Preface

It is well known that vulnerabilities and risks in coastal areas have been increasing, particularly since the middle of the last century, and a more marked increase is anticipated after the middle of the current century. It is also clear that human action has been the primary cause of the current imbalances, both directly (through local actions) and indirectly (through contributions to global warming and climate change). Adjustments in natural or human systems are thus necessary to respond to present-day or expected climate changes and their effects. The efforts made to reduce the causes and mitigate the effects of global climate change continue to be critical in coastal areas. Many adaptation strategies implemented in coastal areas remain inadequate or ineffective.

Sometimes for lack of financial support and others due to lack of scientific knowledge and technical preparation, the truth is that we continue to witness flooding, land loss, and human lives in many coastal areas around the world. However, much of the loss and damage that often occurs could have been prevented. Indeed, we may learn from the past that most adaptation measures have been reactive rather than proactive. It is generally understood, and the practice has been showing that, when planned, anticipatory adaptation will be more cost effective and efficient in the long term. It follows, therefore, that identifying and addressing needs and gaps in policies and planning will strengthen the adaptive capacity of regions and local communities.

On the other hand, as has been widely reported in the literature, the interactions between three main entities, land, human, and ocean, have been manifested positively and negatively in different contexts. Many studies have shown that the more human activities change, dominate, or even replace natural ecosystems, the more environmental vulnerability increases, and both the occurrence and scale of extreme events will be exacerbated. In the future, growth and concentration of populations in coastal cities and an aging population will contribute to increase further the vulnerability of cities to climate change.

To a large extent, direct and indirect consequences due to human activities are particularly serious for maintaining a sustainable balance, and hence the need to regulate human activities and reduce risk to achieve sustainable development of coastal zones. Although there is some perception of imbalances and vulnerabilities, there is still not a real awareness of the negative effects of human activities on such fundamental environments for the survival of humanity in the medium and long terms.

Due to seasonal factors and also to touristic reasons, the coastal communities of some coastal zones increase two or even three times in some periods of the year. Frequently, these communities rely on groundwater for their water supplies. In such circumstances, an increase in water pumping can have a marked effect on the position of the saltwater/freshwater interface. Lowering the freshwater head encourages the incursion of saltwater, which can rapidly render the supply undrinkable.

**II**

**Chapter 6 105**

Ionospheric Monitoring and Modeling Applicable to Coastal and Marine

Environments

*by Ljiljana R. Cander and Bruno Zolesi*

The removal or lowering of coastal dunes has a similar effect, as is the case for the reduction of the dunes' width. Dunes both act as recharge zones and support elevated water tables.

The use of coastal land for agriculture, building ports and harbors, industrial infrastructure development, and tourist urbanization are just some of a wide range of human activities affecting Europe's coasts. However, population growth and economic development are critical factors for change in coastal zones, which generate high pressure on ecosystems and natural resources due to increased use and proliferation of services. According to the European Environment Agency, between 1995 and 2025, the projected urbanization of the coastal zone on some coasts of the Mediterranean shows a built occupation increasing from 55% to 73% in Spain, 24% to 34% in France, and 38% to 45% in Italy.

The combined effects of land reclamation and its associated flood defenses, as well as protecting mobile habitats from erosion, have resulted in many kilometers of sea banks, seawalls, and groyne fields. The natural erosion of cliffs threatens individual buildings, towns, and villages, which are often protected by massive concrete seawalls and revetments as a result. The reduction in long-shore drift by the erection of these structures can lead to increases in erosion elsewhere, because the beaches are deprived of sediment. As long as the sea level continues to rise in response to global warming, increasing the height and resilience of hard coastal defenses will not ensure the protection of urban areas and territory for many years.

On the other hand, it should be noted that all interventions performed in coastal zones tend to be expensive, particularly when performed with a single goal (protection, for example); thus, it is crucial to address more clearly and with greater depth forms of social and economic intervention that are acceptable to stakeholders and local communities. However, coastal managers and policymakers should make effective and timely decisions on the use of appropriate adaptation measures for the immediate and longer terms. In other words, timely decisions should be taken on the measures to be implemented, with the objective of providing benefits immediately and also being effective enough to face future challenges.

It is therefore of utmost importance to bear in mind that reconciling the current activities in coastal zones with the maintenance of healthy ecosystems requires monitoring and the systematic evaluation and implementation of corrective measures. That is, coastal managers should be aware that simply implementing adaptation technology is not an endpoint; rather, adaptation is an ongoing process that requires constant prioritization of risks and opportunities, implementation of risk reduction measures, and review of their effectiveness.

Among the possible solutions to be implemented, it should be borne in mind that most adaptation measures can help in achieving multiple objectives and benefits. These measures can address current vulnerabilities and focus on increasing the capacity of ecosystems and communities to address the current environmental pressures and climate variability.

With all these issues in mind, it is obvious that an ideal approach to coastal zone planning and management should include the production of well-integrated action plans and emergency plans, as well as the monitoring and implementation of emergency warning systems. In this planning process, public participation is crucial. Coastal communities, non-governmental organizations, stakeholders, and investors

**V**

should be involved in management and decision-making processes. In fact, all these actors should be considered part of the planning actions so that they are kept informed, motivated, and remain active during the various stages of defining the

It is in this overall context that this book systematizes the concepts of contemporary coastal zone management and suggests possible structural and non-structural management tools for decision-making processes. Some successful adaptation measures and case studies on oceanic processes and coastal protection are also discussed.

