Integrated Insect Pest Management

*Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie*

## **Abstract**

Insect pests cause substantial losses to food and fiber crops worldwide. Additionally, they vector human and domestic animal diseases. The dependence on pesticides as a sole method of control has resulted in the development of insect resistance and negative effects on human health, natural enemies, and the environment. The concept of integrated pest management (IPM) originated almost 60 years ago in response to these negative impacts of pesticides. Currently, IPM is a robust paradigm of pest control around the globe. This chapter reviews the history of IPM, its main principles, decision-making rules, the components, and main tactical methods used. Innovative tactical methods such as sterile insect technique (SIT), incompatible insect technique (IIT), and push-pull strategy are discussed. Moreover, challenges of implementation and future prospects of IPM are highlighted.

**Keywords:** insect pest, integrated pest management, economic threshold, economic injury level, decision rules, ecosystem

### **1. Introduction**

Insects appeared on earth about 390 million years and have diversified into several million species that have adapted to almost all available ecosystems. This large diversity has allowed them to compete with humans effectively since the introduction of agriculture over the last ten millennia [1]. Based on new methods of estimation, there are about 5.5 million species of insects on the earth planet with 1 million identified species, which represent only about 20% of the total estimated number. Previously, the global number of insects was estimated to be 30 million based on host specificity; however, this number seems to be not true [2]. Insects are by far the most successful group of animal on earth and are thus essential component of the ecosystem both economically and ecologically as they make up more than 75% of the world's animal species. Entomology has tremendously developed in recent years and contributed much in the development of other fundamental biological sciences. Today, many insect species are being used as model organisms to study the genomic and proteomic of many organisms. Invasive insect species such as the red palm weevil (*Rhynchophorus ferrugineus*), the fall army worm (*Spodoptera frugiperda*), the spotted drosophila (*Drosophila suzukii*), and the brown marmorated stink bug (*Halyomorpha halys*) are expanding their geographical range and, thus, threatening agricultural crops at a global level [3–6]. According to their mode of nutrition, insects are classified into different categories including herbivores, predators, fungivores, and scavengers. Insects together with weeds and diseases destroy about

40% of the world food production during preharvest phase while approximately 20% is lost during storage [7]. The estimated global losses due to insect pests are 500 billion US\$ and by adopting good pest management practices, the losses can be reduced by 42.6% [8].

Well before 2500 B.C., the Sumerians were using sulfur compounds to control insects and mites. By 1200 B.C., the Chinese developed plant-derived insecticides or what is called botanicals today for seed treatment and fumigation uses. They also used chalk and wood ash for prevention and control of both household and stored product pests. In late 1940s, DDT was discovered as a powerful insecticide announcing a new era of pest control [9]. The heavy use of chemical pesticides caused serious environmental problems without achieving final solutions to insect pest problems. These drawbacks of the unwise use of pesticides inspired entomologist to think of integrated pest management (IPM) in 1959 as a new paradigm of insect control [10].

## **2. Origin and history of IPM**

The concept of IPM emerged about 60 years ago when entomologists from California, USA observed that the sole use of chemical pesticides could not be the solution to insect pests' problem. Insect resistance to organosynthetic insecticides, resurgence of primary pests, upsurges of secondary pests, and environmental pollution initiated the notion of IPM [11]. It has been emphasized that chemical control should be employed to reduce a pest population only when natural controls are inadequate. Intervention to control pest should also be made when populations rise to levels that cause economic damage. Additionally, the cost of control must cover the amount lost due to the pest damage and negative effect on the ecosystem, due to the application of pesticide, and should be to the minimum [12]. The IPM concept has three basic elements:


As shown in **Table 1**, the publication of the book "silent spring" is considered one of the most important events that hastened the perception of IPM as a new paradigm of pest control. The adoption and support given to IPM by the FAO in 1967 is a major factor behind the development of IPM. Additionally, the establishment


**5**

*Integrated Insect Pest Management*

Management

countries

June 2011

*History and chronological development of IPM.*

1993– 2000

**Table 1.**

eases, and weeds [1, 11, 25].

**3. IPM definitions**

**4. Objectives of IPM**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81827*

Quality was published

of Farmers Fields Schools (FFS) in 1989 for rice field in Asia, as extension methods, hastened the adoption and application of IPM at farmer level. Recently, the European Union has adopted IPM as a policy for management of insect pests.

2009/128/EC) requires that all EU Member States develop a National Action Plan, which ensures that asset of eight general principles of IPM are implemented by all

The integrated pest management is now the ideal system for protection of agricultural crops, domestic animals, stored products, public health, and the structure of human dwellings against the attack of arthropod pests, plant and animal dis-

**Date Event Reference**

[16]

[11]

[19]

[21]

[23]

[12]

[24]

1969 The US National Academy of Science formally accepted the term Integrated Pest

1972 Integrated pest management and its acronym IPM were incorporated into English

1972 The report *Integrated Pest Management* prepared by the Council on Environmental

1992 IPM was recommended for pest management under Agenda 21 of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development

2011 IPM programs are operational in more than 60 developing and developed

2014 The EU Frame work Directive on sustainable use of pesticides (Directive

professional pesticide users starting from January 1, 2014

2011 IPM adopted as a policy within sustainable use of pesticides Directive 91/414/EEC in the form of regulation (EC Regulation 1107/2009), which came into force in

1988 Major IP success in rice systems in Indonesia [8] 1989 Farmer Field School (FFS) became a preferred extension methodology for IPM [20]

IPM initiative of the Clinton Administration [22]

literature and accepted by the scientific community

Between 1959 and 2000, 67 definitions of IPM appeared in the literature, most of them included using natural or ecologically sound principles or techniques, preventing pests from reaching the economically damaging levels, and using multiple tactics such as cultural, biological, and chemical. The expression economics, environment, pest populations, and pest control appeared in these definitions of IPM with frequencies of 53.8, 48.1, 40.4, and 38.3%, respectively [25]. All IPM definitions include the following: (i) the appropriate selection of pest control methods and decision rules for selection, (ii) economic benefits to growers and society, (iii) the benefits to the environment, and (iv) considering the impact of pest complex [10, 11, 18, 24].

IPM has three main objectives: first, maintaining a balanced sustainable ecosystem and a healthy environment by reducing the use of pesticides and their negative

#### *Integrated Insect Pest Management DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81827*


#### **Table 1.**

*Pests Control and Acarology*

reduced by 42.6% [8].

**2. Origin and history of IPM**

has three basic elements:

3. conserving environment quality.

and

Late 1940s

40% of the world food production during preharvest phase while approximately 20% is lost during storage [7]. The estimated global losses due to insect pests are 500 billion US\$ and by adopting good pest management practices, the losses can be

Well before 2500 B.C., the Sumerians were using sulfur compounds to control insects and mites. By 1200 B.C., the Chinese developed plant-derived insecticides or what is called botanicals today for seed treatment and fumigation uses. They also used chalk and wood ash for prevention and control of both household and stored product pests. In late 1940s, DDT was discovered as a powerful insecticide announcing a new era of pest control [9]. The heavy use of chemical pesticides caused serious environmental problems without achieving final solutions to insect pest problems. These drawbacks of the unwise use of pesticides inspired entomologist to think of integrated pest management (IPM) in 1959 as a new paradigm of insect control [10].

The concept of IPM emerged about 60 years ago when entomologists from California, USA observed that the sole use of chemical pesticides could not be the solution to insect pests' problem. Insect resistance to organosynthetic insecticides, resurgence of primary pests, upsurges of secondary pests, and environmental pollution initiated the notion of IPM [11]. It has been emphasized that chemical control should be employed to reduce a pest population only when natural controls are inadequate. Intervention to control pest should also be made when populations rise to levels that cause economic damage. Additionally, the cost of control must cover the amount lost due to the pest damage and negative effect on the ecosystem, due to the application of pesticide, and should be to the minimum [12]. The IPM concept

1.maintaining insect populations below levels that cause economic damage;

2.using multiple tactics, in an integrated fashion, to manage insect populations;

As shown in **Table 1**, the publication of the book "silent spring" is considered one of the most important events that hastened the perception of IPM as a new paradigm of pest control. The adoption and support given to IPM by the FAO in 1967 is a major factor behind the development of IPM. Additionally, the establishment

**Date Event Reference**

 The concept of integrated control [10] The Australian ecologists proposed the term "*Pest management*" [14] Publication of the book "*Silent Spring*" [15] The term "Pest Management" received recognition in USA [16] The term "Integrated Pest Management" was used by Smith and Van den Bosch [17]

1967 FAO panel of experts accepted the term "Integrated Pest Control" as a synonym

for Integrated Pest Management

The concept of supervised control [13]

[18]

**4**

*History and chronological development of IPM.*

of Farmers Fields Schools (FFS) in 1989 for rice field in Asia, as extension methods, hastened the adoption and application of IPM at farmer level. Recently, the European Union has adopted IPM as a policy for management of insect pests.

The integrated pest management is now the ideal system for protection of agricultural crops, domestic animals, stored products, public health, and the structure of human dwellings against the attack of arthropod pests, plant and animal diseases, and weeds [1, 11, 25].

#### **3. IPM definitions**

Between 1959 and 2000, 67 definitions of IPM appeared in the literature, most of them included using natural or ecologically sound principles or techniques, preventing pests from reaching the economically damaging levels, and using multiple tactics such as cultural, biological, and chemical. The expression economics, environment, pest populations, and pest control appeared in these definitions of IPM with frequencies of 53.8, 48.1, 40.4, and 38.3%, respectively [25]. All IPM definitions include the following: (i) the appropriate selection of pest control methods and decision rules for selection, (ii) economic benefits to growers and society, (iii) the benefits to the environment, and (iv) considering the impact of pest complex [10, 11, 18, 24].

#### **4. Objectives of IPM**

IPM has three main objectives: first, maintaining a balanced sustainable ecosystem and a healthy environment by reducing the use of pesticides and their negative

#### *Pests Control and Acarology*

impacts; second, saving money by reducing chemical pesticides inputs, crop losses due to insect damage and eventually by reducing the pest management cost; and third, protecting human and animal health by providing food and feed that is free of pesticide residues [26].

## **5. General principles of IPM**

According to the EU Framework Directive 2009/128/EC, there are eight principles of IPM that should be strictly followed by all members of the European Union starting from January 2014 [15]. Barzman et al. [27] described these principles as follows:

## **5.1 Prevention and suppression**

The first line of defense in IPM is to prevent and suppress insect pest population through nonchemical methods such as cultural practices, use of resistant varieties, proper irrigation and fertilization, and natural enemies.

## **5.2 Monitoring**

Continuous surveillance and monitoring of insect pests population is essential for assessment of damage and for determining the needs for actions to be taken.

## **5.3 Decision-making**

Management decisions should be based on monitoring and population levels of insect pests, as well as reliable thresholds.

## **5.4 Nonchemical methods**

Sustainable biological, physical, and other nonchemical methods must be preferred to chemical methods if they provide satisfactory pest control.

## **5.5 Pesticide selection**

Selective pesticides, which have minor negative impacts on human health and beneficial insects, shall be used only when needed.

## **5.6 Reduced pesticide use**

Pesticide use should be kept to the minimum through reduction of doses and application frequency without encouraging resistance development in pest populations.

## **5.7 Antiresistance strategies**

Pesticide resistance in insect should be managed carefully using strategies such as application of pesticides with different modes of action.

## **5.8 Evaluation**

The success of control tactics must be measured using indicators based on monitoring of harmful organisms, beneficials, pesticide use, and impact on the environment.

**7**

**Figure 1.**

*The economic threshold and the economic injury level.*

*Integrated Insect Pest Management*

sions [28].

nomic importance.

values.

\$ 15/\$ 10/bushel ꞊ 1.5 bushel).

level [10] (**Figure 1**).

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81827*

**6. Important terminologies in IPM**

nematode, and pathogens (bacteria, viruses, fungi) [29].

provides the ecological requirements of the species [10].

sionally grows beyond its economic injury threshold [28].

*Pest:* any organism that causes damage or inconvenience to human or his posses-

*Natural enemy of a pest*: a natural enemy of a pest can be predator, parasitoid,

*Population regulation:* the return of a population to an equilibrium density, following departure from that density, because of density-dependent processes [28]. *Insect pest complex:* the number of insect species associated with a particular crop [28]. *Major insect pest (key pest):* species of insects, which has a high reproductive

*Minor insect pest:* insect species that is not capable of causing damage of eco-

*Secondary or sporadic insect pest:* insect species with population level that occa-

*Economic damage (ED):* occurs when the cost of preventable crop damage exceeds the cost of control. For example, if the wheat is worth \$ 10 a bushel and insecticide cost \$ 15 an acre, then economic damage occurs when insect damage causes a yield loss of 1.5 or more bushels an acre (Ed ꞊ cost of treatment/crop value ꞊

*Economic-injury level (EIL):* the lowest population density that will cause economic damage. Economic damage is the amount of injury, which will justify the cost of artificial control measures; consequently, the economic-injury level may vary from area to area, season to season, or with man's changing scale of economic

*Economic threshold (ET):* the density at which control measures should be determined to prevent an increasing pest population from reaching the economic-injury level. The economic threshold is lower than the economic injury level to permit sufficient time for the initiation of control measures and for these measures to take effect before the population reaches the economic-injury

*Population:* a group of individuals of the same species in a given area that

potential and is capable of causing economic damage on their host [28].

*Pests Control and Acarology*

of pesticide residues [26].

**5. General principles of IPM**

**5.1 Prevention and suppression**

**5.2 Monitoring**

**5.3 Decision-making**

**5.4 Nonchemical methods**

**5.5 Pesticide selection**

**5.6 Reduced pesticide use**

**5.7 Antiresistance strategies**

populations.

**5.8 Evaluation**

environment.

insect pests, as well as reliable thresholds.

beneficial insects, shall be used only when needed.

as application of pesticides with different modes of action.

proper irrigation and fertilization, and natural enemies.

impacts; second, saving money by reducing chemical pesticides inputs, crop losses due to insect damage and eventually by reducing the pest management cost; and third, protecting human and animal health by providing food and feed that is free

According to the EU Framework Directive 2009/128/EC, there are eight principles of IPM that should be strictly followed by all members of the European Union starting from January 2014 [15]. Barzman et al. [27] described these principles as follows:

The first line of defense in IPM is to prevent and suppress insect pest population through nonchemical methods such as cultural practices, use of resistant varieties,

Continuous surveillance and monitoring of insect pests population is essential for assessment of damage and for determining the needs for actions to be taken.

Management decisions should be based on monitoring and population levels of

Sustainable biological, physical, and other nonchemical methods must be

Selective pesticides, which have minor negative impacts on human health and

Pesticide resistance in insect should be managed carefully using strategies such

The success of control tactics must be measured using indicators based on monitoring of harmful organisms, beneficials, pesticide use, and impact on the

Pesticide use should be kept to the minimum through reduction of doses and application frequency without encouraging resistance development in pest

preferred to chemical methods if they provide satisfactory pest control.

**6**

## **6. Important terminologies in IPM**

*Pest:* any organism that causes damage or inconvenience to human or his possessions [28].

