2.1 Advantages of CAEVs

conventional ICEs to ZEVs, some countries such as Norway and Netherlands are leading the way. Electric vehicles (EVs) are widely considered as a promising solution for GHG reduction and key to a low-carbon mobility future. It can be noted that BEV has the lowest amount of CO2 emissions compared to ICE, HEV, and

Recent trend in the transportation system is rapid shift toward autonomous vehicles (AV) [1]. A connected autonomous vehicle (CAV) is an emerging technology that could change the existing transportation system due to advanced commu-

The connected autonomous electric vehicle (CAEV) will be an important part of the coming revolution in sustainable low-carbon mobility. Four major drivers that include automated driving, electric powertrains, connectivity, and shared mobility can provide compelling transition to a low-carbon future. Thus, they can result in major reductions in GHG emissions from transportation and are at the forefront of this rapid transformation in transportation [2–5]. These technological changes are

The CAEVs have the great potential to operate with even higher vehicle efficiency, if they are charged using the electricity generated from renewable energy sources that will significantly reduce emissions as well as dependency on fossil fuels. This book chapter is intended to provide understanding of the potential environmental implications of CAEV technologies by reviewing the existing studies and research works. We shall analyze environmental impacts including GHG emissions

Connected and Autonomous Electric Vehicles (CAEVs) are complex automotive systems, combining basically connected vehicles (CV), autonomous vehicle (AV)

A connected vehicle (CV) is a vehicle with technology that enables it to communicate with nearby vehicles, infrastructure, as well as objects; but may not be

While, an autonomous vehicle (AV) is a vehicle that is, in the broadest sense,

And electric vehicle (EV) is a vehicle that powers up and operates with energy

Typically, CAEV is an electric vehicle that is capable of sensing its environment and navigating with little or no human input. CAEV senses its environment using various sensing devices including Radar, light detection and ranging (LiDAR), image sensors, 3D camera, etc. Basically, CAEV is composed of five major components.

• Localization and mapping system that enables the vehicle to know its current

• Perception system which is responsible for sensing the environment to

• Driving policy refers to the decision making capability of a CAEV under various situations, such as negotiating at roundabouts, giving way to vehicles

nication and sensing capabilities, enhanced travel convenience, and the development of low-carbon mobility business models. Typically, the CAVs are electric, which are more efficient and therefore reduce the carbon emissions.

outstretched and provide several opportunities and challenges.

2. Connected and autonomous electric vehicles

capable of driving itself without human intervention.

and electric vehicle (EV) [1].

stored in the battery.

location.

12

automated nor electrically operated.

understand its surroundings.

and pedestrians, and overtaking vehicles.

due to the transportation as well as improvement of vehicle efficiency.

PHEV.

Research Trends and Challenges in Smart Grids

CAEVs offer many potential advantages in terms of sustainable development for environment friendly urban mobility, which are as follows [1].


Figure 1. CAEV applications and services.


With wide adoption of the CAEVs, it is expected to improve road safety, optimize traffic flow, help reduce fuel consumption, and minimize CO2 emissions in the urban environments.

### 2.2 Classification of vehicle automation

Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) released SAE International Standard J3016 that sets out taxonomy and standard to define different levels of autonomy. SAE updated its classification in 2016 as SAE J3016-201609.

Basically, vehicle automation has been categorized into various levels of autonomous vehicle technology ranging from Level 0, corresponding to no automation, to Level 5, corresponding to full automation. For instance, automated driver-assistance systems such as adaptive cruise control correspond to lower automation levels, while fully automated driverless vehicles correspond to higher automation levels.

Figure 2 shows SAE defined level of vehicle automation.

Connected Autonomous Electric Vehicles as Enablers for Low-Carbon Future

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84287

Mainly, due to four revolutions that include vehicular automation, vehicle elec-

These major drivers (i.e., automated driving, electric powertrains, connectivity, shared mobility) can provide compelling transition to a low-carbon future. In terms of energy use and carbon emissions, the potential synergies from combining these

The studies show that autonomous vehicles with electric powertrains have 40% lower lifetime GHG emissions than ICE-based vehicles. AV technologies along with V2V communications could smooth traffic flows and minimize braking, thus, pos-

Similarly, the appealing on-demand shared mobility along with vehicular auto-

As Vehicular automation involves the use of AI, and multi-agent system (MAS)

mation may offer the possibilities to expand multi-modal scenario that would reduce car travel by well over half in 2050, thus, would reduce traffic congestion as well as CO2 emissions in 2050 less than one-third of the conventional vehicles [9].

