**2.4 Post-partition developments**

Due to the partition of India and Pakistan, Ferozepur and Madhupur Headworks became the part of India, which triggered the Indus water dispute. India cut off the water supplies of Upper Bari Doab canal and made all of the downstream irrigation activities impossible to be carried out. In this situation of water scarcity, Pakistan immediately constructed Bombanwali-Ravi-Bedian (BRB) Link Canal to provide water supply to irrigate the Upper Bari Doab. It was a 164 km canal originating from Upper Chenab Canal and moving southward to Bedian. India also constructed two main canals from Sutlej River in order to divert the water of the river from flowing downstream into Pakistan. To maintain the water level in Sutlej River, the Balloki-Sulemanki Link canal was constructed from Balloki Headworks on Ravi River to Sulemanki Headworks on the Sutlej River. Both the BRB canal and Balloki-Sulemanki canals were completed within a duration of 3 years (1951–1954). Before the war of 1965, another canal named Marala-Ravi Link was constructed having a length of 101 km to add additional water in Ravi River from the Chenab River. In the Sindh Province, construction of Guddu Barrage on the Indus River started in 1957 and was completed in 1963. The aim of this project was to remodel the upper inundation canals in the Sindh area into perennial canals to increase the area under cultivation in Sindh and Balochistan, and it was designed to keep 1.13 million hectares of land irrigated throughout the year. Later on, Kotri Barrage was completed to ensure the supply to the inundation canals in the southern parts of Sindh. Both the Guddu and Kotri Barrage accounted for the conversion of a large deserted area

*Irrigation - Water Productivity and Operation, Sustainability and Climate Change*

and apple orchards on 5463.3 ha in the district *Baramulla* [20].

**2.3 The modern irrigation system in Punjab and Sindh**

**2.2 Early irrigation system in Punjab**

while *Nandikul* Canal was designed to irrigate 3237.5 ha of land of the northern *Anantnag* by receiving its water from the Nullah Anantnag. Sultan *Zain-ul-Abidin* constructed the *Zainagir* Canal on the *Madhumati* River, to irrigate the rice fields

The Punjab province is located downstream to the Kashmir, and early developments in irrigation system of this region occurred during the thirteenth to sixteenth century. The first canal in Punjab was constructed about five centuries ago by the Mughal Emperors. In the beginning, only inundation channels were designed to deliver river water to the cropland during the high flow season. Because of some technical problems, viz., unpredicted high flow season, siltation, and breaching, these inundation canals could not deliver the water effectively to the cropland. Later on, some primitive types of headworks on rivers were constructed to get more control over the water. These headworks either did not extend across the entire stream or allowed the floods to pass over their crests. Mughal Emperor Jahangir constructed an 80 km perennial canal on Ravi River to deliver the water to the Gardens of Sheikhupura [21]. In 1643, Shah Nahr developed to provide water to the Shalamar gardens and other irrigational lands around Lahore city [22]. Later on, *Hajiwah* and *Tiwana* Canals were developed in Punjab with support of British rulers to irrigate croplands in the *Mailsi* and *Sargodha* regions. Furthermore, 11 canals were built on the Indus River to irrigate the agricultural lands of D.G. Khan Region during 1875 [23].

The development of the existing modern Indus irrigation system started in the mid of nineteenth century during the British rule. Food demand and British economic interests in the agricultural products specifically cotton were a major driving force for the development of an extensive agriculture system in British India. A large number of inundation canals originating from the Indus River system were remodeled [24]. To ensure the water supply in cropland of Punjab, Sindh, and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK), several permanent headworks were constructed. The construction of Marala Headworks started on Chenab River in 1887 to irrigate the Upper Rachna Doab through Upper Chenab Canal, whereas, in 1890, Chenab water diverted to Sandal Bar from Lower Chenab Canal. In 1897, Rasul Headworks were constructed on the Jhelum River to feed the Lower Jhelum Canal to irrigate the agricultural land in the Chaj Doab [21]. In 1902, Madhopur Headworks were completed on the Ravi River to provide water for agriculture to the Upper Bari Doab. Furthermore, the Triple Canal Project was designed and sanctioned in 1905. It was the first project to transfer the river water from one to another river. A gateregulated canal, the Upper Jhelum Canal, was designed to provide irrigation water to almost 139,212 ha per annum on its way from Mangla to Khanki. The construction work of the canal was completed in 1917 and drained its water into Chenab River in the upstream of the Khanki Barrage of Lower Chenab Canal. The second canal was the Upper Chenab Canal, originating 58 km upstream of Khanki from Marala Barrage, designed to irrigate almost 262,236.7 ha of cropland on its way from Marala to Balloki. The canal opened for irrigational purposes in 1912, and its water drained into the Ravi River above Balloki Headworks. The third canal, the Lower Bari Doab canal, originated from a 0.5 km long weir on the Ravi River near Balloki and irrigated almost 354,910 ha of lands in Montgomery District (Sahiwal) and Multan. It was one of the major irrigational projects executed during the British Era [24].

**84**

into irrigational lands. A multipurpose barrage, Taunsa Barrage1 , on the Indus River was completed in 1958 to provide controlled water supplies for irrigation [21]. The Warsak Dam<sup>2</sup> was constructed in 1960, and along with providing water storage, it also produced 40 MW of electricity. Later on, the production capacity of the dam was increased by installing additional generators [23].