*Natural enemy of a pest*: a natural enemy of a pest can be predator, parasitoid, nematode, and pathogens (bacteria, viruses, fungi) [29].

*Population:* a group of individuals of the same species in a given area that provides the ecological requirements of the species [10].

*Population regulation:* the return of a population to an equilibrium density, following departure from that density, because of density-dependent processes [28].

*Insect pest complex:* the number of insect species associated with a particular crop [28]. *Major insect pest (key pest):* species of insects, which has a high reproductive

potential and is capable of causing economic damage on their host [28].

*Minor insect pest:* insect species that is not capable of causing damage of economic importance.

*Secondary or sporadic insect pest:* insect species with population level that occasionally grows beyond its economic injury threshold [28].

*Economic damage (ED):* occurs when the cost of preventable crop damage exceeds the cost of control. For example, if the wheat is worth \$ 10 a bushel and insecticide cost \$ 15 an acre, then economic damage occurs when insect damage causes a yield loss of 1.5 or more bushels an acre (Ed ꞊ cost of treatment/crop value ꞊ \$ 15/\$ 10/bushel ꞊ 1.5 bushel).

*Economic-injury level (EIL):* the lowest population density that will cause economic damage. Economic damage is the amount of injury, which will justify the cost of artificial control measures; consequently, the economic-injury level may vary from area to area, season to season, or with man's changing scale of economic values.

*Economic threshold (ET):* the density at which control measures should be determined to prevent an increasing pest population from reaching the economic-injury level. The economic threshold is lower than the economic injury level to permit sufficient time for the initiation of control measures and for these measures to take effect before the population reaches the economic-injury level [10] (**Figure 1**).

**Figure 1.** *The economic threshold and the economic injury level.*

## **7. Decision rules in IPM**

Identification of pest is essential to gather information about its biology, ecology, and behavior and monitoring population levels. Monitoring includes various activities and procedures that detect and document the presence, growth, and population development or populations levels of an organism. Monitoring is the key to a successful IPM program. Adequate monitoring tools should include trappings using pheromones and light traps, observations in the field as well as scientifically sound warning, forecasting, and early diagnosis systems [27]. Advantages of pest monitoring include early warnings, detection of presence and distribution of pests and their natural enemies, study the impact of weather and other environmental factor on pest/beneficial populations, provision of historical record of the farm, and evaluation of control programs [30]. Visual counts, sweep nets, drop sheets, and vacuum pumps are also useful tools in sampling of field insects.

El-Shafie and Faleiro [31] gave comprehensive accounts on the use of semiochemicals in monitoring and mass trapping of insects. Operational monitoring program is used in IPM to evaluate field situation and should be simple, quick, cost-effective, and adaptable to farmers [30]. There are four methods of sampling insect in the field: random sampling, point sampling, trap sampling, and sequential sampling. More details on sampling of insect pests are given by Flint and van den Bosch [30].

#### **7.1 Pheromones as a monitoring tool**

Pheromone-baited traps are commonly used for population monitoring and for mass trapping because they have the following advantages:


#### **Figure 2.**

*Equilibrium point is well below the economic injury level. Control action is not needed (modified after Luckmann and Metcalf [33]).*

**9**

**Figure 4.**

*Components of IPM program.*

*Integrated Insect Pest Management*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81827*

pest management (IPM) decision-making [32].

*prevent it from reaching EIT (modified after Luckmann and Metcalf [33]).*

**8. Components of IPM**

**Figure 3.**

mathematical calculations of ET and EIL, see Pedigo et al. [34].

5.provide efficient and cheap alternatives to the laborious field scouting.

*Equilibrium is below EIL; however, the pest population may reach the ET, and intervention is needed to* 

All of the above make the pheromone-baited traps a useful tool in integrated

In situation where the economic injury level for an insect species is above its equilibrium position (**Figure 2**), the insect is not considered a pest and no decision is needed to control it. However, when the economic injury level is well below the equilibrium position, the insect requires continuous management intervention [33]. Sometimes, the population of the insect pest may reach the economic injury level, even if the equilibrium is well below the economic injury level. In such case, the decision of intervention to control the pest is need to be taken (**Figure 3**). For

The more that you know about a pest, the easier and more successful pest management becomes. Once you have identified a pest, you can access information *Integrated Insect Pest Management DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81827*

**Figure 3.**

*Pests Control and Acarology*

**7. Decision rules in IPM**

**7.1 Pheromones as a monitoring tool**

generations; and

Identification of pest is essential to gather information about its biology, ecology, and behavior and monitoring population levels. Monitoring includes various activities and procedures that detect and document the presence, growth, and population development or populations levels of an organism. Monitoring is the key to a successful IPM program. Adequate monitoring tools should include trappings using pheromones and light traps, observations in the field as well as scientifically sound warning, forecasting, and early diagnosis systems [27]. Advantages of pest monitoring include early warnings, detection of presence and distribution of pests and their natural enemies, study the impact of weather and other environmental factor on pest/beneficial populations, provision of historical record of the farm, and evaluation of control programs [30]. Visual counts, sweep nets, drop sheets,

El-Shafie and Faleiro [31] gave comprehensive accounts on the use of semiochemicals in monitoring and mass trapping of insects. Operational monitoring program is used in IPM to evaluate field situation and should be simple, quick, cost-effective, and adaptable to farmers [30]. There are four methods of sampling insect in the field: random sampling, point sampling, trap sampling, and sequential sampling. More details on sampling of insect pests are given by Flint and van den Bosch [30].

Pheromone-baited traps are commonly used for population monitoring and for

1.pheromones are species specific and are, thus, easy to use by untrained people;

3. suitable for early detection and delimitation of infestation by invasive pests;

4. can be used in estimation of population size and determination of number of

*Equilibrium point is well below the economic injury level. Control action is not needed (modified after* 

and vacuum pumps are also useful tools in sampling of field insects.

mass trapping because they have the following advantages:

2.they function at both small and large pest populations;

**8**

**Figure 2.**

*Luckmann and Metcalf [33]).*

*Equilibrium is below EIL; however, the pest population may reach the ET, and intervention is needed to prevent it from reaching EIT (modified after Luckmann and Metcalf [33]).*

5.provide efficient and cheap alternatives to the laborious field scouting.

All of the above make the pheromone-baited traps a useful tool in integrated pest management (IPM) decision-making [32].

In situation where the economic injury level for an insect species is above its equilibrium position (**Figure 2**), the insect is not considered a pest and no decision is needed to control it. However, when the economic injury level is well below the equilibrium position, the insect requires continuous management intervention [33].

Sometimes, the population of the insect pest may reach the economic injury level, even if the equilibrium is well below the economic injury level. In such case, the decision of intervention to control the pest is need to be taken (**Figure 3**). For mathematical calculations of ET and EIL, see Pedigo et al. [34].

## **8. Components of IPM**

The more that you know about a pest, the easier and more successful pest management becomes. Once you have identified a pest, you can access information

**Figure 4.** *Components of IPM program.*

about its life cycle and behavior, the factors that favor development, and the recommended control procedures. Following identification of an insect pest is monitoring to determine the pest status. If there is a need to control the pest, based on monitoring, then you develop a management program followed by implementation and evaluation as illustrated in **Figure 4**.

## **9. IPM tactical methods**

IPM methods include both chemical and nonchemical means to prevent and control pest populations from reaching economically damaging levels. These prevention and control tactics include biological, mechanical, cultural, physical, genetic, chemical, and regulatory methods. The method to be chosen for IPM depends on many factors, the important of which are nature of target pest, the environment, and economic aspect of the management. Selection of control method should be based on effectiveness and evaluation of any risk that might occur during application of the method.

## **9.1 Cultural control**

Cultural control in cultivated crops include resistant plant varieties, timing of planting and harvesting, irrigation, fertilization, crop rotation, and trap crops. The aim of good cultural practices is to provide congenial environment for the crop while making it unfavorable for pests' development. Thus, cultural control prevents the build-up and outbreaks of pests [28]. Additionally, cultural practices are useful in conservation of beneficial insects, and accordingly, they are essential and effective component of IPM. Tillage practices can destroy pests and their different developmental stages by mechanical injury, desiccation, and exposure to predators and environmental factors [33]. Phytosanitation through collection and removal of crop remains removes many diapausing larvae, eggs, and pathogens. Eradication of infested date palm is a good practice to reduce infestation by the red palm weevil in date palm plantation [3]. Host plant resistance is compatible with other IPM tactics and can provide reasonable degree of protection to plants without causing negative effects on the environment [8].

**11**

*Integrated Insect Pest Management*

*9.1.1 Push-pull strategy (PPS)*

stem borers in Africa [36].

**9.3 Biological control**

**9.2 Mechanical and physical control**

been disrupted by other control methods.

natural enemies to control the pest quickly.

[35] (**Figure 5**).

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81827*

This strategy is based on intercropping, which fit well under cultural practices section. Simultaneously, it is also based on semiochemicals particularly allomones and kairomones [35]. The pests are repelled or deterred away from a plant (push) through allomones that can be repellents or deterrents and are simultaneously attracted (pull) by kairomones to trap crops where they can be killed or removed

Plants which are effective, so far, in the push-pull tactics include Napier grass (*Pennisetum purpureum*), Sudan grass (*Sorghum vulgare sudanense*), molasses grass (*Melinis minutiflora*), and desmodium (*Desmodium uncinatum* and *Desmodium intortum*). Napier grass and Sudan grass are used for pulling insect pest, whereas molasses grass and desmodium repel or push ovipositing female insects. This strategy has been working in protection of maize and sorghum against damaging

Mechanical and physical controls prevent pests form accessing their resources by making the environment unsuitable for them. They also negatively affect important biological parameters of pests such as feeding, reproduction, dispersal, and survival. Physical control methods may include heat and steam sterilization of soil, which are commonly used in the management of greenhouse insect pests. Insect pests can be excluded from plants by using screens, barriers, fences, and nets, as well as light trapping (**Figure 6**). Mechanical and physical controls are carried out purposely for pest control, which differentiate them from cultural practices [28].

Biological control is defined as the action of parasites, predators, or pathogens on a host or prey population, which produces a lower general equilibrium, position than would prevail in the absence of these agents [10]. A good biological control agent should be characterized by the following traits: specialization on the host, compatible with other natural enemies, capable of rapid reproduction, adapted to the environment where the host exists, and efficient in finding prey at low densities. There are three major types of augmented biological control: classical, inoculative, and inundative. These are distinguished by the input needed to create a balance between the pest

and natural enemy populations. These three categories are defined as follows:

*Classical* biological control involves introducing natural enemies from a pest's native range into a new area where native natural enemies do not provide control. *Inoculative* biological control means releasing natural enemies periodically or seasonally to reestablish a balance that has not been maintained naturally or has

*Inundative* biological control involves the massive production and release of

Control of cottony cushion scale (*Icerya purchase*—Maskell) by vedalia beetles (*Rodolia cardinalis*) imported from Australia in 1888 was the first great success and it had greatly benefited the California citrus industry and ignited interest in this practice in the State [37]. Nine species of *Trichogramma* parasitoid are reared in private- or government-owned insectaries around the world and released annually on an estimated 80 million acres of agricultural crops and forests in 30 countries [38]. In Germany and Austria, the control of the Indian meal moth, *Plodia interpunctella* (Huebner), and the Mediterranean flour moth, *Cadra kuehniella* (Zeller), in food

**Figure 5.** *Push-pull strategy.*

### *9.1.1 Push-pull strategy (PPS)*

*Pests Control and Acarology*

evaluation as illustrated in **Figure 4**.

**9. IPM tactical methods**

application of the method.

effects on the environment [8].

**9.1 Cultural control**

about its life cycle and behavior, the factors that favor development, and the recommended control procedures. Following identification of an insect pest is monitoring to determine the pest status. If there is a need to control the pest, based on monitoring, then you develop a management program followed by implementation and

IPM methods include both chemical and nonchemical means to prevent and control pest populations from reaching economically damaging levels. These prevention and control tactics include biological, mechanical, cultural, physical, genetic, chemical, and regulatory methods. The method to be chosen for IPM depends on many factors, the important of which are nature of target pest, the environment, and economic aspect of the management. Selection of control method should be based on effectiveness and evaluation of any risk that might occur during

Cultural control in cultivated crops include resistant plant varieties, timing of planting and harvesting, irrigation, fertilization, crop rotation, and trap crops. The aim of good cultural practices is to provide congenial environment for the crop while making it unfavorable for pests' development. Thus, cultural control prevents the build-up and outbreaks of pests [28]. Additionally, cultural practices are useful in conservation of beneficial insects, and accordingly, they are essential and effective component of IPM. Tillage practices can destroy pests and their different developmental stages by mechanical injury, desiccation, and exposure to predators and environmental factors [33]. Phytosanitation through collection and removal of crop remains removes many diapausing larvae, eggs, and pathogens. Eradication of infested date palm is a good practice to reduce infestation by the red palm weevil in date palm plantation [3]. Host plant resistance is compatible with other IPM tactics and can provide reasonable degree of protection to plants without causing negative

**10**

**Figure 5.** *Push-pull strategy.*

This strategy is based on intercropping, which fit well under cultural practices section. Simultaneously, it is also based on semiochemicals particularly allomones and kairomones [35]. The pests are repelled or deterred away from a plant (push) through allomones that can be repellents or deterrents and are simultaneously attracted (pull) by kairomones to trap crops where they can be killed or removed [35] (**Figure 5**).

Plants which are effective, so far, in the push-pull tactics include Napier grass (*Pennisetum purpureum*), Sudan grass (*Sorghum vulgare sudanense*), molasses grass (*Melinis minutiflora*), and desmodium (*Desmodium uncinatum* and *Desmodium intortum*). Napier grass and Sudan grass are used for pulling insect pest, whereas molasses grass and desmodium repel or push ovipositing female insects. This strategy has been working in protection of maize and sorghum against damaging stem borers in Africa [36].

### **9.2 Mechanical and physical control**

Mechanical and physical controls prevent pests form accessing their resources by making the environment unsuitable for them. They also negatively affect important biological parameters of pests such as feeding, reproduction, dispersal, and survival. Physical control methods may include heat and steam sterilization of soil, which are commonly used in the management of greenhouse insect pests. Insect pests can be excluded from plants by using screens, barriers, fences, and nets, as well as light trapping (**Figure 6**). Mechanical and physical controls are carried out purposely for pest control, which differentiate them from cultural practices [28].

#### **9.3 Biological control**

Biological control is defined as the action of parasites, predators, or pathogens on a host or prey population, which produces a lower general equilibrium, position than would prevail in the absence of these agents [10]. A good biological control agent should be characterized by the following traits: specialization on the host, compatible with other natural enemies, capable of rapid reproduction, adapted to the environment where the host exists, and efficient in finding prey at low densities. There are three major types of augmented biological control: classical, inoculative, and inundative. These are distinguished by the input needed to create a balance between the pest and natural enemy populations. These three categories are defined as follows:

*Classical* biological control involves introducing natural enemies from a pest's native range into a new area where native natural enemies do not provide control.

