**3. The Indus Water Treaty (IWT) and hydrological developments**

In 1960, IWT was signed between Pakistan and India as an effort for resolving the disputes due to the partition of the Indus basin rivers. The headwater sources of Indus River and its tributaries are present in India. India got the control over water resources of Pakistan flowing downstream. During the first 10 years of independence, Pakistan experienced severe blockage or reduction of river waters, which badly affected the crop yield in Pakistan. The World Bank and British Government helped the twin states to reach an agreement called Indus Water Treaty (IWT). In this treaty, the water rights of eastern rivers, viz., Sutlej, Ravi, and Beas Rivers, were allocated to India, whereas the control of western rivers, viz., Indus, Jhelum, and Chenab Rivers, was given to Pakistan. After a period of 10 years, both the countries were authorized to utilize their share of water in their own way. After the treaty was signed, India started to construct projects on eastern rivers in order to divert the water flowing in eastern rivers, and water shortage started in the areas of Pakistan irrigated by the eastern rivers. To fulfill the shortage of water in the eastern rivers, the World Bank financed 8 billion US dollars project "Indus Basin Development Fund" for the construction of dams, barrages, and canals in Pakistan. Furthermore, link canals were constructed to inter-connect the western and the eastern rivers in Punjab for a sustainable supply of water to the cropland. The project was completed in two phases due to the inadequacy of funds. In the first phase, the key construction of Mangla Dam was completed on the Jhelum River in 1967.

Some of the barrages and canals were also modified and improved. After the completion of the first phase, another amount of 1.2 billion US dollars was approved by the World Bank, and the second phase of development started in 1968. The construction of Tarbela Dam on the Indus River was completed in 1976. This dam has sufficient storage capacity of water to supply during low flow season [34]. Both Mangla and Tarbela dams accounted for the major proportion of hydroelectricity generated in Pakistan. Several barrages were remodeled to divert the water from one river to another river such as Rasul, Sidhnai, Chashma, etc. Punjab and Sindh Governments are focusing on lining the canals and water courses to conserve the water. A number of projects have been completed for electricity generation like Ghazi-Barotha and Neelum-Jhelum hydroelectric projects [35]. Owing to the high demand of irrigation water and climate change, rivers in Pakistan are facing the reduction in water flow, and this shortage of water may be intensified in the near future. Considering these issues, the Government of Pakistan is planning to construct more dams to increase the water storage capacity on the Indus River. Details of the existing dams, barrages, link canals, and irrigation canals are given in **Table 2**.

India also carried out some projects in the Indus basin, like Harike Barrage with three canals, viz., Ferozepur Feeder Canal, Makhu Canal, and Rajasthan Feeder Canal, constructed on the Sutlej River in 1952. The Rajasthan Feeder Canal was later on

**87**

**Table 2.**

*system (IRS) [4, 27–33].*

tural water requirements.

**4. Socioeconomic impacts on local population**

*Vulnerability of Environmental Resources in Indus Basin after the Development of Irrigation…*

upgraded in 1961 with the construction of Bhakra Main Line Canal and a large network of distributary canals under Indira Gandhi Irrigation Canal system to irrigate the Rajasthan desert [36]. In 1954, Ravi-Beas Link Canal was designed to transfer the water from Ravi River to Beas River. At the time of partition, the Bhakra Dam was in progress and completed in the early 1970s under the Bhakra Nangal Project. Bhakra Main Line Canal was constructed from Bhakra Dam for irrigation purposes. Downstream of Bhakra, at a distance of 13 km, another dam called Nangal Dam, was designed to control to feed the Nangal Hydel Channel. The whole project generates about 1325 MW of electricity and provides irrigation water for about 4.04 million hectares of land in Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, and Rajasthan [37]. The Pong Dam was built in 1975 on Beas River to store water and use it through Shah Nahr. In 1977, Pandoh Dam was constructed along with the Beas-Sutlej Link Canal from the Beas River to Sutlej River. Sutlej-Yumuna Link Canal started from Nangal Dam in 1982, but it is still

*Hydrological developments (dams, barrages, headworks, link canals, and irrigation canals) on Indus River* 

incomplete due to strong resistance from the Indian Punjab Government [33].

In 2014, Nimoo-Bazgo Dam was completed on Indus River in Ladakh region of Indian-held Jammu and Kashmir. Similarly, Kishanganga Dam is under construction by India, on the upstream of Neelum River near *Bandipore*, to divert the water flow into an underground powerhouse to generate electricity [38]. Besides these projects, a large number of projects are still in planning stages on both sides of the borderline. Majority of these projects are of hydroelectric nature, and water will mainly be used for electricity generation, for example, Diamer-Bhasha Dam and Mohmand Dam, from Pakistan's side and Pakal Dul Dam from the Indian side. But with the construction of these massive concrete structures, a huge amount of water will be stored and provided during low water season in order to fulfill the agricul-

Early irrigation system in the Indus basin was developed for irrigational purposes. Due to the development of canals in the Kashmir region, the agricultural production was increased many folds [39]. The Indus basin irrigation system is one

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86722*

<sup>1</sup> Barrage is a weir-controlled system installed to divert and control the water flow into the canals with negligible water storage capacity.

<sup>2</sup> Dam is a high concrete walled structure built to store a large volume of water for agriculture and to use the potential energy of water for electric power generation.

