**5. Water sharing conflicts**

At the time of partition of the subcontinent, the division took place in such a way that Kashmir became a territory of common interest being an origin for the most of rivers flowing downward to Pakistan. Additionally, India cut off the water flowing into all the canals of Pakistan originating from the headworks situated in India, which created a situation of restlessness among the people of both countries. In order to minimize the tension created between both countries over the river water issue, IWT was signed with the help of the World Bank [6, 42]. This agreement created an atmosphere of competition to build dams and barrages to not let their share of water be wasted. Especially, India constructed many dams and barrages in the upstream area of Jammu and Kashmir and on Rivers flowing through Indian territory, i.e. Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej. Due to the construction of these massive structures and diversion of water, a lot of detrimental effects have been produced in the Indus basin [43]. Construction of storage reservoirs on Indus River tributaries by India has lowered the downstream water flow creating a state of political unrest between India and Pakistan. Afghanistan is also planning to build dams on the Kabul River which may generate a new political issue between Pakistan and Afghanistan [40].

**89**

*Vulnerability of Environmental Resources in Indus Basin after the Development of Irrigation…*

A hydrological disagreement between India and Pakistan has always been there since the very first instance being the construction of Salal hydroelectric project by India on Chenab River. Initially, Pakistan disagreed to the project, but after negotiations, the project was accepted in the 1970s. Afterward, many projects were subjected to disagreement including the Wullar Barrage and 430 MW Baglihar hydroelectric project. In the 1980s, India stopped the Wullar project due to extreme opposition from the Pakistan side [44]. In 1999, Pakistan complained about the second project, but negotiation continued on many forums. In 2007, after the acceptance of some modification suggested by Pakistan, the project was allowed to be completed [45]. Issues were also raised by Pakistan on the construction of Uri Dam on Jhelum River (1997) and Ratle Project on Chenab River (2013). The Ratle project consists of construction of a 170 m concrete wall to produce 850 MW electricity [46]. Uri dam was constructed during 1989–1997 with an installed capacity of 480 MW, but another project was run by India in 2005 to increase the production capacity of the Uri Dam. This Uri-II project increased the capacity by 240 MW through the construction of 3.61 km long tunnel with a diameter of 8.4 m [47]. In spite of the opposition from Pakistan's side, the project was completed in 2014. Recently, India started the construction of 330 MW Kishanganga hydroelectric project in 2007 which is considered as the most controversial project of the history till now. By the construction of this project, water flow in the Neelum River will become low and may cause failure of 969 MW Neelum-Jhelum project that has to be constructed downstream by Pakistan [44]. According to the opinion of John Briscoe, a water expert from South Africa, if all the projects designed by India are successfully completed on the Indus River, it will destruct the agricultural crops of the dry season in Pakistan as India will be able to hold up a month's worth river supply in these reservoirs. Unavailability of water will make the plantation difficult and will have negative effects on the agricultural sector of Pakistan [48]. Not only Pakistan is being affected, but in the Kashmir region, India is also producing electricity for its own provinces at the expense of only 12% given to Kashmir itself as a royalty. To fulfill the needs of electricity generation in the peak hours, Kashmir has to purchase the electricity generated from its own waters at an inflated rate despite having a production potential for 20,000 MW of electricity. At the same time, when IWT tried to resolve the water tension between Pakistan and India, it also opened the doors of discrimination for the disputed region of Kashmir because the agreement was signed without the

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86722*

consultation of Kashmir's prime minister [43].

cial politics and concerns over the division of water [51].

After the partition, India started the construction of barrages and dams on eastern rivers, to divert the water flow to its own states rather than to Pakistan. Through the construction of Sutlej-Yumuna Link (SYL) Canal, a large portion of irrigational water (3.45 MAF) was planned to be moved from the Indian Punjab province to Rajasthan and other provinces. It was designed to irrigate about 446,000 ha land in Haryana and 128,000 ha in Punjab [49]. Inhabitants of Punjab claim that this diversion was not justifiable as it will turn irrigational areas of Punjab into desserts due to water scarcity. Nowadays, like most areas of the basin in Pakistan, the areas of Indian Punjab have become water scarce, and the water table has been lowered to a drastic level due to less availability of surface water. Farmers are forced to extract the groundwater which adds to the irrigational costs and negatively affects the income of the agricultural sector [50]. Water flow in the Sutlej River downstream of Harike Headworks is almost zero, and it is only flowing in case of high floods or due to any failure in Bhakra or Nangal Dam. It makes the downstream areas of Punjab dry during many parts of the year and flood-prone due to storage of large water in the upstream reservoirs. Construction of SYL is still incomplete due to interprovin-