*Inoculative* biological control means releasing natural enemies periodically or seasonally to reestablish a balance that has not been maintained naturally or has been disrupted by other control methods.

*Inundative* biological control involves the massive production and release of natural enemies to control the pest quickly.

Control of cottony cushion scale (*Icerya purchase*—Maskell) by vedalia beetles (*Rodolia cardinalis*) imported from Australia in 1888 was the first great success and it had greatly benefited the California citrus industry and ignited interest in this practice in the State [37]. Nine species of *Trichogramma* parasitoid are reared in private- or government-owned insectaries around the world and released annually on an estimated 80 million acres of agricultural crops and forests in 30 countries [38]. In Germany and Austria, the control of the Indian meal moth, *Plodia interpunctella* (Huebner), and the Mediterranean flour moth, *Cadra kuehniella* (Zeller), in food

**Figure 6.** *Solar-powered insect light trap.*

processing facilities is achieved by releasing large quantities of *Trichogramma evanescens* Westwood using the inundative release strategy [39].

Manipulations of insect reproductive systems techniques such as sterilized insect technique (SIT) and incompatible insect technique (IIT) provide innovative and environmental-friendly methods for IPM. These techniques are considered as part of the biological control and thus are discussed in this section (**Figure 7**).

The SIT involves the mass release of sterilized males, which mate with wild females. Sterilization of males using ionizing radiation causes dominant lethal mutation in the sperm. The mating of sterile males with wild females results in zero offspring. The sterile insect technique (SIT) has been successfully used for the management of some major insect pests [5]. According to Barnes et al. [40], successful application of SIT depends on the following factors:


Another radiation technique is partial male sterility technique (IS), which is used mainly for lepidopterans because full sterilization affects their performance under field conditions. The mating of partially sterilized males with wild females results in sterile male-biased offspring [41].

*Wolbachia* is an endosymbiont bacterium that is capable of manipulating the reproduction of its host insect. It increases the frequency of *Wolbachia*-infected

**13**

**10. AW-IPM**

**9.4 Chemical control**

**Figure 7.**

*et al. [32]).*

*Integrated Insect Pest Management*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81827*

females in the host populations by causing feminization, parthenogenesis, male killing, and cytoplasmic incompatibility [42]. The cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI) is also called incompatible insect technique (IIT) and has been used against insect pests and disease vectors such as med fly, tsetse fly, and mosquitoes. A strain of *Wolbachia* was taken from *Drosophila melanogaster* and introduced into the mosquito *A. albopictus*, the vector of the dengue virus, in order to control the disease. Consequently, the mosquitoes become unable to transmit the dengue virus [43]. The infected males produce no offspring after mating with local females (CI), followed by a decrease in the local mosquito populations and a relative increase in

*Techniques of manipulating sexual reproduction of insect pests for their management (modified after Harari* 

Both SIT and IIT can be combined together, and they are compatible with conventional biological control using parasitoid, predators, and pathogens. SIT allows both sexes to be released, while in case of IIT, only males should be released. The release of *Wolbachia*-infected females may result in production of viable offsprings if the released females are compatible with either wild or released males [5].

Pesticides should only be used when necessary to keep pest populations below that cause economic damage. Selective pesticides, which have the least negative effects on the environment, should be used according to principles 5, 6, and 7 of IPM. Botanicals and microbial (biorational) pesticides should be given priority in selection. The efficacy of these biorational pesticides may be increased when applied together [27]. A variety of selected pesticides must be applied precisely in the field and at right doses to prevent the development of insects' resistance [26].

The integration of a number of different control tactics into IPM systems can be done in ways that greatly facilitate the achievement of the goals either

*Wolbachia*-infected females that do not transmit the virus [44].

#### **Figure 7.**

*Pests Control and Acarology*

**Figure 6.**

*Solar-powered insect light trap.*

processing facilities is achieved by releasing large quantities of *Trichogramma* 

of the biological control and thus are discussed in this section (**Figure 7**).

The SIT involves the mass release of sterilized males, which mate with wild females. Sterilization of males using ionizing radiation causes dominant lethal mutation in the sperm. The mating of sterile males with wild females results in zero offspring. The sterile insect technique (SIT) has been successfully used for the management of some major insect pests [5]. According to Barnes et al. [40], successful

1.the target insect pest should be characterized by low population levels;

3.the availability of techniques for mass rearing, releasing, and monitoring of

4.the release of sterile insects over a wide area to cover the whole population; and

5.the released sterile insects should not be harmful or harmless to humans and

Another radiation technique is partial male sterility technique (IS), which is used mainly for lepidopterans because full sterilization affects their performance under field conditions. The mating of partially sterilized males with wild females

*Wolbachia* is an endosymbiont bacterium that is capable of manipulating the reproduction of its host insect. It increases the frequency of *Wolbachia*-infected

2.knowledge on the bionomics and genetic of target insect pest;

Manipulations of insect reproductive systems techniques such as sterilized insect technique (SIT) and incompatible insect technique (IIT) provide innovative and environmental-friendly methods for IPM. These techniques are considered as part

*evanescens* Westwood using the inundative release strategy [39].

application of SIT depends on the following factors:

large numbers of viable sterile insects;

results in sterile male-biased offspring [41].

the environment.

**12**

*Techniques of manipulating sexual reproduction of insect pests for their management (modified after Harari et al. [32]).*

females in the host populations by causing feminization, parthenogenesis, male killing, and cytoplasmic incompatibility [42]. The cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI) is also called incompatible insect technique (IIT) and has been used against insect pests and disease vectors such as med fly, tsetse fly, and mosquitoes. A strain of *Wolbachia* was taken from *Drosophila melanogaster* and introduced into the mosquito *A. albopictus*, the vector of the dengue virus, in order to control the disease. Consequently, the mosquitoes become unable to transmit the dengue virus [43]. The infected males produce no offspring after mating with local females (CI), followed by a decrease in the local mosquito populations and a relative increase in *Wolbachia*-infected females that do not transmit the virus [44].

Both SIT and IIT can be combined together, and they are compatible with conventional biological control using parasitoid, predators, and pathogens. SIT allows both sexes to be released, while in case of IIT, only males should be released. The release of *Wolbachia*-infected females may result in production of viable offsprings if the released females are compatible with either wild or released males [5].

#### **9.4 Chemical control**

Pesticides should only be used when necessary to keep pest populations below that cause economic damage. Selective pesticides, which have the least negative effects on the environment, should be used according to principles 5, 6, and 7 of IPM. Botanicals and microbial (biorational) pesticides should be given priority in selection. The efficacy of these biorational pesticides may be increased when applied together [27]. A variety of selected pesticides must be applied precisely in the field and at right doses to prevent the development of insects' resistance [26].

#### **10. AW-IPM**

The integration of a number of different control tactics into IPM systems can be done in ways that greatly facilitate the achievement of the goals either

**Figure 8.** *Pheromone-baited trap for monitoring and mass trapping of red palm weevil.*

of field-by-field pest management, or of area-wide (AW) pest management, which is the management of the total pest population within a delimited area [1]. Knipling [45] used simple population models to demonstrate that small insect pest population left without management can compromise the efforts of containment of pest population in a large area. AW-IPM programs should be coordinated by organizations rather than by individual farmers to insure full participation in the program [46]. Pheromone-based control tactics including mass capturing of using pheromone traps (**Figure 8**) proved to be effective against a variety of insect pests in area-wide IPM programs. The pests' behavior and ecology including their natural enemies should be considered when planning future AW-IPM programs [32].

## **11. Implementation of IPM program**

Successful IPM depends mainly on basic research on ecosystem and the understanding of interactions among hosts, pests, and their natural enemies [11]. The following steps should be taken before implementing an IPM program:


The socioeconomic factor is important in the implementation of IPM. For example, the decision to include a new variety resistant to insects may also depend on

**15**

**14. Conclusions**

*Integrated Insect Pest Management*

evaluation indicators [22].

**13. Future prospects of IPM**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81827*

**12. Indicators of measuring impact of IPM**

the market value of that variety. A suitable extension methodology such as Farmer Field School (FFS) can help disseminate the IPM among farmers. Preparation of guidelines that include the principles of IPM for different crops is essential during the implementation phase. Moreover, the continuous evaluation of IPM programs

It is extremely important to record and evaluate the results of your control efforts. Some control methods, especially nonchemical procedures, are slow to yield measurable results. Other methods may be ineffective or even damaging to the target crop, animal, treated surface, or natural predators and parasites. Pesticide use by volume, pesticide use by treatment frequency index, reduction in use of more toxic pesticides, and environmental impact quotient have been used as IPM impact

Since 1959, no major departures from the basic notion of IPM have occurred

[11]. In the future, major advances in IPM are expected in decision-making techniques as well as tactical options for control methods. Combination of technologies and tools, simulation, modeling, BD, remote sensing data, Geographical Information System (GIS), Automatic Weather Stations (AWS), and internet of things (IoTs) can be used to promote the implementation of IPM. New generation of GPS, sensors-fitted farm equipment, e-tablets, and mobile applications (*Plantix*) could be used for future pests and diseases identification and monitoring [47]. Since implementation of IPM programs depends largely on information, it is anticipated that a giant step being taken in areas such as principles of insect sampling, computer programming and mathematics, understanding of pests biological and ecological aspects, and simulation techniques and modeling [11]. Additionally, meteorological and geostatistical computer models can revolutionize forecasting and monitoring of insect pests, which, eventually improve decision-making for IPM. Novel tactics such as silencing of pest gene or RNA interference (RNAi) and endosymbionts hosted by insect pests could be used as potential new tools for future management of insect pests. Continuous training and education of farmers represent the cornerstone for

establishment of solid and effective IPM program in agroecosystems.

Due to its importance, the European Union has adopted IPM as a policy for management of insects and other pests. Manipulating reproduction of insect pests with pheromones, irradiations, *Wolbachia*, and pathogens will provide a variety of innovative tactical methods for IPM. Transgenic plants resistant to insect pest are also important tactical methods for future implementation of IPM. The information and communication technology (ICT) and nonprint media such as projectors, tablets, laptops, and mobile cell phones are expected to play a vital role in disseminating IPM knowledge among illiterate farmers, in their languages, in developing countries. In this respect, Julia and Robert [48] started a university-based scientific

provides feedback for future adjustment and improvement [27].

*Pests Control and Acarology*

**Figure 8.**

ning future AW-IPM programs [32].

• identify the pest;

**11. Implementation of IPM program**

• specify the goal of the program;

• know the pest level that triggers control;

• know what control methods are available; and

• evaluate the benefits and risks of each method.

• set up a monitoring program;

of field-by-field pest management, or of area-wide (AW) pest management, which is the management of the total pest population within a delimited area [1]. Knipling [45] used simple population models to demonstrate that small insect pest population left without management can compromise the efforts of containment of pest population in a large area. AW-IPM programs should be coordinated by organizations rather than by individual farmers to insure full participation in the program [46]. Pheromone-based control tactics including mass capturing of using pheromone traps (**Figure 8**) proved to be effective against a variety of insect pests in area-wide IPM programs. The pests' behavior and ecology including their natural enemies should be considered when plan-

*Pheromone-baited trap for monitoring and mass trapping of red palm weevil.*

Successful IPM depends mainly on basic research on ecosystem and the understanding of interactions among hosts, pests, and their natural enemies [11]. The

The socioeconomic factor is important in the implementation of IPM. For example, the decision to include a new variety resistant to insects may also depend on

following steps should be taken before implementing an IPM program:

**14**

the market value of that variety. A suitable extension methodology such as Farmer Field School (FFS) can help disseminate the IPM among farmers. Preparation of guidelines that include the principles of IPM for different crops is essential during the implementation phase. Moreover, the continuous evaluation of IPM programs provides feedback for future adjustment and improvement [27].

## **12. Indicators of measuring impact of IPM**

It is extremely important to record and evaluate the results of your control efforts. Some control methods, especially nonchemical procedures, are slow to yield measurable results. Other methods may be ineffective or even damaging to the target crop, animal, treated surface, or natural predators and parasites. Pesticide use by volume, pesticide use by treatment frequency index, reduction in use of more toxic pesticides, and environmental impact quotient have been used as IPM impact evaluation indicators [22].

## **13. Future prospects of IPM**

Since 1959, no major departures from the basic notion of IPM have occurred [11]. In the future, major advances in IPM are expected in decision-making techniques as well as tactical options for control methods. Combination of technologies and tools, simulation, modeling, BD, remote sensing data, Geographical Information System (GIS), Automatic Weather Stations (AWS), and internet of things (IoTs) can be used to promote the implementation of IPM. New generation of GPS, sensors-fitted farm equipment, e-tablets, and mobile applications (*Plantix*) could be used for future pests and diseases identification and monitoring [47]. Since implementation of IPM programs depends largely on information, it is anticipated that a giant step being taken in areas such as principles of insect sampling, computer programming and mathematics, understanding of pests biological and ecological aspects, and simulation techniques and modeling [11]. Additionally, meteorological and geostatistical computer models can revolutionize forecasting and monitoring of insect pests, which, eventually improve decision-making for IPM. Novel tactics such as silencing of pest gene or RNA interference (RNAi) and endosymbionts hosted by insect pests could be used as potential new tools for future management of insect pests. Continuous training and education of farmers represent the cornerstone for establishment of solid and effective IPM program in agroecosystems.

## **14. Conclusions**

Due to its importance, the European Union has adopted IPM as a policy for management of insects and other pests. Manipulating reproduction of insect pests with pheromones, irradiations, *Wolbachia*, and pathogens will provide a variety of innovative tactical methods for IPM. Transgenic plants resistant to insect pest are also important tactical methods for future implementation of IPM. The information and communication technology (ICT) and nonprint media such as projectors, tablets, laptops, and mobile cell phones are expected to play a vital role in disseminating IPM knowledge among illiterate farmers, in their languages, in developing countries. In this respect, Julia and Robert [48] started a university-based scientific

#### *Pests Control and Acarology*

program called scientific animation without borders (SAWBO) to deliver IPM strategies in the tropics. The SAWBO App helps trainers to use IPM-animated videos, in different local languages, to educate farmers efficiently. The advancement in semiochemical-based tactics could provide great support for area-wide IPM (AW-IPM), which will gain importance in the coming years due to the increasing numbers of invasive insect pest species.

## **Author details**

Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie Date Palm Research Center of Excellence, King Faisal University, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

\*Address all correspondence to: elshafie62@yahoo.com

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**17**

*Integrated Insect Pest Management*

**References**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81827*

[1] Hendrichs J, Kenmore P, Robinson AS, Ureysen MJB. Principles, practice and prospects. In: Vreysen MJB, Robinson AS, Hendrichs J, editors. Area-Wide Control of Insect Pests, from Research to Field Implementation. Dordrech, The Netherlands: Springer; 2007. pp. 3-33

Pesticide Problem. Vol. 3. Dordrecht: Springer Science + Media; 2014. DOI:

10.1007/978-94-007-7796-5

[8] Dhaliwal GS, Koul O, Arora R. Integrated pest management: Retrospect and prospect. In: Koul O, Dhaliwal GS, Cuperus GW, editors. Integrated Pest Management: Potential, Constraints and Challenges. London: CAB International; 2004. pp. 1-20

[9] Flint ML, Van den Bosch R. A history of pest control. In: Flint ML, Van den Bosch R, editors. Introduction to Integrated Pest Management. 1st ed. New York: Plenum press; 1981.

