**Abstract**

A fair comparison of the conditions in which men and women work is inconsistent, since although they are interacting with the same objects, means and conditions of work, there are differences in the way each gender work, so it condition that naturally the productive systems segregate and thus establish jobs typically "feminized" based on the best adaptation of women to repetitive work low load. From a physical and psychological point of view, female workers have greater exposure to low strength, repetitive motion of upper extremities that causes gender disparity with its health consequences. This chapter documents a study where females were found to have lower biomechanical negative effects in the upper extremities compared to similar male exposures and a higher rate of productivity, especially in tasks of low force demand. This can be attributed to the fact that men used more strength than what was strictly necessary to accomplish the task, mobilizing a greater number of muscle groups than women; females also showed a greater resilience to conditions of high repetitiveness that demanded high-quantitative psychological demands and still maintain productivity rates over time, evidencing also lower rates of rotation and absenteeism caused by musculoskeletal disorders.

**Keywords:** occupational risks, occupational diseases, cumulative trauma disorders, musculoskeletal system, gender ergonomics

## **1. Introduction**

Biology has always been a determining factor in the definition of the social roles of men and women. From the earliest social organizations of *Homo sapiens*, women oversaw all aspects associated with reproduction: the raising of children, the maintenance of the domestic space, and the care of the elderly. Men were in charge of productive work, study, politics, and laws.

From a physical point of view, differences in gender structure and strength also marked important work differences, giving women roles that involve more repetitive tasks of low strength with upper limbs (basic agricultural tasks, food preparation, clothing, etc.), while the man took on the role related to tasks of handling of loads, walk long routes, and intensive application of force (hunting, fishing, war, etc.) [1].

According to Scott [2], the separation history between home and work emphasizes the functional and biological differences between women and men that end up legitimizing and institutionalizing these differences as the basis of social organization; this division of labor has been normalized.

"Sexual division of labor is universal, but it is specific to each society, and there is a long cultural variability, which shows that the link between work and gender depends on both cultural and biological differences between men and women" [3].

With the industrial revolution and Taylor's theories about the scientific organization of labor, mechanization and the scarcity of postwar male labor were circumstances that encouraged the intensive inclusion of women in manufacturing, beyond the sexual division of labor based on reproductive tasks. Female labor dominated many industries in the textile, electrical parts, and food sectors, in principle because of need, but in a second phase, due to the positive results found in terms of productivity in highly repetitive tasks [4].

This trend continues to be reaffirmed in the twenty-first century where the scenario of the manufacture of low-weight products, or sub-processes of small parts in more complex products, is carried out by the work of women. Especially in the Latin America region can be found many examples of industrial processes with a marked feminine predominance, such as the Mexican/Central American maquila or the textile production cooperatives in Brazil [5].

Then, some questions arise in relation to women, health, and repetitive work:


This chapter aims to provide experimental scientific evidence through the systematic review and application of valid instruments on this subject, from a perspective that considers the conditions of work, the health of women workers, and business productivity.

### **2. More gender balance, more productivity?**

The World Bank also supports the thesis that companies would be more productive with more women. It does so through a report published in 2014 by the International Financial Group (IFC, of which the World Bank is a member). The report, entitled "Investing in Women's Employment: Good for Business, Good for Development" [6], emphasizes that investment in women's employment has led to greater productivity, greater employee loyalty, and a greater access to talent. It also presents concrete examples of how initiatives adapted to women (training, childcare support, health services) can improve business performance.

But this labor reality, partly derived from the cultural division of labor and partly justified by the achievement of positive results in terms of productivity, has consequences in the health of working women. Although it may seem anachronistic, among the bases of the current work organization, we continue to find the Taylorist concepts that have been evolving in the ultra-specialization of workers to perform simple and highly repetitive tasks (conditioning and muscular learning) and introducing concepts such as variable compensation and production bonus [7].

**11**

*Women, Ergonomics and Repetitiveness DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82065*

sions on the health of the workers.

monotony, and boredom [9].

Exposure to repetitive work has been systematically studied in the European Union and especially in Spain [8]. In the EU, 45% of workers declare to perform monotonous tasks, and 37% declare to perform repetitive tasks. In Spain, 64% of workers say they perform repetitive movements during part of the working day. Forty-five percent of the construction workers, 35% of the industrialists, and 30% of those in the services declare to perform them for more than half a day. The most known harmful effects of repetitive work are primarily musculoskeletal disorders of the back and upper limbs. But the repetitive work also has a great relation with another problem of which we cannot disconnect it: the labor stress and its repercus-

Repetitive work, besides its ergonomic implications and its more or less direct musculoskeletal consequences, has a central psychosocial significance. In addition to the cyclical realization of the same movements hundreds or thousands of times that forces the maintenance of uncomfortable positions, repetitive work also means a lack of variety tasks, few opportunities for learning, few things to decide,

Repeating the same motion can cause injury, but injuries can take years to manifest, as opposed to an accident where the injury is seen immediately. Also, as chronic problems develop over a long period, many elements can interact. It is not in all cases that repetitive elbow movements result in tendon inflammation as one also has no evidence that women workers have a part-time job and have fewer problems than full-time workers. Musculoskeletal problems by repetition frequently are muscle and tendon inflammations such as tendinitis and bursitis. They may also treat deteriorations of cartilage and bones as in some cases of osteoarthritis and different types of spine and nerve compression problems such as carpal tunnel syndrome. These problems are found in both men and women. But several studies consistently show that women present these problems more frequently, and this situation is repeated in studies on the general population as in studies on different occupational groups [10]. If we follow the traditional model, we would say biological differences in size,

muscular strength, and aerobic capacity in combination with a very demanding work are sufficient causes to explain these differences. In the last decade, the psychological characteristics of the individual and the psychosocial environment are discussed as causal factors that can modify the response of the organism. These factors may confuse interpretation of research data, turning more difficult to find

