Conflict of interest

• Congestion mitigation.

sustainability.

Table 4.

6. Conclusion

24

• Government policies and laws.

Research Trends and Challenges in Smart Grids

• Information and communication technology (ICT) infrastructure.

Automation scenarios along with estimated ASIF multipliers for each effect (abridged version) [18].

safety but also to preserve privacy of CAEVs and other participating entities.

termeasure consistency; and safe and secure mixed traffic systems.

Cybersecurity in CAEV networks is one of the active research areas [19–22]. Cybersecurity of CAEVs is essential for smart and sustainable development of a low-carbon city, since it may provide safety and social stability as well as economic

Mechanism Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Scenario 3 Scenario 4

Congestion 0.96 1.00 0.96 1.00 Eco-driving 0.80 0.95 0.80 1.00 Performance 0.77 1.00 0.77 1.00 Crash avoidance 0.95 1.00 0.95 1.00 Right-sizing 0.55 1.00 0.55 1.00 Highway speeds 1.00 1.00 1.20 1.20 Increased features 1.00 1.00 1.10 1.10

Newer user group 1.07 1.00 1.11 1.11 Car-sharing 1.00 1.02 0.80 1.00

Energy intensity Platooning 0.75 0.86 0.75 1.00

Travel demand Generalized cost 1.56 1.09 1.89 1.49

Provisioning security and privacy in low-carbon smart mobility is crucial as without secure communications between CAEVs and remote systems may yield susceptibility to malicious attacks. For instance, compromised global position system (GPS) data affects the localization of CAEVs that may lead to traffic instability and/or hazardous accidents. Similarly, information shared among CAEVs in cooperative driving should be protected from any cyberattacks not only to guarantee road traffic

Current researches on CAEVs focus to identify cyber threats and vulnerabilities as well as to design strategies for preventing damages caused by these cyberattacks. Cyber threats and attacks studied include passive attacks such as eavesdropping, interception attack, traffic analysis and active attacks including impersonation attack, spoofing attack, replay attack, Sybil attack, jamming attack, message tampering [22]. Basically, requirements for cybersecurity solutions for CAEV networks may range from authentication, non-repudiation, integrity, to confidentiality. Several open issues that should be addressed in future include [22]: in-vehicle security; security challenges in low-carbon smart cities; safety and security coun-

The connected autonomous electric vehicle (CAEV) will be an important part of the coming revolution in sustainable low-carbon mobility. They can result in major

The authors declare no conflict of interest.