[10] Stern VM, Smith RF, van den Bosch R, Hagen KS. The integrated control concept. Hilgardia. 1959;**29**:81-101. http://ucanr.edu/repository/fileaccess. cfm?article=152499&p=RNIYON. DOI:

management: Historical perspective and contemporary developments. Annual Review of Entomology. 1998;**43**:243- 270. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.ento.43.1.243

10.3733/hilg.v29n02p081

PAVSNNR201813012

[11] Kogan M. Integrated pest

[12] Matthews GA. IPM-a strategy since 1959-mini review. CAB Reviews. 2018;**13**(012):1-2. DOI: 10.1079/

[13] Smith RF, Smith GL. Supervised

[14] Geier PW, Clark LR. An ecological

[15] Carson R. Silent Spring. New York: Fawcett Crest; 1962. 368 pp. DOI: 10.1097/00005053-196212000-00009

Proceedings of the Eighth Technical Meeting. Warsaw: International Union of Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources; 1961. pp. 10, 1960-18

control of insects. California Agriculture. 1949;**3**:12

approach to pest control. In:

pp. 51-81

[2] Stork NE. How many species of insects and other terrestrial arthropods are there on earth? Annual Review of Entomology. 2018;**63**(1):31-45. DOI: 10.1146/annurev-ento-020117-043348

[3] Faleiro JR. A review of the issues and management of the red palm weevil *Rhynchophorus ferrugineus* (Coleoptera: Rhynchophoridae) in coconut and date palm during the last one hundred years. International Journal of Tropical Insect

[4] Nagoshi RN, Fleischer S, Meagher RL, Hay-Roe M, Khan A, MuruÂa MG, et al. Fall armyworm migration across the Lesser Antilles and the potential for genetic exchanges between north and south American populations. PLoS One. 2017;**12**(2):e0171743. DOI: 10.1371/

[5] Nikolouli K, Colinet H, Renault D, Enriquez T, Mouton L, Gilbert P, et al. Sterile insect technique and *Wolbachia* symbiosis as potential tools for the control of the invasive species *Drosophila suzukii*. Journal of Pesticide Science. 2017;**91**(2):489-503. DOI: 10.1007/s10340-017-0944.y

[6] Nixon LJ, Morrison WR, Rice KB, Brockerhoff EG, Leskey TC, Guzman F, et al. Identification of volatiles released by diapuasing brown marmorated stink bug, *Halyomorpha halys* (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae). PLoS One. 2018;**13**(1):e0191223. DOI: 10.1371/

[7] Pimentel D, Peshin R, editors. Integrated Pest Management,

journal.pone.0191223

Science. 2006;**26**:135-150

journal.pone.0171743

## **References**

*Pests Control and Acarology*

numbers of invasive insect pest species.

program called scientific animation without borders (SAWBO) to deliver IPM strategies in the tropics. The SAWBO App helps trainers to use IPM-animated videos, in different local languages, to educate farmers efficiently. The advancement in semiochemical-based tactics could provide great support for area-wide IPM (AW-IPM), which will gain importance in the coming years due to the increasing

**16**

**Author details**

Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

Date Palm Research Center of Excellence, King Faisal University,

\*Address all correspondence to: elshafie62@yahoo.com

[1] Hendrichs J, Kenmore P, Robinson AS, Ureysen MJB. Principles, practice and prospects. In: Vreysen MJB, Robinson AS, Hendrichs J, editors. Area-Wide Control of Insect Pests, from Research to Field Implementation. Dordrech, The Netherlands: Springer; 2007. pp. 3-33

[2] Stork NE. How many species of insects and other terrestrial arthropods are there on earth? Annual Review of Entomology. 2018;**63**(1):31-45. DOI: 10.1146/annurev-ento-020117-043348

[3] Faleiro JR. A review of the issues and management of the red palm weevil *Rhynchophorus ferrugineus* (Coleoptera: Rhynchophoridae) in coconut and date palm during the last one hundred years. International Journal of Tropical Insect Science. 2006;**26**:135-150

[4] Nagoshi RN, Fleischer S, Meagher RL, Hay-Roe M, Khan A, MuruÂa MG, et al. Fall armyworm migration across the Lesser Antilles and the potential for genetic exchanges between north and south American populations. PLoS One. 2017;**12**(2):e0171743. DOI: 10.1371/ journal.pone.0171743

[5] Nikolouli K, Colinet H, Renault D, Enriquez T, Mouton L, Gilbert P, et al. Sterile insect technique and *Wolbachia* symbiosis as potential tools for the control of the invasive species *Drosophila suzukii*. Journal of Pesticide Science. 2017;**91**(2):489-503. DOI: 10.1007/s10340-017-0944.y

[6] Nixon LJ, Morrison WR, Rice KB, Brockerhoff EG, Leskey TC, Guzman F, et al. Identification of volatiles released by diapuasing brown marmorated stink bug, *Halyomorpha halys* (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae). PLoS One. 2018;**13**(1):e0191223. DOI: 10.1371/ journal.pone.0191223

[7] Pimentel D, Peshin R, editors. Integrated Pest Management,

Pesticide Problem. Vol. 3. Dordrecht: Springer Science + Media; 2014. DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-7796-5

[8] Dhaliwal GS, Koul O, Arora R. Integrated pest management: Retrospect and prospect. In: Koul O, Dhaliwal GS, Cuperus GW, editors. Integrated Pest Management: Potential, Constraints and Challenges. London: CAB International; 2004. pp. 1-20

[9] Flint ML, Van den Bosch R. A history of pest control. In: Flint ML, Van den Bosch R, editors. Introduction to Integrated Pest Management. 1st ed. New York: Plenum press; 1981. pp. 51-81

[10] Stern VM, Smith RF, van den Bosch R, Hagen KS. The integrated control concept. Hilgardia. 1959;**29**:81-101. http://ucanr.edu/repository/fileaccess. cfm?article=152499&p=RNIYON. DOI: 10.3733/hilg.v29n02p081

[11] Kogan M. Integrated pest management: Historical perspective and contemporary developments. Annual Review of Entomology. 1998;**43**:243- 270. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.ento.43.1.243

[12] Matthews GA. IPM-a strategy since 1959-mini review. CAB Reviews. 2018;**13**(012):1-2. DOI: 10.1079/ PAVSNNR201813012

[13] Smith RF, Smith GL. Supervised control of insects. California Agriculture. 1949;**3**:12

[14] Geier PW, Clark LR. An ecological approach to pest control. In: Proceedings of the Eighth Technical Meeting. Warsaw: International Union of Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources; 1961. pp. 10, 1960-18

[15] Carson R. Silent Spring. New York: Fawcett Crest; 1962. 368 pp. DOI: 10.1097/00005053-196212000-00009

[16] NAS (National Academy of Science). Insect-pest management and control. In: Principles of Plant and Animal Pest Control. Natl. Acad. Sci. Pub. 1695. 508 pp. Vol. 3. 1969. pp. 448-449. DOI: 10.1203/00006450-196909000-00008

[17] Smith RF, van dan Bosch R. Integrated control. In: Kilgore WW, Doutt RL, editors. Pest Control: Biological, Physical, and Selected Chemical Methods. New York: Academic Press; 1967

[18] FAO. Report of the first session of the FAO Panel of Experts on Integrated Pest Control, Rome (Italy); Sept. 18-22, 1967. 19 pp

[19] Council on Environmental Quality. Integrated Pest Management. Washington, DC: Council Environ. Qual; 1972. 41 pp

[20] Peshin R, Bandral RS, Zhang WJ, Wilson L, Dhawan A. Integrated pest management: A global overview of history, programs and adoption. In: Peshin R, Dhawan AK, editors. Integrated Pest Management: Innovation Development Process. The Netherlands: Springer Science + Business Media B.V.; 2009. pp. 1-49. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4020-8992-3

[21] UNCED. Promoting Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development. Agenda 21, Chapter 14. United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) Switzerland; 1992

[22] Peshin R, Zhang WJ. Integrated pest management and pesticide use. In: Pimentel D, Peshin R, editors. Integrated Pest Management, Pesticide Problem. Vol. 3. Dordrecht: Springer Science + Business Media; 2014. pp. 1-46. DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-7796-5

[23] FAO. Save and Grow. Food and Agriculture Organization; 2011. The FAO Online Catalogue: http://www.fao. org/docrep/014/i2215e/i2215e.pdf.

[24] Union E. Directive 2009/128/EC of the European parliament and of the council of 21 October 2009 establishing a framework for community action to achieve the sustainable use of pesticides. Official Journal of the European Union. 2009;**52**:71-86. http:// eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ TXT/?uri=OJ:L:2009:309:TOC

[25] Bajwa WI, Kogan M. Compendium of IPM Definitions (CID) - What Is IPM and how Is it Defined in the Worldwide Literature. Corvallis, OR, USA: IPPC Publication No. 998, Integrated Plant Protection Center (IPPC), Oregon State University; 2002. DOI: 10.1213/00000539-200202000-00035

[26] Dhawan AK, Peshin R. Integrated pest management: Concept, opportunities and challenges. In: Peshin R, Dhawan AK, editors. Integrated Pest Management: Innovation Development Process. The Netherlands: Springer Science + Business Media B. V.; 2009. pp. 51-81. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4020-8992-3

[27] Barzman M, Bárberi P, Birch ANE, Boonekamp P, Dacchbrodt-Saaydeh S, Graf B, et al. Eight principles of integrated pest management. Agronomy for Sustainable Development. 2015;**35**:1199-1215. DOI: 10.1007/ s1359DOI 10.1007/s1359-015-0327-9

[28] Hill DS. Pests of Crops in Warmer Climates and their Control. The Netherlands: Springer Science + Business Media, B.V.; 2008. 704 pp

[29] Flint ML, Van den Bosch R. What is a pest? In: Flint ML, Van den Bosch R, editors. Introduction to Integrated Pest Management. 1st ed. New York: Plenum press; 1981. pp. 31-50

**19**

*Integrated Insect Pest Management*

Press; 1981. pp. 121-179

2017. pp. 3-22

[31] El-Shafie HAF, Faleiro JR.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81827*

monitoring, decision-making, and tools and techniques of the integrated pest manager. In: Flint ML, Van den Bosch R, editors. Introduction to Integrated Pest Management. 1st ed. New York: Plenum

[38] Li LY. Worldwide use of Trichogramma for biological control on different crops: A survey. In: Wajnberg E, Hassan SA, editors. Biological Control with Eggs Parasitoids. Oxon, U.K.: CAB International; 1994. pp. 37-53. DOI:

[39] Schoeller M. Commercial application of parasitoids to control stored-product pests in Germany and Austria. In: Zdarkova E, Lukas J, editors. Cost Action 842 Biological Control of Pests Insects and Mites, with Special Reference to Entomophtorales, Proceedings of the First Meeting of Working Group 4: Bio-Control of Arthropod Pests in the Stored Products, Lisbon 6-7 September. 2001.

[40] Barnes BN, Hofmeyr JH,

10.4001/003.023.0103

mib.2009.11.005

2012;**109**:255-260

[41] Gamble JC, Payne T, Small B. Interviews with New Zealand community stakeholders regarding acceptability of current or potential pest eradication technologies. New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science. 2010;**38**:57-68. DOI: 10.1080/01140671003767842

[42] Saridaki A, Bourtzis K. *Wolbachia*: More than just a bug in insects' genitals. Current Opinion in Microbiology. 2010;**13**:67-72. DOI: 10.1016/j.

[43] Blagrove MS, Arias-Goeta C, Failloux AB, et al. *Wolbachia* strain wMel induces cytoplasmic incompatibility and blocks dengue transmission in Aedes albopictus. PNAS.

Groenewald S, Conlong DE, Wohlfarter M. The sterile insect technique in agricultural crops in South Africa: A metamorphosis…. But will it fly? African Entomology: Journal of the Entomological Society of Southern Africa. 2015;**23**:1-18. DOI:

10.1104/pp.106.1.37

pp. 29-32

Semiochemicals and their potential use in pest management. In: Shield VDC, editor. Biological Control of Pest and Vector Insects. Rijeka, Croatia: InTech;

[32] Harari AR, Sharon R, Weintraub

reproductive systems as a tool in pest control. In: Horowita AR, Ishaaya I, editors. Advances in Insect Control and Resistance Management. Switzerland: Springer International Publishing; 2016. pp. 93-119. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-31800-4

[33] Luckmann W, Metcalf RL. The pest management concept. In: Metcalf RL, Luckmann W, editors. Introduction to Insect Pest Management. New York: John Wiley & Sons; 1975. pp. 3-36

[34] Pedigo LP, Hutchins SH, Higley LG. Economic injury levels in theory and practice. Annual Review of Entomology. 1986;**31**:341-368. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.en.31.010186.002013

[35] Cook SM, Khan ZR, Pickett JA. The use of 'push-pull' strategies in integrated pest management. Annual Review of Entomology.

ento.52.110405.091407

2007;**52**:375-400. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.

[36] Bhattacharyya M. The push-pull strategy: A new approach to the ecofriendly method of pest management in agriculture. Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies. 2017;**5**(3):604-607

[37] Perkins JH. Insects, Experts, and the Insecticide Crisis: The Quest for New Pest Management Strategies. New York:

Plenum Press; 1982. 304 pp

PG. Manipulating of insect

[30] Flint ML, Van den Bosch R. Practical procedures; IPM

#### *Integrated Insect Pest Management DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81827*

*Pests Control and Acarology*

[16] NAS (National Academy of Science). Insect-pest management and control. In: Principles of Plant and Animal Pest Control. Natl. Acad. Sci. Pub. 1695. 508 pp. Vol. 3. 1969. pp. 448-449. DOI:

[17] Smith RF, van dan Bosch R.

New York: Academic Press; 1967

[19] Council on Environmental Quality. Integrated Pest Management. Washington, DC: Council Environ.

[20] Peshin R, Bandral RS, Zhang WJ, Wilson L, Dhawan A. Integrated pest management: A global overview of history, programs and adoption. In: Peshin R, Dhawan AK, editors. Integrated Pest Management: Innovation Development Process. The Netherlands: Springer Science + Business Media B.V.; 2009. pp. 1-49. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4020-8992-3

[21] UNCED. Promoting Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development. Agenda 21, Chapter 14. United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) Switzerland;

[22] Peshin R, Zhang WJ. Integrated pest management and pesticide use. In: Pimentel D, Peshin R, editors. Integrated Pest Management, Pesticide Problem. Vol. 3. Dordrecht:

[23] FAO. Save and Grow. Food and Agriculture Organization; 2011. The

Springer Science + Business Media; 2014. pp. 1-46. DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-7796-5

1967. 19 pp

Qual; 1972. 41 pp

10.1203/00006450-196909000-00008

FAO Online Catalogue: http://www.fao. org/docrep/014/i2215e/i2215e.pdf.