### *Vulnerability of Environmental Resources in Indus Basin after the Development of Irrigation… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86722*

A hydrological disagreement between India and Pakistan has always been there since the very first instance being the construction of Salal hydroelectric project by India on Chenab River. Initially, Pakistan disagreed to the project, but after negotiations, the project was accepted in the 1970s. Afterward, many projects were subjected to disagreement including the Wullar Barrage and 430 MW Baglihar hydroelectric project. In the 1980s, India stopped the Wullar project due to extreme opposition from the Pakistan side [44]. In 1999, Pakistan complained about the second project, but negotiation continued on many forums. In 2007, after the acceptance of some modification suggested by Pakistan, the project was allowed to be completed [45]. Issues were also raised by Pakistan on the construction of Uri Dam on Jhelum River (1997) and Ratle Project on Chenab River (2013). The Ratle project consists of construction of a 170 m concrete wall to produce 850 MW electricity [46]. Uri dam was constructed during 1989–1997 with an installed capacity of 480 MW, but another project was run by India in 2005 to increase the production capacity of the Uri Dam. This Uri-II project increased the capacity by 240 MW through the construction of 3.61 km long tunnel with a diameter of 8.4 m [47]. In spite of the opposition from Pakistan's side, the project was completed in 2014. Recently, India started the construction of 330 MW Kishanganga hydroelectric project in 2007 which is considered as the most controversial project of the history till now. By the construction of this project, water flow in the Neelum River will become low and may cause failure of 969 MW Neelum-Jhelum project that has to be constructed downstream by Pakistan [44]. According to the opinion of John Briscoe, a water expert from South Africa, if all the projects designed by India are successfully completed on the Indus River, it will destruct the agricultural crops of the dry season in Pakistan as India will be able to hold up a month's worth river supply in these reservoirs. Unavailability of water will make the plantation difficult and will have negative effects on the agricultural sector of Pakistan [48]. Not only Pakistan is being affected, but in the Kashmir region, India is also producing electricity for its own provinces at the expense of only 12% given to Kashmir itself as a royalty. To fulfill the needs of electricity generation in the peak hours, Kashmir has to purchase the electricity generated from its own waters at an inflated rate despite having a production potential for 20,000 MW of electricity. At the same time, when IWT tried to resolve the water tension between Pakistan and India, it also opened the doors of discrimination for the disputed region of Kashmir because the agreement was signed without the consultation of Kashmir's prime minister [43].

After the partition, India started the construction of barrages and dams on eastern rivers, to divert the water flow to its own states rather than to Pakistan. Through the construction of Sutlej-Yumuna Link (SYL) Canal, a large portion of irrigational water (3.45 MAF) was planned to be moved from the Indian Punjab province to Rajasthan and other provinces. It was designed to irrigate about 446,000 ha land in Haryana and 128,000 ha in Punjab [49]. Inhabitants of Punjab claim that this diversion was not justifiable as it will turn irrigational areas of Punjab into desserts due to water scarcity. Nowadays, like most areas of the basin in Pakistan, the areas of Indian Punjab have become water scarce, and the water table has been lowered to a drastic level due to less availability of surface water. Farmers are forced to extract the groundwater which adds to the irrigational costs and negatively affects the income of the agricultural sector [50]. Water flow in the Sutlej River downstream of Harike Headworks is almost zero, and it is only flowing in case of high floods or due to any failure in Bhakra or Nangal Dam. It makes the downstream areas of Punjab dry during many parts of the year and flood-prone due to storage of large water in the upstream reservoirs. Construction of SYL is still incomplete due to interprovincial politics and concerns over the division of water [51].

*Irrigation - Water Productivity and Operation, Sustainability and Climate Change*

income, and decreasing poverty in irrigated areas [41].

families living near industrial areas.