to assist the vehicle operation, CAEV can be referred as a smart or intelligent. Vehicular automation includes automated vehicle dynamics control such as adaptive cruise control (ACC) and automated powertrain operations that can

improve vehicle energy efficiency and reduce carbon emissions.

trification, vehicular connectivity, and shared mobility, CAEVs can offer great possibilities in expanding mobility and accessibility, and can play a leading role in

3. CAEVs for low-carbon mobility

The SAE-defined level of vehicle automation.

achieving low-carbon mobility [6, 7].

sibly increasing fuel economy from 23 to 39% [8].

drivers would be significant.

Figure 2.

3.1 Vehicular automation

15

The SAE defined levels of vehicle automation is depicted as follows:

Level 0—no automation:

In this level, the human driver is responsible for all the driving tasks including control of the car as well as monitoring the road and environment around the car. Level 1—driver assistance:

In this level, the human driver is assisted with either steering or acceleration/ deceleration by the driver assistance system but not both, for instance, adaptive cruise control.

Level 2—partial automation:

In this level, the driver assistance system take care of both acceleration/deceleration and steering control of the car, while the human driver monitors the road and environment around the car. It includes more advanced levels of driver assistance and requires continuous supervision of the driver.

Level 3—conditional automation:

In this level, the automated driving system undertakes all aspects of the dynamic driving task with the expectation that the human driver will respond appropriately to a request to intervene. Thus it requires partial supervision of the driver.

Level 4—high automation:

In this level, the automated driving system undertakes all aspects of the dynamic driving task, even if a human driver does not respond appropriately to a request to intervene. This level is basically unsupervised.

Level 5—full automation:

In this level, the automated driving system undertakes all aspects of the dynamic driving tasks in all roadway and environmental conditions. This level does not require driver at all.

Connected Autonomous Electric Vehicles as Enablers for Low-Carbon Future DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84287


Figure 2.

• Relaxed drivers: drivers can rest, work, or entertain themselves during a trip.

• Increased road capacity: through fleet platooning, more predictable traffic

• Fewer CO2 emissions and pollutants: using electric power to operate, can reduce GHG emissions as well as air pollution; minimized environmental

With wide adoption of the CAEVs, it is expected to improve road safety, optimize traffic flow, help reduce fuel consumption, and minimize CO2 emissions in the

Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) released SAE International Standard J3016 that sets out taxonomy and standard to define different levels of autonomy.

fully automated driverless vehicles correspond to higher automation levels. The SAE defined levels of vehicle automation is depicted as follows:

Basically, vehicle automation has been categorized into various levels of autonomous vehicle technology ranging from Level 0, corresponding to no automation, to Level 5, corresponding to full automation. For instance, automated driver-assistance systems such as adaptive cruise control correspond to lower automation levels, while

In this level, the human driver is responsible for all the driving tasks including control of the car as well as monitoring the road and environment around the car.

In this level, the human driver is assisted with either steering or acceleration/ deceleration by the driver assistance system but not both, for instance, adaptive

In this level, the driver assistance system take care of both acceleration/deceleration and steering control of the car, while the human driver monitors the road and environment around the car. It includes more advanced levels of driver assistance

In this level, the automated driving system undertakes all aspects of the dynamic driving task with the expectation that the human driver will respond appropriately

In this level, the automated driving system undertakes all aspects of the dynamic driving task, even if a human driver does not respond appropriately to a request to

In this level, the automated driving system undertakes all aspects of the dynamic

driving tasks in all roadway and environmental conditions. This level does not

to a request to intervene. Thus it requires partial supervision of the driver.

• Less fuel costs: fossil fuel will not be consumed to run CAEV, so fuel

• Increased car-sharing: reduced need for individually-owned cars.

flow, and reduced congestion.

Research Trends and Challenges in Smart Grids

impact; improve quality of life in urban area.

SAE updated its classification in 2016 as SAE J3016-201609.

consumption is significant reduced.

2.2 Classification of vehicle automation

Level 0—no automation:

Level 1—driver assistance:

Level 2—partial automation:

Level 3—conditional automation:

Level 4—high automation:

Level 5—full automation:

require driver at all.

14

and requires continuous supervision of the driver.

intervene. This level is basically unsupervised.

cruise control.

urban environments.

The SAE-defined level of vehicle automation.

Figure 2 shows SAE defined level of vehicle automation.