[24] Union E. Directive 2009/128/EC of the European parliament and of the council of 21 October 2009 establishing a framework for community action to achieve the sustainable use of pesticides. Official Journal of the European Union. 2009;**52**:71-86. http:// eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ TXT/?uri=OJ:L:2009:309:TOC

[25] Bajwa WI, Kogan M. Compendium of IPM Definitions (CID) - What Is IPM and how Is it Defined in the Worldwide Literature. Corvallis, OR, USA: IPPC Publication No. 998, Integrated Plant Protection Center (IPPC), Oregon State University; 2002. DOI: 10.1213/00000539-200202000-00035

[26] Dhawan AK, Peshin R. Integrated

[27] Barzman M, Bárberi P, Birch ANE, Boonekamp P, Dacchbrodt-Saaydeh S, Graf B, et al. Eight principles of integrated pest management. Agronomy

[28] Hill DS. Pests of Crops in Warmer Climates and their Control. The Netherlands: Springer Science + Business Media, B.V.; 2008. 704 pp

[29] Flint ML, Van den Bosch R. What is a pest? In: Flint ML, Van den Bosch R, editors. Introduction to Integrated Pest Management. 1st ed. New York: Plenum

press; 1981. pp. 31-50

[30] Flint ML, Van den Bosch R. Practical procedures; IPM

for Sustainable Development. 2015;**35**:1199-1215. DOI: 10.1007/ s1359DOI 10.1007/s1359-015-0327-9

pest management: Concept, opportunities and challenges. In: Peshin R, Dhawan AK, editors. Integrated Pest Management: Innovation Development Process. The Netherlands: Springer Science + Business Media B. V.; 2009. pp. 51-81. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4020-8992-3

Integrated control. In: Kilgore WW, Doutt RL, editors. Pest Control: Biological, Physical, and Selected Chemical Methods.

[18] FAO. Report of the first session of the FAO Panel of Experts on Integrated Pest Control, Rome (Italy); Sept. 18-22,

**18**

1992

monitoring, decision-making, and tools and techniques of the integrated pest manager. In: Flint ML, Van den Bosch R, editors. Introduction to Integrated Pest Management. 1st ed. New York: Plenum Press; 1981. pp. 121-179

[31] El-Shafie HAF, Faleiro JR. Semiochemicals and their potential use in pest management. In: Shield VDC, editor. Biological Control of Pest and Vector Insects. Rijeka, Croatia: InTech; 2017. pp. 3-22

[32] Harari AR, Sharon R, Weintraub PG. Manipulating of insect reproductive systems as a tool in pest control. In: Horowita AR, Ishaaya I, editors. Advances in Insect Control and Resistance Management. Switzerland: Springer International Publishing; 2016. pp. 93-119. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-31800-4

[33] Luckmann W, Metcalf RL. The pest management concept. In: Metcalf RL, Luckmann W, editors. Introduction to Insect Pest Management. New York: John Wiley & Sons; 1975. pp. 3-36

[34] Pedigo LP, Hutchins SH, Higley LG. Economic injury levels in theory and practice. Annual Review of Entomology. 1986;**31**:341-368. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.en.31.010186.002013

[35] Cook SM, Khan ZR, Pickett JA. The use of 'push-pull' strategies in integrated pest management. Annual Review of Entomology. 2007;**52**:375-400. DOI: 10.1146/annurev. ento.52.110405.091407

[36] Bhattacharyya M. The push-pull strategy: A new approach to the ecofriendly method of pest management in agriculture. Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies. 2017;**5**(3):604-607

[37] Perkins JH. Insects, Experts, and the Insecticide Crisis: The Quest for New Pest Management Strategies. New York: Plenum Press; 1982. 304 pp

[38] Li LY. Worldwide use of Trichogramma for biological control on different crops: A survey. In: Wajnberg E, Hassan SA, editors. Biological Control with Eggs Parasitoids. Oxon, U.K.: CAB International; 1994. pp. 37-53. DOI: 10.1104/pp.106.1.37

[39] Schoeller M. Commercial application of parasitoids to control stored-product pests in Germany and Austria. In: Zdarkova E, Lukas J, editors. Cost Action 842 Biological Control of Pests Insects and Mites, with Special Reference to Entomophtorales, Proceedings of the First Meeting of Working Group 4: Bio-Control of Arthropod Pests in the Stored Products, Lisbon 6-7 September. 2001. pp. 29-32

[40] Barnes BN, Hofmeyr JH, Groenewald S, Conlong DE, Wohlfarter M. The sterile insect technique in agricultural crops in South Africa: A metamorphosis…. But will it fly? African Entomology: Journal of the Entomological Society of Southern Africa. 2015;**23**:1-18. DOI: 10.4001/003.023.0103

[41] Gamble JC, Payne T, Small B. Interviews with New Zealand community stakeholders regarding acceptability of current or potential pest eradication technologies. New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science. 2010;**38**:57-68. DOI: 10.1080/01140671003767842

[42] Saridaki A, Bourtzis K. *Wolbachia*: More than just a bug in insects' genitals. Current Opinion in Microbiology. 2010;**13**:67-72. DOI: 10.1016/j. mib.2009.11.005

[43] Blagrove MS, Arias-Goeta C, Failloux AB, et al. *Wolbachia* strain wMel induces cytoplasmic incompatibility and blocks dengue transmission in Aedes albopictus. PNAS. 2012;**109**:255-260

[44] Vavre F, Fleury F, Varaldi J. Evidence for female mortality in Wolbachia-mediated cytoplasmic incompatibility in haplodiploid insects: Epidemiological and evolutionary consequences. Evolution. 2000;**54**:191- 200. DOI: 10.1111/j.0014-3820.2000. tb00019.x

[45] Knipling EF. Entomology and the management of man's environment. Journal of the Australian Entomological Society. 1972;**11**:153-167

[46] Knipling EF. Regional management of the fall armyworm *Spodoptera frugiperda*- a realistic approach to insect ecology. Florida Entomologist. 1980;**63**:468-480. DOI: 10.2307/3494531

[47] Himesh S, Prakasa Rao EVS, Gouda KC, Ramesh KV, Rakesh V, Mohapatra GN, et al. Digital revolution and Big Data: A new revolution in agriculture. CAB Reviews. 2018;(021):**13**:1-7. DOI: 10.1079/PAVSNNR201813021

[48] Julia BB, Robert PB. Scientific animations without borders (SAWBO): Animating IPM information and education everywhere. Outlooks on Pest Management. 2018;**29**(2):58-61

**21**

**Chapter 2**

**Abstract**

protein

**1. Introduction**

**1.1 Losses due to pests**

**1.2 Use of pesticides**

Biological Control of Insect Pest

Among all the crops, the total loss due to the pests varied for each crop likely for wheat 50%, cotton 80%, maize 31%, rice 37%, potatoes 40%, and soybean 26%. Environmental stewardship and food security are the most important factors that involved in agriculture. In many cases by the misuse of insecticide led to population resurgence, pesticide residues, and pest resistance. The microorganisms like virus, fungus, protozoan or bacterium are the active ingredient in this type of pesticides. Safety of food alludes to the conditions and practices that save the quality of food to anticipate tainting and food borne sicknesses. Natural enemies and botanicals play a vital role to control pests with different mechanisms. Microbial, for example, microscopic organisms, growths, and infections are the major biopesticides being concentrated generally to create contrasting options to chemicals. The number and development rate of biopesticides demonstrate an expanding promoting pattern in recent decades. Biopesticides are host particular and biodegradable bringing about slightest persistency of leftover poisonous quality. Biopesticides make key commitments to IPM and can enormously lessen ordinary pesticides. Nowadays, the globe is working on protein-

based biopesticide, and it is very effective method to control the insect pest.

**Keywords:** pests, biopesticide, food security, microorganism, natural enemies,

Among all the crops, the total loss due to the pests varied for each crop likely for wheat 50%, cotton 80%, maize 31%, rice 37%, potatoes 40%, and soybean 26%. Weeds are the major problem in production, and its effects are almost 34% losses. Pathogens and animal pests are also problem in production, but its loss is less as compared to pests, loss due to pathogens is 16% and loss due to animal pests is 18% [1].

Agricultural pests like weeds, insects, pests, and plant pathogen are managed by using pesticide-insecticide. To control the pests, the cost of machinery, fuel, and labor is reduced [2–4]. The advantages of pesticides are production cost is lower, yield is high, and farmer's revenues become high [5]. For crop production, the pesticides are used worldwide and increased about 20 times from 1960 to 2000 [1], in 2002, the usage of pesticide becomes high and it was 1.0 billion tons, and in 2007, it reached to 1.7 billion tons. China is one of the major producer and also the most intensive insecticide-pesticide user in production of crops in the world [6, 7].

*Talha Nazir, Sehroon Khan and Dewen Qiu*

## **Chapter 2** Biological Control of Insect Pest

*Talha Nazir, Sehroon Khan and Dewen Qiu*

## **Abstract**

*Pests Control and Acarology*

tb00019.x

[44] Vavre F, Fleury F, Varaldi J. Evidence for female mortality in Wolbachia-mediated cytoplasmic incompatibility in haplodiploid insects: Epidemiological and evolutionary consequences. Evolution. 2000;**54**:191- 200. DOI: 10.1111/j.0014-3820.2000.

[45] Knipling EF. Entomology and the management of man's environment. Journal of the Australian Entomological

[46] Knipling EF. Regional management of the fall armyworm *Spodoptera frugiperda*- a realistic approach to insect ecology. Florida Entomologist. 1980;**63**:468-480. DOI: 10.2307/3494531

[47] Himesh S, Prakasa Rao EVS, Gouda KC, Ramesh KV, Rakesh V, Mohapatra GN, et al. Digital revolution and Big Data: A new revolution in agriculture. CAB Reviews. 2018;(021):**13**:1-7. DOI:

10.1079/PAVSNNR201813021

[48] Julia BB, Robert PB. Scientific animations without borders (SAWBO): Animating IPM information and

Management. 2018;**29**(2):58-61

education everywhere. Outlooks on Pest

Society. 1972;**11**:153-167

**20**

Among all the crops, the total loss due to the pests varied for each crop likely for wheat 50%, cotton 80%, maize 31%, rice 37%, potatoes 40%, and soybean 26%. Environmental stewardship and food security are the most important factors that involved in agriculture. In many cases by the misuse of insecticide led to population resurgence, pesticide residues, and pest resistance. The microorganisms like virus, fungus, protozoan or bacterium are the active ingredient in this type of pesticides. Safety of food alludes to the conditions and practices that save the quality of food to anticipate tainting and food borne sicknesses. Natural enemies and botanicals play a vital role to control pests with different mechanisms. Microbial, for example, microscopic organisms, growths, and infections are the major biopesticides being concentrated generally to create contrasting options to chemicals. The number and development rate of biopesticides demonstrate an expanding promoting pattern in recent decades. Biopesticides are host particular and biodegradable bringing about slightest persistency of leftover poisonous quality. Biopesticides make key commitments to IPM and can enormously lessen ordinary pesticides. Nowadays, the globe is working on proteinbased biopesticide, and it is very effective method to control the insect pest.

**Keywords:** pests, biopesticide, food security, microorganism, natural enemies, protein

## **1. Introduction**

## **1.1 Losses due to pests**

Among all the crops, the total loss due to the pests varied for each crop likely for wheat 50%, cotton 80%, maize 31%, rice 37%, potatoes 40%, and soybean 26%. Weeds are the major problem in production, and its effects are almost 34% losses. Pathogens and animal pests are also problem in production, but its loss is less as compared to pests, loss due to pathogens is 16% and loss due to animal pests is 18% [1].

## **1.2 Use of pesticides**

Agricultural pests like weeds, insects, pests, and plant pathogen are managed by using pesticide-insecticide. To control the pests, the cost of machinery, fuel, and labor is reduced [2–4]. The advantages of pesticides are production cost is lower, yield is high, and farmer's revenues become high [5]. For crop production, the pesticides are used worldwide and increased about 20 times from 1960 to 2000 [1], in 2002, the usage of pesticide becomes high and it was 1.0 billion tons, and in 2007, it reached to 1.7 billion tons. China is one of the major producer and also the most intensive insecticide-pesticide user in production of crops in the world [6, 7].

In China, the pesticide producers are more than 2800. There are more than 20 large industries which produce the pesticides with a capacity of 5000–10,000 tons per year. Registered active ingredients are more than 600, and up to 2005, the total products (or formulations) were 22,000. Last year, the total amount for production of pesticide was more than 1 million ton. In the sense of active ingredient, 0.28 million tons and almost 1.4 million tons of formulated products are used and every year 20 million hectares. Nearly 30–40% yield loss could be evaded. There are more than 400 million farmers and 200,000 distributions [8].

## **1.3 Safety of food in field and on agricultural practice**

Pesticides are used to increase the crop production in agricultural farms. But the pesticide also has some sewer effects on human health even death because it contains poison. These residues are more effective on children as compared to adults. Different agricultural practices are used to keep the pest population below the economic threshold level. The use of pesticide application is the most adoptable technique used by farmers for the production of agricultural products. But these chemical pesticides caused many serious problems. Due to the indiscriminate use of pesticides for the better production of agricultural products, food residues remain in these products, which cause health problems in human after consumption of these products [9].

## **2. Threats of pesticides**

## **2.1 Effect on humans and environment**

Asthma, learning disabilities, diabetes, birth defects, autism, reproductive dysfunction, Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases, and many types of cancer are the most common diseases that affect the health of human in twenty-first century. The chronic diseases and death rate are about 1 million/year people due to the pesticides because they contain poison [10]. The residues of pesticide remain in or on the food after they applied on crops [11]. In many countries, it were seen that the levels of these residues in foods are often stipulated by regulatory bodies. Now, people are going to aware about the residues that occur in the edible food. Several pesticide residues especially exhibit bioaccumulation and derivatives of chlorinated pesticides which could develop harmful effect in human and animal body, also in environment [12]. Pesticides-insecticides can contaminate turf, soil, water, and other vegetation. For reducing or finishing the insects-pests or weeds, we use pesticides-insecticides but it will also be harmful for the other organism like beneficial insects, birds, and also nontarget crop or plants. Pesticides-insecticides contain acute toxic, but herbicides also pose risks to other plants or nontarget organisms [13]. One of the environmental science books is Silent Spring and the author of this book is Rachel Carson, which was published in 1962. In the book, the harmful effects on the environment, predominantly on birds of excessive use of pesticides, Rachel Carson accused the chemical industry for scattering half-truth and public officials of accepting industry claims without any question [14].