**5. Water sharing conflicts**

of the largest, complex irrigation networks and the largest weir-controlled system in the world with large reservoirs, barrages, syphons, and many types of canals and their watercourses [40]. Construction of new canals created favorable conditions for the colonies to be developed in the basin. Best examples can be seen as Lyallpur (Faisalabad) developed in the vicinity of the Lower Chenab Canal. Similarly, Sargodha and Montgomery (Sahiwal) were developed along the lower Jhelum Canal and the Lower Bari Doab Canal, respectively [25]. High crop productivity was found in irrigated areas than in the rainfed areas. High crop production leads to high per hectare employment. Additionally, irrigation system also made it possible for an extra crop to be raised, hence increasing per year yield, increasing household

Development of irrigation system benefited both at the local and governmental levels. A famine-prone area was converted into an area with high grain productivity that helped to prevent the famine conditions. Living style of the inhabitants was improved, and starvation was minimized. At the same time when the common population was benefitted, the British Government harvested a large volume of cotton crops from the irrigated areas, which provided them with a golden opportunity to cash the results of irrigation system development. Furthermore, the railway network increased access to agricultural products. Railway network facilitated the transport of food grains and cotton to local and international markets. Food grains produced from the area also helped to meet the food demands of other regions, hence making the region of South Asia's "breadbasket." Without the irrigation system, it seemed to be impossible because a large area was just barren and unproductive due to insufficient irrigation water. Similarly, livestock transformed from nomadic form to an organized industry to rear

animals for milk and meat production as more fodder crops were available.

generate a new political issue between Pakistan and Afghanistan [40].

Construction of dams provided a platform for the production of electricity from river water. In order to fulfill the commercial and domestic electric requirements in the region, turbines were installed to produce the hydroelectric power. Industrial production increased due to the availability of a cheaper electric supply subsequently increasing the revenue from the industrial sector. Agricultural-based industrial development produced a large number of jobs to boost the local economy. Poverty was reduced, and livelihood increased favoring a better lifestyle in the

At the time of partition of the subcontinent, the division took place in such a way that Kashmir became a territory of common interest being an origin for the most of rivers flowing downward to Pakistan. Additionally, India cut off the water flowing into all the canals of Pakistan originating from the headworks situated in India, which created a situation of restlessness among the people of both countries. In order to minimize the tension created between both countries over the river water issue, IWT was signed with the help of the World Bank [6, 42]. This agreement created an atmosphere of competition to build dams and barrages to not let their share of water be wasted. Especially, India constructed many dams and barrages in the upstream area of Jammu and Kashmir and on Rivers flowing through Indian territory, i.e. Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej. Due to the construction of these massive structures and diversion of water, a lot of detrimental effects have been produced in the Indus basin [43]. Construction of storage reservoirs on Indus River tributaries by India has lowered the downstream water flow creating a state of political unrest between India and Pakistan. Afghanistan is also planning to build dams on the Kabul River which may

**88**

Similarly, interprovincial conflicts also exist in Pakistan over the unequal distribution of Indus waters among the dominant province of Punjab and other smaller provinces mainly Sindh [52]. Unlike India, these conflicts have been limited to the political platforms. In the mid-nineteenth century, the construction of large canal structures by the British Government in Punjab gave birth to these conflicts. In 1945, Interprovincial water distribution was ensured by signing a treaty in which the Indus River water along with its tributaries was distributed between Sindh and Punjab. According to this treaty, majority of water from the eastern tributaries of Indus (94%) were allocated to Punjab and remaining to the Sindh. Meanwhile, Sindh was allocated with 75% water of the Indus main channel and Punjab with the remaining 25%. The Indus Water Treaty made the construction of link canals necessary for Pakistan in order to compensate for the upstream loss of water. As a majority of the link canals and storage reservoirs were to be constructed in the Punjab region, Sindh's population perceived it as a conspiracy to compensate Punjab at the expense of Sindh's share of the Indus River [45].

To settle the issues among the provinces, the "Water Accord 1991" was endorsed in which Indus water was distributed on the basis of average flow. Even after the accord, some insecurities existed in smaller provinces because the large quantity of water was allocated to only Punjab and Sindh [52]. Kalabagh Dam has been a focus of attention for many years due to political insecurities on the construction of the dam. People of Sindh claim that after the construction of the dam, water flow will be reduced causing droughts and saltwater intrusion in downstream areas. They also claim that Sindh is far more dependent on river waters because more than 80% of groundwater is saline in the region and construction of the dam will compromise their water requirements. This project was developed in the light of past destructive events of droughts in Sindh and subjected to opposition from politicians and bureaucrats of the Sindh province [45].
