on the preteaching phase. Children whose mothers used a high level of mediation for Transcendence internalized this specific mechanism and used it later in other learning contexts. These results support the "specificity" [56] of the MLE strategies as

**Figure 3.** Prediction of CITM preteaching, CITM postteaching, and cognitive modifiability by Raven's score and total

predictors of cognitive outcomes.

MLE score.

30 Educational Psychology - Between Certitudes and Uncertainties

**Figure 4.** Structural equation model analysis: the effects of distal factors (mothers' socioeconomic level and intelligence) and proximal factors (MLE strategies) on children's cognitive modifiability (copied by permission from Tzuriel and Ernst [21]).

The SEM analysis approach was applied in a series of seven studies [19–22, 29, 31, 25–28]. In all studies, we established the theoretical model of the effects of distal and proximal factors on cognitive modifiability. The overall results of the SEM analyses were congruent with MLE theory, according to which proximal factors explain individual differences in children's cognitive functioning, whereas distal factors (i.e., SES level, mother's intelligence, child's personality, mother's acceptance-rejection of the child) do not have a direct effect on children's cognitive modifiability, although they do explain some of the MLE strategies (proximal factor).

In contradiction to the MLE theory, in two studies, distal factors were found as directly predicting cognitive modifiability; the samples in both studies were composed of children with learning and behavioral difficulties. For example, in a study carried out on kindergarten children with ADHD [51], two MLE strategies, Meaning (β = 0.26) and Transcendence (β = 0.46), predicted cognitive modifiability. Two distal factors severity of the ADHD (β = −0.26) and mother's SES level (β = 0.46) explained directly children's cognitive modifiability; these findings do not correspond the MLE theory. These findings indicate that the higher the severity of the child's ADHD and the lower the mother's SES level, the lower the cognitive modifiability of the child. Similarly, in Tzuriel and Shomron's [25] study on children with learning disability (LD), one distal factor *Home Environment* (HOME [47]) explained directly children's cognitive modifiability (β = 0.60) together with a summed score of four MLE strategies (β = 0.41). These findings indicate that for children experiencing learning difficulties, the distal factors influence directly the child's cognitive modifiability. It is possible to explain these findings by the fact that in samples of children with learning difficulties (e.g., ADHD, LD), even adequate mother-child mediation is not sufficient to overcome or "nullify" the distal factors' strength of predicting children's cognitive modifiability. It should be emphasized that mothers of children with learning difficulties had no prior training for mediation. We assume that training of mothers to use better MLE strategies in their spontaneous interaction with their children would reduce significantly the effects of the distal factors on children's cognitive modifiability. These findings offer an elaboration of the MLE theory. The effects of distal factors on children's cognitive modifiability in samples of typically developing children are not direct (as conceptualized by the theory), whereas in samples of children with learning difficulties, distal factors have direct effects on children's cognitive modifiability unless a more intensive level of mediation is applied. An intensive use of MLE strategies would minimize the effects of the distal factors. Enhancement of MLE strategies is essential to ameliorate the direct effects of distal factors on cognitive modifiability.

The distal factors were found as predictors of the proximal factor of MLE strategies in typically developing children, but they do not predict children's cognitive modifiability. The MLE strategies in turn do predict children's cognitive modifiability. However, in samples of children experiencing learning difficulties, the distal factors (adverse conditions) were found to affect directly children's cognitive modifiability. It was suggested that to cancel or overcome the adverse effects, much more "robust" mediation efforts should be applied. The effects of the distal factors on children's cognitive modifiability would diminish should mothers be trained to mediate.

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I suggest refining the MLE theory and extend the concept of MLE to include it within a more complex transactional-ecological model. We should reconsider the reciprocal nature of MLE and cognition within a broader scope of environmental factors, as well as dealing with the MLE processes as one component within a holistic framework. This is especially important because of the menace of overextending the influence of MLE processes and overgeneralizing it to explain too many cognitive and noncognitive phenomena. It is imperative to establish the conceptual limits of MLE theory and delineate its specific effects. The term "transactional" (rather than interactional) is aimed at the idea that MLE processes and cognitive functioning are reciprocal and have mutual effects. Wachs and Plomin [57] distinguish between interaction and transaction. Interaction involves individuals differentially reacting to similar environments, whereas transaction implies effects that are differential for both individuals and environments. A different distinction was suggested by Tzuriel [2, 5]. Interactional process is conceptualized by relative simplicity and transience of effects, whereas a transactional process is dialectically *circular* with a continual change and mutual adjustment of the factors involved. This dialectical circularity poses a real challenge for theory development and methodology, but with recent advances in technology and sophisticated statistical analyses, it can be handled effectively. There is a possibility though that the children's cognitive functioning might influence parentchild MLE strategies and that the circular relation between these factors depends on wider family, social, and cultural contexts. A similar conception has been discussed in Bronfenbrenner's [59] ecological approach and by Super and Harkness [58], who proposed the concept of *developmental niches*. Some evidence for the effects of age, context, and severity of a child's problems and cultural background has been reported as well [13–16, 19–22, 25–28]. In addition to cognitive aspects, we should consider children's affective and motivational processes as prerequisite factors in determining the nature of MLE processes and children's cognitive modifiability.

This chapter was partially adapted from Tzuriel [5], by permission of the publisher.

Address all correspondence to: david.tzuriel@biu.ac.il

School of Education, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel

**Acknowledgements**

**Author details**

David Tzuriel

This modification of the MLE theory should be investigated in intervention studies where mothers of children with learning difficulties will be trained to use MLE strategies. We suggest that mothers trained to mediate (experimental) would be compared with nontrained mothers and their interactions with their children should be observed a year later after the effects of training are internalized and assimilated into the mother-child interactional system. The children should then be administered DA measures to assess their cognitive modifiability. My hypothesis is that distal factors will directly affect children's cognitive modifiability among nontrained mothers but will be significantly lower or disappear among trained mothers.