## **3. Types of insecticides**

## **3.1 Transfer processes**

Adsorption is the process in which insecticide fix (bind) with soil particle. According to the law, different charges can attract each other, this can be done

**23**

*Biological Control of Insect Pest*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81431*

because insecticides have positive charge and soil particles have negative charge, and moisture helps in absorption. Due to insistence of some insecticides, the insecticides keep on in the field soil for a long time and can be absorbed by plants grown in the field. Leaching is the process in which insecticide can move through soil instead of over the surface. An insecticide is dissolved with the irrigation water and then applied to the field plant. So, solubility is the mail factor. Volatilization is the process in which solid or liquid changes into gas. When volatilized, the insecticide can move away from treated area by the help of air. With the help of vapor pressure, we can determine that the insecticide will volatize or not. If the vapor pressure is high in the air then insecticide will be volatile. Spray drift is the process in which the droplets of spray move away from the application site during application. Runoff is the process in which the insecticide can move with water in the sloping surface. Insecticide may move as it is mixed with water or fasten to the soil particles of destroying soil. It relies

It is the process in which the insecticide can break down with the help of light, microbes, and chemical reactions. This process may be done in hours or may take days or years; the breaking down of insecticide depends upon the chemical charac-

Microbial breakdown is the process in which the insecticide can break down

with the help of microorganism's likely bacteria and fungi. When favorable conditions are available like warm temperature, appropriate soil moisture and oxygen, and favorable pH, the microbial breakdown increases. Chemical breakdown is the process in which the insecticide can break down with the help of chemical reactions in the soil. The type and also the rate of chemical reactions that happen are influenced by pH levels, soil temperature, and moisture and fixing of insecticide-pesticide to soil. Photodegradation is the process in which the insecticide can break down with the help of sunlight. Almost all the insecticides are break down in sunlight to some level. The breaking down of insecticide depends upon some factors like properties of the insecticide, intensity of light,

**5. Biopesticides: an alternate to traditional chemical pesticides**

Environmental stewardship and food security are the most important factors that involved in agriculture. In many cases by the misuse of insecticide led to population resurgence, pesticide residues, and pest resistance. By using less opportunities once a legend idea, biopesticides are widely available, and this idea is working very rapidly. The biopesticide is an alternate way to control pests, and this method

In 2008, the entire 97 varieties of biopesticides existed in China and cover the market with biopesticide with 6 billion yuan and it is the 10% of total sale of pesticide. At present, in China, some problems occur in commercializing biopesticides. The agricultural production is low that cannot fulfill the demand of farmers. The production technology of biopesticide is not good enough; less ability of innovation

on the slope of area; moisture content, rely and texture of soil [15].

**4. Degradation or breakdown processes**

and intensity of light [15].

teristics of the insecticide and environmental factors.

is environmentally friendly as well as effective [16].

**6. Role of biopesticides in China**

#### *Biological Control of Insect Pest DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81431*

*Pests Control and Acarology*

**2. Threats of pesticides**

**3. Types of insecticides**

**3.1 Transfer processes**

**2.1 Effect on humans and environment**

400 million farmers and 200,000 distributions [8].

**1.3 Safety of food in field and on agricultural practice**

In China, the pesticide producers are more than 2800. There are more than 20 large industries which produce the pesticides with a capacity of 5000–10,000 tons per year. Registered active ingredients are more than 600, and up to 2005, the total products (or formulations) were 22,000. Last year, the total amount for production of pesticide was more than 1 million ton. In the sense of active ingredient, 0.28 million tons and almost 1.4 million tons of formulated products are used and every year 20 million hectares. Nearly 30–40% yield loss could be evaded. There are more than

Pesticides are used to increase the crop production in agricultural farms. But the pesticide also has some sewer effects on human health even death because it contains poison. These residues are more effective on children as compared to adults. Different agricultural practices are used to keep the pest population below the economic threshold level. The use of pesticide application is the most adoptable technique used by farmers for the production of agricultural products. But these chemical pesticides caused many serious problems. Due to the indiscriminate use of pesticides for the better production of agricultural products, food residues remain in these products, which

Asthma, learning disabilities, diabetes, birth defects, autism, reproductive dysfunction, Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases, and many types of cancer are the most common diseases that affect the health of human in twenty-first century. The chronic diseases and death rate are about 1 million/year people due to the pesticides because they contain poison [10]. The residues of pesticide remain in or on the food after they applied on crops [11]. In many countries, it were seen that the levels of these residues in foods are often stipulated by regulatory bodies. Now, people are going to aware about the residues that occur in the edible food. Several pesticide residues especially exhibit bioaccumulation and derivatives of chlorinated pesticides which could develop harmful effect in human and animal body, also in environment [12]. Pesticides-insecticides can contaminate turf, soil, water, and other vegetation. For reducing or finishing the insects-pests or weeds, we use pesticides-insecticides but it will also be harmful for the other organism like beneficial insects, birds, and also nontarget crop or plants. Pesticides-insecticides contain acute toxic, but herbicides also pose risks to other plants or nontarget organisms [13]. One of the environmental science books is Silent Spring and the author of this book is Rachel Carson, which was published in 1962. In the book, the harmful effects on the environment, predominantly on birds of excessive use of pesticides, Rachel Carson accused the chemical industry for scattering half-truth

cause health problems in human after consumption of these products [9].

and public officials of accepting industry claims without any question [14].

Adsorption is the process in which insecticide fix (bind) with soil particle. According to the law, different charges can attract each other, this can be done

**22**

because insecticides have positive charge and soil particles have negative charge, and moisture helps in absorption. Due to insistence of some insecticides, the insecticides keep on in the field soil for a long time and can be absorbed by plants grown in the field. Leaching is the process in which insecticide can move through soil instead of over the surface. An insecticide is dissolved with the irrigation water and then applied to the field plant. So, solubility is the mail factor. Volatilization is the process in which solid or liquid changes into gas. When volatilized, the insecticide can move away from treated area by the help of air. With the help of vapor pressure, we can determine that the insecticide will volatize or not. If the vapor pressure is high in the air then insecticide will be volatile. Spray drift is the process in which the droplets of spray move away from the application site during application. Runoff is the process in which the insecticide can move with water in the sloping surface. Insecticide may move as it is mixed with water or fasten to the soil particles of destroying soil. It relies on the slope of area; moisture content, rely and texture of soil [15].

## **4. Degradation or breakdown processes**

It is the process in which the insecticide can break down with the help of light, microbes, and chemical reactions. This process may be done in hours or may take days or years; the breaking down of insecticide depends upon the chemical characteristics of the insecticide and environmental factors.

Microbial breakdown is the process in which the insecticide can break down with the help of microorganism's likely bacteria and fungi. When favorable conditions are available like warm temperature, appropriate soil moisture and oxygen, and favorable pH, the microbial breakdown increases. Chemical breakdown is the process in which the insecticide can break down with the help of chemical reactions in the soil. The type and also the rate of chemical reactions that happen are influenced by pH levels, soil temperature, and moisture and fixing of insecticide-pesticide to soil. Photodegradation is the process in which the insecticide can break down with the help of sunlight. Almost all the insecticides are break down in sunlight to some level. The breaking down of insecticide depends upon some factors like properties of the insecticide, intensity of light, and intensity of light [15].

## **5. Biopesticides: an alternate to traditional chemical pesticides**

Environmental stewardship and food security are the most important factors that involved in agriculture. In many cases by the misuse of insecticide led to population resurgence, pesticide residues, and pest resistance. By using less opportunities once a legend idea, biopesticides are widely available, and this idea is working very rapidly. The biopesticide is an alternate way to control pests, and this method is environmentally friendly as well as effective [16].

## **6. Role of biopesticides in China**

In 2008, the entire 97 varieties of biopesticides existed in China and cover the market with biopesticide with 6 billion yuan and it is the 10% of total sale of pesticide. At present, in China, some problems occur in commercializing biopesticides. The agricultural production is low that cannot fulfill the demand of farmers. The production technology of biopesticide is not good enough; less ability of innovation and concentration of industry are also low. They just encouraged the use of biopesticides in some varieties such as fruits, leafy vegetables, and melons. Chinese herbs and tea are also encouraged but on a small scale. The Chinese Government must implement hard policies of agricultural environmental and solid measure to promote biopesticide against pest in the production of agriculture [17].

## **7. Major classes of biopesticides**

In biopesticide, there are certain of pesticide derived from natural materials as bacteria, certain minerals, animals, and plants. There are three types of major classes of biopesticides [18].

## **7.1 Biochemical pesticides**

These are naturally occurring substances that control pests by nontoxic mechanisms. The conventional pesticides kill or disable the pest by contrast. Biochemical pesticides have some substance that interferes in mating, like sex pheromones, also different fragrance of plant extract attracts the pests to trap. Because it is sometimes difficult to determine whether a substance meets the criteria for classification as a biochemical pesticide, EPA has established a special committee to make such decisions [18].

## **7.2 Microbial pesticides**

The microorganisms like virus, fungus, protozoan, or bacterium are the active ingredient in this type of pesticides. Each microorganism have specific active ingredient to control the specific pests, but microbial pesticides can control or kill many kinds of pests which damage the crop production. One fungus can control the weeds and other control or kill the insects-pests [18].

## **7.3 Plant-incorporated-protectants (PIPs)**

These are pesticide substances produced by plants from genetic material which are inserted in plant. Scientists take the gene for BT pesticide protein and insert into plant's own genetic material. After inserting the gene of *Bt* bacterium in the plant, the plant prepared the substance that can destroy or kill the pest. The plant's genetic material and protein, but not plant itself, regulated by EPA [18]. An insect-toxic protein, Bb70p, was purified from *Beauveria bassiana* 70 using ammonium sulfate precipitation, ion exchange chromatography, and gel filtration. The protein caused high mortality by intra-hemocoelic injection into *Galleria mellonella.* Thus, Bb70p appears to be an insect toxin protein, demonstrating novelty. Identification of this insect-toxic protein presents potential to enhance the virulence of *B*. *bassiana* through genetic manipulation [19].

## **8. Biopesticide characteristics**

Biopesticides have some characteristics:

1.Target range of biopesticides is narrow and used for specific problem.

**25**

commercial products [23].

**10. Microbial pesticides**

*Biological Control of Insect Pest*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81431*

conventional pesticides.

3.Biopesticides suppress the pest population rather than eliminate.

7.They are much more suitable for human as well as for environment than

Food safety requires wide application range of biopesticides which includes: If one organism is feed on other organism, this is called its natural enemy. The beneficial insects are those insects that feed on pests. In order arthropods, for example, mites and spiders are beneficial [20]. Microbial pesticide exists naturally or by genetically changed fungi, protozoans, bacteria, algae, or fungi. This can be used as an alternate method to chemical insecticide, this is very effective. Biological toxin material is derived from microorganism, for example, fungus or bacterium, this is called microbial toxin. These types of microorganism may cause death or rupture the gut of the pest because these entomopathogens are highly toxic. Studies proved that pathogen develops insecticidal toxin that are very much important in pathogenesis [21]. Antibiotics are the substance that stops the growth or kills microorganism, including both fungi and bacteria. In "bactericidal", the antibiotics kill the bacteria, whereas in "bacteriostatic", the antibiotics stop the growth bacteria. It is the success of biotechnology that develops the transgenic crops which are resistance against the major pests and also commercialize the transgenic crops. In first generation, the products include plants with just single insecticidal *Bt* genes, which shows resistance against the major pests of cotton and corn [22]. In the search for alternative solutions to crop protection problems, the interest in plants and their chemobiodiversity as a source of bioactive substances has increased. Plants are capable of synthesizing an overwhelming variety of small organic molecules called secondary metabolites, usually with very complex and unique carbon skeleton structures [23]. For many years for the protection of crops, these substances are used for the benefit of mankind [24]. Plants release some chemicals in environment and when they are used as smother crops, green manures, intercrop, cover crop or mulch, or in rotational sequences grown than it can invade insect-pests and pathogenic diseases and shows the progress in the yield of crops [25]. Botanicals include crude or semi refined extracts and isolated or purified compounds from various plant species and

Entomopathogenic fungi are considered as essential natural regulators in population of different insects. These fungi have potential as mycoinsecticide agents alongside different agricultural insect pests. The mode of actions of these fungi mainly cause infection in body of their host through cuticle penetration, acquisition entrance to the host hemolymph, production of toxins, and grow

4.Application time of biopesticides is somewhat critical.

6.Biopesticides often used as amount of IPM programs.

8.No residue problems commonly present by biopesticide.

5.There is limited field persistence and shelf life.

**9. Biopesticide application on food safety**

2.Biopesticides work slowly.

*Pests Control and Acarology*

**7. Major classes of biopesticides**

classes of biopesticides [18].

**7.1 Biochemical pesticides**

such decisions [18].

**7.2 Microbial pesticides**

and concentration of industry are also low. They just encouraged the use of

promote biopesticide against pest in the production of agriculture [17].

biopesticides in some varieties such as fruits, leafy vegetables, and melons. Chinese herbs and tea are also encouraged but on a small scale. The Chinese Government must implement hard policies of agricultural environmental and solid measure to

In biopesticide, there are certain of pesticide derived from natural materials as bacteria, certain minerals, animals, and plants. There are three types of major

These are naturally occurring substances that control pests by nontoxic mechanisms. The conventional pesticides kill or disable the pest by contrast. Biochemical pesticides have some substance that interferes in mating, like sex pheromones, also different fragrance of plant extract attracts the pests to trap. Because it is sometimes difficult to determine whether a substance meets the criteria for classification as a biochemical pesticide, EPA has established a special committee to make

The microorganisms like virus, fungus, protozoan, or bacterium are the active

These are pesticide substances produced by plants from genetic material which are inserted in plant. Scientists take the gene for BT pesticide protein and insert into plant's own genetic material. After inserting the gene of *Bt* bacterium in the plant, the plant prepared the substance that can destroy or kill the pest. The plant's genetic material and protein, but not plant itself, regulated by EPA [18]. An insect-toxic protein, Bb70p, was purified from *Beauveria bassiana* 70 using ammonium sulfate precipitation, ion exchange chromatography, and gel filtration. The protein caused high mortality by intra-hemocoelic injection into *Galleria mellonella.* Thus, Bb70p appears to be an insect toxin protein, demonstrating novelty. Identification of this insect-toxic protein presents potential to enhance the virulence of *B*. *bassiana*

ingredient in this type of pesticides. Each microorganism have specific active ingredient to control the specific pests, but microbial pesticides can control or kill many kinds of pests which damage the crop production. One fungus can control the

1.Target range of biopesticides is narrow and used for specific problem.

weeds and other control or kill the insects-pests [18].

**7.3 Plant-incorporated-protectants (PIPs)**

through genetic manipulation [19].

**8. Biopesticide characteristics**

2.Biopesticides work slowly.