*Vulnerability of Environmental Resources in Indus Basin after the Development of Irrigation… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86722*


#### **Table 2.**

*Irrigation - Water Productivity and Operation, Sustainability and Climate Change*

was completed in 1958 to provide controlled water supplies for irrigation [21]. The

also produced 40 MW of electricity. Later on, the production capacity of the dam

In 1960, IWT was signed between Pakistan and India as an effort for resolving the disputes due to the partition of the Indus basin rivers. The headwater sources of Indus River and its tributaries are present in India. India got the control over water resources of Pakistan flowing downstream. During the first 10 years of independence, Pakistan experienced severe blockage or reduction of river waters, which badly affected the crop yield in Pakistan. The World Bank and British Government helped the twin states to reach an agreement called Indus Water Treaty (IWT). In this treaty, the water rights of eastern rivers, viz., Sutlej, Ravi, and Beas Rivers, were allocated to India, whereas the control of western rivers, viz., Indus, Jhelum, and Chenab Rivers, was given to Pakistan. After a period of 10 years, both the countries were authorized to utilize their share of water in their own way. After the treaty was signed, India started to construct projects on eastern rivers in order to divert the water flowing in eastern rivers, and water shortage started in the areas of Pakistan irrigated by the eastern rivers. To fulfill the shortage of water in the eastern rivers, the World Bank financed 8 billion US dollars project "Indus Basin Development Fund" for the construction of dams, barrages, and canals in Pakistan. Furthermore, link canals were constructed to inter-connect the western and the eastern rivers in Punjab for a sustainable supply of water to the cropland. The project was completed in two phases due to the inadequacy of funds. In the first phase, the key construc-

**3. The Indus Water Treaty (IWT) and hydrological developments**

was constructed in 1960, and along with providing water storage, it

, on the Indus River

into irrigational lands. A multipurpose barrage, Taunsa Barrage1

tion of Mangla Dam was completed on the Jhelum River in 1967.

Some of the barrages and canals were also modified and improved. After the completion of the first phase, another amount of 1.2 billion US dollars was approved by the World Bank, and the second phase of development started in 1968. The construction of Tarbela Dam on the Indus River was completed in 1976. This dam has sufficient storage capacity of water to supply during low flow season [34]. Both Mangla and Tarbela dams accounted for the major proportion of hydroelectricity generated in Pakistan. Several barrages were remodeled to divert the water from one river to another river such as Rasul, Sidhnai, Chashma, etc. Punjab and Sindh Governments are focusing on lining the canals and water courses to conserve the water. A number of projects have been completed for electricity generation like Ghazi-Barotha and Neelum-Jhelum hydroelectric projects [35]. Owing to the high demand of irrigation water and climate change, rivers in Pakistan are facing the reduction in water flow, and this shortage of water may be intensified in the near future. Considering these issues, the Government of Pakistan is planning to construct more dams to increase the water storage capacity on the Indus River. Details of the existing dams, barrages, link canals, and irrigation canals are given in **Table 2**. India also carried out some projects in the Indus basin, like Harike Barrage with three canals, viz., Ferozepur Feeder Canal, Makhu Canal, and Rajasthan Feeder Canal, constructed on the Sutlej River in 1952. The Rajasthan Feeder Canal was later on

<sup>1</sup> Barrage is a weir-controlled system installed to divert and control the water flow into the canals with

<sup>2</sup> Dam is a high concrete walled structure built to store a large volume of water for agriculture and to use

was increased by installing additional generators [23].

Warsak Dam<sup>2</sup>

**86**

negligible water storage capacity.

the potential energy of water for electric power generation.

*Hydrological developments (dams, barrages, headworks, link canals, and irrigation canals) on Indus River system (IRS) [4, 27–33].*

upgraded in 1961 with the construction of Bhakra Main Line Canal and a large network of distributary canals under Indira Gandhi Irrigation Canal system to irrigate the Rajasthan desert [36]. In 1954, Ravi-Beas Link Canal was designed to transfer the water from Ravi River to Beas River. At the time of partition, the Bhakra Dam was in progress and completed in the early 1970s under the Bhakra Nangal Project. Bhakra Main Line Canal was constructed from Bhakra Dam for irrigation purposes. Downstream of Bhakra, at a distance of 13 km, another dam called Nangal Dam, was designed to control to feed the Nangal Hydel Channel. The whole project generates about 1325 MW of electricity and provides irrigation water for about 4.04 million hectares of land in Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, and Rajasthan [37]. The Pong Dam was built in 1975 on Beas River to store water and use it through Shah Nahr. In 1977, Pandoh Dam was constructed along with the Beas-Sutlej Link Canal from the Beas River to Sutlej River. Sutlej-Yumuna Link Canal started from Nangal Dam in 1982, but it is still incomplete due to strong resistance from the Indian Punjab Government [33].

In 2014, Nimoo-Bazgo Dam was completed on Indus River in Ladakh region of Indian-held Jammu and Kashmir. Similarly, Kishanganga Dam is under construction by India, on the upstream of Neelum River near *Bandipore*, to divert the water flow into an underground powerhouse to generate electricity [38]. Besides these projects, a large number of projects are still in planning stages on both sides of the borderline. Majority of these projects are of hydroelectric nature, and water will mainly be used for electricity generation, for example, Diamer-Bhasha Dam and Mohmand Dam, from Pakistan's side and Pakal Dul Dam from the Indian side. But with the construction of these massive concrete structures, a huge amount of water will be stored and provided during low water season in order to fulfill the agricultural water requirements.