It consists of six chapters, two of which address coastal management perspectives, adaptation measures, future accommodation options, tools, and methodologies to manage coastal and marine environments; two others focus on ocean dynamics and coastal processes, mainly due to changes in sea surface temperature and the effect of a mesoscale warm-core eddy on the marine and coastal environment of a bay; the latter two provide useful results and discussions on coastal processes that develop along the Suez Canal jetties using remote sensing and numerical modeling, and a review of the concepts and evolution of long-distance high-frequency (HF) communications in coastal and marine environments, with emphasis on HF radio communication during emergency situations and use of HF frequencies reflected

The selected chapters, which were identified to provide useful information and scientific knowledge, underwent a rigorous review process. They all contribute relevant information and useful content to scientists and other readers interested or concerned about the lack of adequate management actions and the installation of appropriate protection and adaptation measures or their ineffectiveness in contain-

I believe this book comprises material of enough quality and quantity to make it a

**José Simão Antunes do Carmo**

University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal

I would like to thank all collaborators who directly or indirectly helped set up this project, especially the guest referees and my Author Service Manager, Ms. Rozmari Marijan, for the opportunity they gave me to work together.

actions and measures to be implemented.

by the ionosphere to detect objects at very long distances.

reference in the field of coastal and marine environments.

ing coastal vulnerabilities and risks.

should be involved in management and decision-making processes. In fact, all these actors should be considered part of the planning actions so that they are kept informed, motivated, and remain active during the various stages of defining the actions and measures to be implemented.

It is in this overall context that this book systematizes the concepts of contemporary coastal zone management and suggests possible structural and non-structural management tools for decision-making processes. Some successful adaptation measures and case studies on oceanic processes and coastal protection are also discussed.

It consists of six chapters, two of which address coastal management perspectives, adaptation measures, future accommodation options, tools, and methodologies to manage coastal and marine environments; two others focus on ocean dynamics and coastal processes, mainly due to changes in sea surface temperature and the effect of a mesoscale warm-core eddy on the marine and coastal environment of a bay; the latter two provide useful results and discussions on coastal processes that develop along the Suez Canal jetties using remote sensing and numerical modeling, and a review of the concepts and evolution of long-distance high-frequency (HF) communications in coastal and marine environments, with emphasis on HF radio communication during emergency situations and use of HF frequencies reflected by the ionosphere to detect objects at very long distances.

The selected chapters, which were identified to provide useful information and scientific knowledge, underwent a rigorous review process. They all contribute relevant information and useful content to scientists and other readers interested or concerned about the lack of adequate management actions and the installation of appropriate protection and adaptation measures or their ineffectiveness in containing coastal vulnerabilities and risks.

I believe this book comprises material of enough quality and quantity to make it a reference in the field of coastal and marine environments.

I would like to thank all collaborators who directly or indirectly helped set up this project, especially the guest referees and my Author Service Manager, Ms. Rozmari Marijan, for the opportunity they gave me to work together.

> **José Simão Antunes do Carmo** University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal

**IV**

The removal or lowering of coastal dunes has a similar effect, as is the case for the reduction of the dunes' width. Dunes both act as recharge zones and support

The use of coastal land for agriculture, building ports and harbors, industrial infrastructure development, and tourist urbanization are just some of a wide range of human activities affecting Europe's coasts. However, population growth and economic development are critical factors for change in coastal zones, which generate high pressure on ecosystems and natural resources due to increased use and proliferation of services. According to the European Environment Agency, between 1995 and 2025, the projected urbanization of the coastal zone on some coasts of the Mediterranean shows a built occupation increasing from 55% to 73% in Spain,

The combined effects of land reclamation and its associated flood defenses, as well as protecting mobile habitats from erosion, have resulted in many kilometers of sea banks, seawalls, and groyne fields. The natural erosion of cliffs threatens individual buildings, towns, and villages, which are often protected by massive concrete seawalls and revetments as a result. The reduction in long-shore drift by the erection of these structures can lead to increases in erosion elsewhere, because the beaches are deprived of sediment. As long as the sea level continues to rise in response to global warming, increasing the height and resilience of hard coastal defenses will not

On the other hand, it should be noted that all interventions performed in coastal zones tend to be expensive, particularly when performed with a single goal (protection, for example); thus, it is crucial to address more clearly and with greater depth forms of social and economic intervention that are acceptable to stakeholders and local communities. However, coastal managers and policymakers should make effective and timely decisions on the use of appropriate adaptation measures for the immediate and longer terms. In other words, timely decisions should be taken on the measures to be implemented, with the objective of providing benefits immedi-

It is therefore of utmost importance to bear in mind that reconciling the current activities in coastal zones with the maintenance of healthy ecosystems requires monitoring and the systematic evaluation and implementation of corrective measures. That is, coastal managers should be aware that simply implementing adaptation technology is not an endpoint; rather, adaptation is an ongoing process that requires constant prioritization of risks and opportunities, implementation of

Among the possible solutions to be implemented, it should be borne in mind that most adaptation measures can help in achieving multiple objectives and benefits. These measures can address current vulnerabilities and focus on increasing the capacity of ecosystems and communities to address the current environmental

With all these issues in mind, it is obvious that an ideal approach to coastal zone planning and management should include the production of well-integrated action plans and emergency plans, as well as the monitoring and implementation of emergency warning systems. In this planning process, public participation is crucial. Coastal communities, non-governmental organizations, stakeholders, and investors

ensure the protection of urban areas and territory for many years.

ately and also being effective enough to face future challenges.

risk reduction measures, and review of their effectiveness.

pressures and climate variability.

elevated water tables.

24% to 34% in France, and 38% to 45% in Italy.

**1**

Section 1

Tools and Methodologies

to Manage Coastal and

Marine Environments

## Section 1