Biopesticides have some characteristics:

**24**


## **9. Biopesticide application on food safety**

Food safety requires wide application range of biopesticides which includes: If one organism is feed on other organism, this is called its natural enemy. The beneficial insects are those insects that feed on pests. In order arthropods, for example, mites and spiders are beneficial [20]. Microbial pesticide exists naturally or by genetically changed fungi, protozoans, bacteria, algae, or fungi. This can be used as an alternate method to chemical insecticide, this is very effective. Biological toxin material is derived from microorganism, for example, fungus or bacterium, this is called microbial toxin. These types of microorganism may cause death or rupture the gut of the pest because these entomopathogens are highly toxic. Studies proved that pathogen develops insecticidal toxin that are very much important in pathogenesis [21]. Antibiotics are the substance that stops the growth or kills microorganism, including both fungi and bacteria. In "bactericidal", the antibiotics kill the bacteria, whereas in "bacteriostatic", the antibiotics stop the growth bacteria. It is the success of biotechnology that develops the transgenic crops which are resistance against the major pests and also commercialize the transgenic crops. In first generation, the products include plants with just single insecticidal *Bt* genes, which shows resistance against the major pests of cotton and corn [22]. In the search for alternative solutions to crop protection problems, the interest in plants and their chemobiodiversity as a source of bioactive substances has increased. Plants are capable of synthesizing an overwhelming variety of small organic molecules called secondary metabolites, usually with very complex and unique carbon skeleton structures [23]. For many years for the protection of crops, these substances are used for the benefit of mankind [24]. Plants release some chemicals in environment and when they are used as smother crops, green manures, intercrop, cover crop or mulch, or in rotational sequences grown than it can invade insect-pests and pathogenic diseases and shows the progress in the yield of crops [25]. Botanicals include crude or semi refined extracts and isolated or purified compounds from various plant species and commercial products [23].

## **10. Microbial pesticides**

Entomopathogenic fungi are considered as essential natural regulators in population of different insects. These fungi have potential as mycoinsecticide agents alongside different agricultural insect pests. The mode of actions of these fungi mainly cause infection in body of their host through cuticle penetration, acquisition entrance to the host hemolymph, production of toxins, and grow

by consuming nutrients which are existing in the hemocoel to avoid immune responses in insects [26]. A total of 1600 different types of viruses are involved in the infection of 1100 different species of insects and mites. Baculovirus is considered as a distinct group of viruses. About 100 species of insects are susceptible to this group of viruses. The main feature of this virus group is host specification [27]. Bacterial biopesticides are considered as the most common and inexpensive method of microbial pesticides. Different species of butterflies and moths as well as species of flies, beetles, and mosquitoes are generally controlled by these biopesticides. Bacteria which are used as bacterial pathogens to manage insect pest populations are mainly spore-forming and rod-shaped bacteria in the genus *Bacillus* [28]. The EPNsn introduces symbiotic, pathogenic bacteria of the genera *Xenorhabdus* (in the Steinernematidae) or *Photorhabdus* (Heterorhabditidae) into the hemocoel of their hosts following penetration. Subsequent multiplication of the bacteria leads to host death, which can occur within as little as 48 hours of infection. Nematodes infected insects usually have abnormal behavior than uninfected individuals. The nematode can kill its host without its associated bacterium but is unable to reproduce without it. They have also been used with commercial success against citrus root weevil, against turf pests and on mushroom crops (**Figure 1**) [29].

#### **Figure 1.**

*Microbial biopesticide product worldwide active ingredient: microorganism (bacteria, fungi, virus, nematodes, etc.) (Source: Division of Agricultural Chemicals, 2011).*

## **11. Botanicals**

An extensive variety of secondary metabolites were produced by plants that prevent herbivores from feeding on them. These chemicals comprise phenolic compounds (e.g., tannins), glucosinolates (e.g., mustard oil), glucosinolates (e.g., mustard oil), and terpenoids (volatile oils, e.g., limonene). As a plant protection products about 50 different botanical active substances are registered in USA, nevertheless just 11 are registered in the EU. Pesticides are derived from plants and generally act in two ways: that is, stomach poison and contact poison. There

**27**

*Biological Control of Insect Pest*

properties [30].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81431*

action, toxicity, and uses [31] (**Table 1**).

Pyrethrins Flowers of

Rotenone Roots of *Derris,* 

Sabadilla Seeds of tropical

Ryania Wood stems of

**11.1 Characteristics of major traditional botanicals**

**Botanical insecticide Source plant (s) Mode of** 

pyrethrum daisy, *Tanacetum (Chrysanthemum) cinerariaefolium*

*Lonchocarpus, other tropical legumes*

European *Veratrum album* and lily *Schoenocaulon officinale*

*Ryania speciosa*

are about 250,000 plant species that were evaluated from which 2121 are used in the management of pest, 1005 are demonstrated insecticidal activity, 384 are antifeedants, 297 are repellents, 27 are attractants, and 31 have growth inhibiting

There are some traditional botanical insecticides with their source, mode of

**action**

Interferes with Na and K ion movement in nerve axons

Disrupts energy metabolism in mitochondria

Interferes with K and Na ion movement in nerve axons. Irritates mucous membranes and skin, potent inducer of sneezing

Activate Ca++ ion release channels and causes paralysis in muscles of insects and vertebrates

**Toxicity Uses**

On humans and pests to control lice, fleas, ticks. Rapidly breaks down

In orchards and gardens against several insects mainly beetles. Persists effectively for 4–5 days or more. Use as a fish poison

In fruits and vegetables against bugs and citrus thrips. Rapidly breaks down

In fruit crops and fields against thrips and caterpillars. Frequently combine with pyrethrins and rotenone in commercial mixtures for use of garden

Mammalian oral LD50 > 1000, some allergic reactions can occur

Oral LD50 = 25–3000 Dermal > 1000

Oral LD50 near 4000

Oral LD50 near 1000 Dermal near 4000

## *Biological Control of Insect Pest DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81431*

*Pests Control and Acarology*

room crops (**Figure 1**) [29].

by consuming nutrients which are existing in the hemocoel to avoid immune responses in insects [26]. A total of 1600 different types of viruses are involved in the infection of 1100 different species of insects and mites. Baculovirus is considered as a distinct group of viruses. About 100 species of insects are susceptible to this group of viruses. The main feature of this virus group is host specification [27]. Bacterial biopesticides are considered as the most common and inexpensive method of microbial pesticides. Different species of butterflies and moths as well as species of flies, beetles, and mosquitoes are generally controlled by these biopesticides. Bacteria which are used as bacterial pathogens to manage insect pest populations are mainly spore-forming and rod-shaped bacteria in the genus *Bacillus* [28]. The EPNsn introduces symbiotic, pathogenic bacteria of the genera *Xenorhabdus* (in the Steinernematidae) or *Photorhabdus* (Heterorhabditidae) into the hemocoel of their hosts following penetration. Subsequent multiplication of the bacteria leads to host death, which can occur within as little as 48 hours of infection. Nematodes infected insects usually have abnormal behavior than uninfected individuals. The nematode can kill its host without its associated bacterium but is unable to reproduce without it. They have also been used with commercial success against citrus root weevil, against turf pests and on mush-

An extensive variety of secondary metabolites were produced by plants that prevent herbivores from feeding on them. These chemicals comprise phenolic compounds (e.g., tannins), glucosinolates (e.g., mustard oil), glucosinolates (e.g., mustard oil), and terpenoids (volatile oils, e.g., limonene). As a plant protection products about 50 different botanical active substances are registered in USA, nevertheless just 11 are registered in the EU. Pesticides are derived from plants and generally act in two ways: that is, stomach poison and contact poison. There

*Microbial biopesticide product worldwide active ingredient: microorganism (bacteria, fungi, virus, nematodes,* 

**26**

**11. Botanicals**

*etc.) (Source: Division of Agricultural Chemicals, 2011).*

**Figure 1.**

are about 250,000 plant species that were evaluated from which 2121 are used in the management of pest, 1005 are demonstrated insecticidal activity, 384 are antifeedants, 297 are repellents, 27 are attractants, and 31 have growth inhibiting properties [30].

## **11.1 Characteristics of major traditional botanicals**

There are some traditional botanical insecticides with their source, mode of action, toxicity, and uses [31] (**Table 1**).



#### **Table 1.**

*Features of foremost traditional botanicals [31].*

## **12. Natural enemies**

If one organism is feed on other organism, this is called its natural enemy. The beneficial insects are those insects, which are feed on pests. In order arthropods, for example, mites and spiders are beneficial. Beneficial arthropods are of different types, parasitoids and predators. Predators like spiders and ladybug; they attach on many kinds of insects and will eat many preys in their life cycle. Parasitoids are flies or wasps that lay eggs inside or on the body of other arthropods, also called parasite. When the egg hatches inside or on the body of other arthropods, the immature parasitoid comes out and feeds on the victim, this is called host, finally killing it. Developing parasitoid, in his life cycle kills only one host. Diseases also affect the insects. Entomopathogens or insect diseases are microorganisms that attack insects and contain nematodes, viruses, fungi, and bacteria. There is some exception that warm-blooded animals cannot affect by the disease attacked by arthropods. To control weeds, sometime plant disease agents and insects are used [20].

**29**

*Biological Control of Insect Pest*

thrips or eggs of insect [20].

intravenous.

• Validamycin

• Avermectin

• Wuyimycin

• Zhongshengmycin

• Agricultural antibiotic 120

**14. Insect sex pheromone**

on the sensitivity of alarm [32].

• Polyoxin

follows:

**13. Antibiotics of agricultural**

insects.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81431*

There are few natural enemies that are very important from many beneficial

Lacewings found the colonies of aphid to consume just like lady beetles. They feed on scales, mites, mealy bugs, insect eggs, and also on aphids. Stink bugs are called very severe pests and these bugs are useful predators because the eating behavior vary among different species. Searching behavior of lady beetles is frantic; they always bite quickly to eat that helps to understand lady beetles. They feed on many small insects, and no matter that prey is on which stage the aim is just killed. They mostly eat aphid due to his small size but many lady beetles also eat beetle grubs, small caterpillars, whiteflies, mealybugs, scales, mites, and all types of insect egg. From some mites, the spider mites are serious pest of plants but some are beneficial. From all the beneficial mites, the phytoseiid mites are mainly important, the reason is that it is the predator's plant feeding mites and also small organism like

Antibiotics are the active biomolecules obtained from different microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes). Few antibiotics are derived from plant origin also. Antibiotics kill the pathogens, disease causing harmful microorganisms by interfering with their molecular process like transcription translation, etc., or also by inhibiting the process which are very essential for the survival of pathogens like cell wall synthesis, etc. Antibiotics are further categorized into narrow range and broad spectrum antibiotics. Antibiotics are given orally as well as injected

Different antibiotics are used in agriculture. Names of these antibiotics are as

The sex pheromones are released by female to attract the male for mating, the female do this with for sexual reproduction. Sex pheromones are for breeding and for attraction of opposite sex and transferring information on their species, sex, age, and genotype after released by male. Volatile pheromones are called as defensive pheromones or sex pheromones, and they have a particular smell and focused *Pests Control and Acarology*

**Botanical insecticide Source plant (s) Mode of** 

sp., *Duboisia, Anabasis, Asclepias, Equisetum, Lycopodium*

of chinaberry (*Melia azedarach*) and neem (*Azadirachta indica*)

Limonene/Linalool Citrus oils Causes

Nicotine Tobacco, *Nicotiana*

Neem Seeds, leaves, bark

**action**

Mimics acetylcholine and overstimulate receptor cells to cause convulsions and paralysis

Biochemical nature of feeding deterrence, repellence, growth regulation effects are not well described

spontaneous stimulation of sensory nerves, biochemical mode of action

**Toxicity Uses**

Mostly in greenhouses and gardens. Nicotine fumigations target aphids, thrips and mites

Medicinally use in humans. On landscape plants and many crops mainly against secondary pests and soft bodied. Very short persistence on treated plants

Mostly in pet shampoos, dip and sprays to kill ticks and fleas. Very short persistence on treated plants

Oral LD50 = 3–188 Dermal near 50 Very toxic to humans

Oral LD50 > 13,000

Limonene oral LD50 > 5000 Dermal > 3500

**28**

**12. Natural enemies**

*Features of foremost traditional botanicals [31].*

**Table 1.**

If one organism is feed on other organism, this is called its natural enemy. The beneficial insects are those insects, which are feed on pests. In order arthropods, for example, mites and spiders are beneficial. Beneficial arthropods are of different types, parasitoids and predators. Predators like spiders and ladybug; they attach on many kinds of insects and will eat many preys in their life cycle. Parasitoids are flies or wasps that lay eggs inside or on the body of other arthropods, also called parasite. When the egg hatches inside or on the body of other arthropods, the immature parasitoid comes out and feeds on the victim, this is called host, finally killing it. Developing parasitoid, in his life cycle kills only one host. Diseases also affect the insects. Entomopathogens or insect diseases are microorganisms that attack insects and contain nematodes, viruses, fungi, and bacteria. There is some exception that warm-blooded animals cannot affect by the disease attacked by arthropods. To

control weeds, sometime plant disease agents and insects are used [20].

There are few natural enemies that are very important from many beneficial insects.

Lacewings found the colonies of aphid to consume just like lady beetles. They feed on scales, mites, mealy bugs, insect eggs, and also on aphids. Stink bugs are called very severe pests and these bugs are useful predators because the eating behavior vary among different species. Searching behavior of lady beetles is frantic; they always bite quickly to eat that helps to understand lady beetles. They feed on many small insects, and no matter that prey is on which stage the aim is just killed. They mostly eat aphid due to his small size but many lady beetles also eat beetle grubs, small caterpillars, whiteflies, mealybugs, scales, mites, and all types of insect egg. From some mites, the spider mites are serious pest of plants but some are beneficial. From all the beneficial mites, the phytoseiid mites are mainly important, the reason is that it is the predator's plant feeding mites and also small organism like thrips or eggs of insect [20].

## **13. Antibiotics of agricultural**

Antibiotics are the active biomolecules obtained from different microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes). Few antibiotics are derived from plant origin also. Antibiotics kill the pathogens, disease causing harmful microorganisms by interfering with their molecular process like transcription translation, etc., or also by inhibiting the process which are very essential for the survival of pathogens like cell wall synthesis, etc. Antibiotics are further categorized into narrow range and broad spectrum antibiotics. Antibiotics are given orally as well as injected intravenous.

Different antibiotics are used in agriculture. Names of these antibiotics are as follows:


## **14. Insect sex pheromone**

The sex pheromones are released by female to attract the male for mating, the female do this with for sexual reproduction. Sex pheromones are for breeding and for attraction of opposite sex and transferring information on their species, sex, age, and genotype after released by male. Volatile pheromones are called as defensive pheromones or sex pheromones, and they have a particular smell and focused on the sensitivity of alarm [32].

## **14.1 Application of insect sex pheromone**

Pheromones are used in the following manners in pest management practical


## **15. Difference between chemical and biological pesticide**


## **16. Role of biopesticides in organic agriculture**

Organic farming is a system used to produce agricultural products like food and fiber. The main aim of organic farming is that to develop biological diversity in the field to disturb the habitat for the organisms of pests, and the purposeful maintenance and replenishment of soil fertility. Biopesticides are used in organic agriculture for minimizing the pest population. To control harmful organisms or pests, different parts of plants are used like chili and garlic due to their strong smell against insects. Against mosquito sweet, basil is used as a repellent and so on. Biopesticides have bright future in the case of organic agriculture [33].

## **17. Future of biological control**

In an environment, natural enemies are responsible for the regulation of 98% pest. From these 98%, only 5% pests have been controlled by the use of

**31**

*Biological Control of Insect Pest*

phase of natural control [34].

**Figure 2.**

*Note, August 2013).*

cropping systems [35] (**Figure 2**).