Zwart [11] and his colleagues collected data from a questionnaire answered by a large sample of German workers, men and women. For their analysis, they divided the data by age and the demand at work (heavy or light physical demands, mental demands, or mixtures of physical and mental demands). Data shows that men and women are affected by back problems, but women refer more frequent problems in the neck and upper limbs. Reviews performed by NIOSH [12] and Artazcoz [13]

A first approach to explaining these differences in women's working conditions and their exposure to risk factors are based in several beliefs, not all of which are sufficiently well-founded: smaller people have more problems, because tools are too big for small hands; the duration of work (in years of service) with a higher-risk exposure; women have less muscle strength than men, the same conditions have greater effects on them; family responsibilities combined with working conditions increase the risk; hormonal factors alone or in interaction with working conditions

relationships between causes and effects on health.

show several studies with the same situation.

**3. Why women have more MSD in upper limbs than men?**

#### *Women, Ergonomics and Repetitiveness DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82065*

*Safety and Health for Workers - Research and Practical Perspective*

terms of productivity in highly repetitive tasks [4].

the textile production cooperatives in Brazil [5].

productivity, availability, or showed efficiency?

tible, or are they more exposed than men?

**2. More gender balance, more productivity?**

and business productivity.

with lower marginal physical loads than men?

"Sexual division of labor is universal, but it is specific to each society, and there is a long cultural variability, which shows that the link between work and gender depends on both cultural and biological differences between men and women" [3]. With the industrial revolution and Taylor's theories about the scientific organization of labor, mechanization and the scarcity of postwar male labor were circumstances that encouraged the intensive inclusion of women in manufacturing, beyond the sexual division of labor based on reproductive tasks. Female labor dominated many industries in the textile, electrical parts, and food sectors, in principle because of need, but in a second phase, due to the positive results found in

This trend continues to be reaffirmed in the twenty-first century where the scenario of the manufacture of low-weight products, or sub-processes of small parts in more complex products, is carried out by the work of women. Especially in the Latin America region can be found many examples of industrial processes with a marked feminine predominance, such as the Mexican/Central American maquila or

Then, some questions arise in relation to women, health, and repetitive work:

• For some jobs that involve repetitive tasks, companies prefer to hire women. Is this because of cultural gender considerations or factors such as increased

• At an international level, there is a higher prevalence of MSD in the female population than in the male population. Is it because women are more suscep-

• Are women physically and psychologically more suitable for repetitive work

This chapter aims to provide experimental scientific evidence through the systematic review and application of valid instruments on this subject, from a perspective that considers the conditions of work, the health of women workers,

The World Bank also supports the thesis that companies would be more productive with more women. It does so through a report published in 2014 by the International Financial Group (IFC, of which the World Bank is a member). The report, entitled "Investing in Women's Employment: Good for Business, Good for Development" [6], emphasizes that investment in women's employment has led to greater productivity, greater employee loyalty, and a greater access to talent. It also presents concrete examples of how initiatives adapted to women (training, child-

But this labor reality, partly derived from the cultural division of labor and partly justified by the achievement of positive results in terms of productivity, has consequences in the health of working women. Although it may seem anachronistic, among the bases of the current work organization, we continue to find the Taylorist concepts that have been evolving in the ultra-specialization of workers to perform simple and highly repetitive tasks (conditioning and muscular learning) and introducing concepts such as variable compensation and

care support, health services) can improve business performance.

**10**

production bonus [7].

Exposure to repetitive work has been systematically studied in the European Union and especially in Spain [8]. In the EU, 45% of workers declare to perform monotonous tasks, and 37% declare to perform repetitive tasks. In Spain, 64% of workers say they perform repetitive movements during part of the working day. Forty-five percent of the construction workers, 35% of the industrialists, and 30% of those in the services declare to perform them for more than half a day. The most known harmful effects of repetitive work are primarily musculoskeletal disorders of the back and upper limbs. But the repetitive work also has a great relation with another problem of which we cannot disconnect it: the labor stress and its repercussions on the health of the workers.

Repetitive work, besides its ergonomic implications and its more or less direct musculoskeletal consequences, has a central psychosocial significance. In addition to the cyclical realization of the same movements hundreds or thousands of times that forces the maintenance of uncomfortable positions, repetitive work also means a lack of variety tasks, few opportunities for learning, few things to decide, monotony, and boredom [9].

Repeating the same motion can cause injury, but injuries can take years to manifest, as opposed to an accident where the injury is seen immediately. Also, as chronic problems develop over a long period, many elements can interact. It is not in all cases that repetitive elbow movements result in tendon inflammation as one also has no evidence that women workers have a part-time job and have fewer problems than full-time workers. Musculoskeletal problems by repetition frequently are muscle and tendon inflammations such as tendinitis and bursitis. They may also treat deteriorations of cartilage and bones as in some cases of osteoarthritis and different types of spine and nerve compression problems such as carpal tunnel syndrome. These problems are found in both men and women. But several studies consistently show that women present these problems more frequently, and this situation is repeated in studies on the general population as in studies on different occupational groups [10].

If we follow the traditional model, we would say biological differences in size, muscular strength, and aerobic capacity in combination with a very demanding work are sufficient causes to explain these differences. In the last decade, the psychological characteristics of the individual and the psychosocial environment are discussed as causal factors that can modify the response of the organism. These factors may confuse interpretation of research data, turning more difficult to find relationships between causes and effects on health.