**18. Conclusion**

microorganisms.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81431*

entomopathogenic fungus. Reduction of insecticide use and exploitation of biocontrol agent can help in the population regulation of different pest and biocontrol agents. The importation of new predators and parasitoids in an environment is also a good source of biological control. The use of some new trends like strains, biotypes, and hybrids of parasites, fungal biopesticide, and use of different viruses also need attentions to be explored properly and can be used for the management of pests. The use of biocontrol agent has numerous advantages, but it is important to modify the other methods of control like the use of pesticides. The pesticides must not be very toxic to biocontrol agents, for example, endosulfan is less harmful to many natural enemies. Biocontrol helps in upholding **'**Balance of Nature' as it is the

*World biopesticide market, fruit and vegetable crop represent 80% of usage (Source: Piper Jaffray Agricultural* 

Biopesticide, from a long time attracting the world consideration as safe and sound plan than chemical control of pest with less hazard to environment and the human. The collaboration between private and public sectors is compulsory to assist the growth, manufacturing, and sale of this environmentally friendly alternative. With research, new substances will be formulated and the delivery will also help in commercialization and usage of biopesticide. In developing countries, one of the most important factors is the availability and quality of the given product must be in low price. New products could help as promising choice against pest; further more research in field is necessary to confirm the efficacy on target pest in many

Biocontrol is environmentally friendly and active means of decreasing or mitigating pests and pest effects through the use of natural enemies. The goal of b*iocontrol* is to promote the technology and science. Biological control is a technique of controlling pests, that is, mites, insects, weeds, and plant diseases by using other

Biopesticide is used for the modification of development of insect and behavior exerts unique approach for management of insect population. The application of biopesticide is based on the principle that is to provide safety to the human and environment. Wide research is going on, and it is required much more in future to

#### **Figure 2.**

*Pests Control and Acarology*

or insecticide

pesticides

of pesticides

food, fodder, and fibers

**14.1 Application of insect sex pheromone**

• Population suppression by mass trapping

Nontarget species are also harmed due to chemical

Harmful pesticide residues may often remain in

Insects may become resistant to pesticides, e.g., *Heliothis* has become resistant to most insecticides

High specificity often not required to make the use

**16. Role of biopesticides in organic agriculture**

They are nonspecific to target, so accurate identification of the pest is not necessary

**17. Future of biological control**

Pheromones are used in the following manners in pest management practical

• Pheromones are used to attract the pests to that area which is treated with poison

These do not harm nontarget species

fodder, and fibers

biopesticides

These have no harmful residues remaining in food,

Insects are expected not to develop resistance to

High specificity may often make the use of two or

Performance may be variable due to the influence of biotic and abiotic factors of the environment

Since they are highly specific, so correct identification of the pest is essential

more biopesticides necessary

• Pheromones are used for detecting by surveying and monitoring

• Pheromones are also used to attract the pest to sterile them

**15. Difference between chemical and biological pesticide**

**Chemical pesticide Biological pesticide**

These cause pollution, sometime serious They do not pollute the environment

Organic farming is a system used to produce agricultural products like food and fiber. The main aim of organic farming is that to develop biological diversity in the field to disturb the habitat for the organisms of pests, and the purposeful maintenance and replenishment of soil fertility. Biopesticides are used in organic agriculture for minimizing the pest population. To control harmful organisms or pests, different parts of plants are used like chili and garlic due to their strong smell against insects. Against mosquito sweet, basil is used as a repellent and so on.

Biopesticides have bright future in the case of organic agriculture [33].

In an environment, natural enemies are responsible for the regulation of 98% pest. From these 98%, only 5% pests have been controlled by the use of

These are relatively costlier These are relatively cheaper

• By using pheromones, it is easy to know the resistance of insecticide

**30**

*World biopesticide market, fruit and vegetable crop represent 80% of usage (Source: Piper Jaffray Agricultural Note, August 2013).*

entomopathogenic fungus. Reduction of insecticide use and exploitation of biocontrol agent can help in the population regulation of different pest and biocontrol agents. The importation of new predators and parasitoids in an environment is also a good source of biological control. The use of some new trends like strains, biotypes, and hybrids of parasites, fungal biopesticide, and use of different viruses also need attentions to be explored properly and can be used for the management of pests. The use of biocontrol agent has numerous advantages, but it is important to modify the other methods of control like the use of pesticides. The pesticides must not be very toxic to biocontrol agents, for example, endosulfan is less harmful to many natural enemies. Biocontrol helps in upholding **'**Balance of Nature' as it is the phase of natural control [34].

Biopesticide, from a long time attracting the world consideration as safe and sound plan than chemical control of pest with less hazard to environment and the human. The collaboration between private and public sectors is compulsory to assist the growth, manufacturing, and sale of this environmentally friendly alternative. With research, new substances will be formulated and the delivery will also help in commercialization and usage of biopesticide. In developing countries, one of the most important factors is the availability and quality of the given product must be in low price. New products could help as promising choice against pest; further more research in field is necessary to confirm the efficacy on target pest in many cropping systems [35] (**Figure 2**).

#### **18. Conclusion**

Biocontrol is environmentally friendly and active means of decreasing or mitigating pests and pest effects through the use of natural enemies. The goal of b*iocontrol* is to promote the technology and science. Biological control is a technique of controlling pests, that is, mites, insects, weeds, and plant diseases by using other microorganisms.

Biopesticide is used for the modification of development of insect and behavior exerts unique approach for management of insect population. The application of biopesticide is based on the principle that is to provide safety to the human and environment. Wide research is going on, and it is required much more in future to

achieve the improvement. The future of biopesticide would fully depend on adoption of application of biopesticide. Versatile use of biopesticide must meet the aims. They must able to control/suppress/kill the harmful insects pests and also prevent them, relatively in proper manner to conventional methods. Researchers, producers, and farmers should widely explore the use and find the safe environment and also maximum production of crops.

## **Acknowledgements**

This work was supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2017YFD0200900).

## **Conflict of interest**

Authors have declared no conflict of interest.

## **Author details**

Talha Nazir1 , Sehroon Khan2 and Dewen Qiu1 \*

1 Key Laboratory of Integrated Pest Management in Crops, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Beijing, P.R. China

2 Key Laboratories of Economic Plants and Biotechnology, Kunming Institute of Botany Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan, P.R. China

\*Address all correspondence to: qiudewen@caas.cn

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**33**

2011;**1**(2):125

*Biological Control of Insect Pest*

2006;**144**(1):31-43

**References**

Service; 1989

1998;**20**(2):462-488

2009;**12**:303-312

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81431*

Environmental Safety. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH Co. KGaA;

In: David Pimentel RP, editor.

[9] Abrol DP, Shankar U. Pesticides, food safety and integrated pest management.

Integrated Pest Management: Pesticide Problems. 1st ed. Vol. 3. Springer; 2014.

[10] Environment K. Killer environment. Environmental Health Perspectives.

[11] McNaught AD, Wilkinson A. Compendium of Chemical terminology. In: Blackwell Scientific Pubblications. Oxford: Blackwell Science Oxford; 1997

[12] Crinnion WJ. Chlorinated pesticides: Threats to health and importance of detection. Alternative Medicine Review. 2009;**14**(4):347-360

A. Impact of pesticides use in agriculture: Their benefits and hazards. Interdisciplinary Toxicology.

[14] McLaughlin D. Silent Spring Revisited. Front Online Spec Rep

[15] Singh DK. Toxicology: Agriculture and Environment. Pesticide Chemistry and Toxicology. Vol. 1. Bentham Science

[16] Gupta S, Dikshit AK. Biopesticides: An ecofriendly approach for pest control. Journal of Biopesticides.

[17] Wu L, Zhu D. Food Safety in China: A Comprehensive Review. CRC Press;

[18] EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. What Are Bio Pesticides?

Fooling with Nat. 2001

Publishers; 2012. 150 p

2010;**3**(special issue):186

2015. 384 p

2009;**2**(1):1-12

[13] Aktar W, Sengupta D, Chowdhury

2007. p. 439-458

pp. 167-199

1999;**107**(2):1-2

[2] Osteen CD, Szmedra PI. Agricultural Pesticide Use Trends and Policy Issues. Agric Econ Rep. US Department of Agriculture, Economic Research

[1] Oerke E-C. Crop losses to pests. The Journal of Agricultural Science.

[3] Fernandez-Cornejo J, Jans S, Smith M. Issues in the economics of pesticide use in agriculture: A review of the empirical evidence. Review of Agricultural Economics.

[4] Gardner JG, Nehring RF, Nelson CH. Genetically modified crops and household labor savings in US crop production. AgBioforum.

[5] Fernandez-Cornejo J, Nehring R, Osteen C, Wechsler S, Martin A, Vialou A. Pesticide Use in US Agriculture: 21 Selected Crops. EIB-124, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service; 1960-2008. May 2014

[6] Peshin R, Bandral RS, Zhang W, Wilson L, Dhawan AK. Integrated pest management: A global overview of history, programs and adoption. In: Integrated Pest Management: Innovation-Development Process [Internet]. Springer; 2009. pp. 1-49. Available from: http://link.springer. com/10.1007/978-1-4020-8992-3\_1

[7] Zhang W, Jiang F, Ou J. Global pesticide consumption and pollution: with China as a focus. Proceedings of the International Academy of Ecology and Environmental Sciences (IAEES);

[8] Anastassiades M, Tasdelen B,

Scherbaum E, Stajnbaher D, Ohkawa H, Miyagawa H, et al. Pesticide Chemistry: Crop Protection. In: Public Health,

## **References**

*Pests Control and Acarology*

**Acknowledgements**

**Conflict of interest**

also maximum production of crops.

Program of China (2017YFD0200900).

Authors have declared no conflict of interest.

**32**

**Author details**

Talha Nazir1

provided the original work is properly cited.

\*Address all correspondence to: qiudewen@caas.cn

, Sehroon Khan2

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

and Dewen Qiu1

Botany Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan, P.R. China

1 Key Laboratory of Integrated Pest Management in Crops, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Beijing, P.R. China

2 Key Laboratories of Economic Plants and Biotechnology, Kunming Institute of

achieve the improvement. The future of biopesticide would fully depend on adoption of application of biopesticide. Versatile use of biopesticide must meet the aims. They must able to control/suppress/kill the harmful insects pests and also prevent them, relatively in proper manner to conventional methods. Researchers, producers, and farmers should widely explore the use and find the safe environment and

This work was supported by the National Key Research and Development

\*

[1] Oerke E-C. Crop losses to pests. The Journal of Agricultural Science. 2006;**144**(1):31-43

[2] Osteen CD, Szmedra PI. Agricultural Pesticide Use Trends and Policy Issues. Agric Econ Rep. US Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service; 1989

[3] Fernandez-Cornejo J, Jans S, Smith M. Issues in the economics of pesticide use in agriculture: A review of the empirical evidence. Review of Agricultural Economics. 1998;**20**(2):462-488

[4] Gardner JG, Nehring RF, Nelson CH. Genetically modified crops and household labor savings in US crop production. AgBioforum. 2009;**12**:303-312

[5] Fernandez-Cornejo J, Nehring R, Osteen C, Wechsler S, Martin A, Vialou A. Pesticide Use in US Agriculture: 21 Selected Crops. EIB-124, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service; 1960-2008. May 2014

[6] Peshin R, Bandral RS, Zhang W, Wilson L, Dhawan AK. Integrated pest management: A global overview of history, programs and adoption. In: Integrated Pest Management: Innovation-Development Process [Internet]. Springer; 2009. pp. 1-49. Available from: http://link.springer. com/10.1007/978-1-4020-8992-3\_1

[7] Zhang W, Jiang F, Ou J. Global pesticide consumption and pollution: with China as a focus. Proceedings of the International Academy of Ecology and Environmental Sciences (IAEES); 2011;**1**(2):125

[8] Anastassiades M, Tasdelen B, Scherbaum E, Stajnbaher D, Ohkawa H, Miyagawa H, et al. Pesticide Chemistry: Crop Protection. In: Public Health,

Environmental Safety. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH Co. KGaA; 2007. p. 439-458

[9] Abrol DP, Shankar U. Pesticides, food safety and integrated pest management. In: David Pimentel RP, editor. Integrated Pest Management: Pesticide Problems. 1st ed. Vol. 3. Springer; 2014. pp. 167-199

[10] Environment K. Killer environment. Environmental Health Perspectives. 1999;**107**(2):1-2

[11] McNaught AD, Wilkinson A. Compendium of Chemical terminology. In: Blackwell Scientific Pubblications. Oxford: Blackwell Science Oxford; 1997

[12] Crinnion WJ. Chlorinated pesticides: Threats to health and importance of detection. Alternative Medicine Review. 2009;**14**(4):347-360

[13] Aktar W, Sengupta D, Chowdhury A. Impact of pesticides use in agriculture: Their benefits and hazards. Interdisciplinary Toxicology. 2009;**2**(1):1-12

[14] McLaughlin D. Silent Spring Revisited. Front Online Spec Rep Fooling with Nat. 2001

[15] Singh DK. Toxicology: Agriculture and Environment. Pesticide Chemistry and Toxicology. Vol. 1. Bentham Science Publishers; 2012. 150 p

[16] Gupta S, Dikshit AK. Biopesticides: An ecofriendly approach for pest control. Journal of Biopesticides. 2010;**3**(special issue):186

[17] Wu L, Zhu D. Food Safety in China: A Comprehensive Review. CRC Press; 2015. 384 p

[18] EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. What Are Bio Pesticides?

[Internet]. 2016. [cited 2016 May 5]. Available from: https://www.epa.gov/ ingredients-used-pesticide-products/ what-are-biopesticides#classes

[19] Khan S, Nadir S, Lihua G, Xu J, Holmes KA, Dewen Q. Identification and characterization of an insect toxin protein, Bb70p, from the entomopathogenic fungus, *Beauveria bassiana*, using *Galleria mellonella* as a model system. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology. 2016;**133**:87-94

[20] Smith HA, Capinera JL. Natural Enemies and Biological Control. [Internet]. 2017. pp. 1-6. Available from: http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/in120

[21] Burges HD. Safety, safety testing and quality control of microbial pesticides. In: Microbial Control of Pests and Plant Diseases 1970-1980. 1981

[22] Ferry N, Edwards MG, Gatehouse J, Capell T, Christou P, Gatehouse AMR. Transgenic plants for insect pest control: A forward looking scientific perspective. Transgenic Research. 2006;**15**(1):13-19

[23] Cavoski I, Caboni P, Miano T. Natural pesticides and future perspectives. In: Pesticides in the Modern World-Pesticides Use and Management. Rijeka: InTech; 2011

[24] Rattan RS, Sharma A. Plant secondary metabolites in the sustainable diamondback moth (*Plutella xylostella*) management. Indian Journal of Fundamental and Applied Life Sciences. 2011;**1**:295-309

[25] Farooq M, Jabran K, Cheema ZA, Wahid A, Siddique KHM. The role of allelopathy in agricultural pest management. Pest Management Science. 2011;**67**(5):493-506

[26] Meadows MP. Bacillus thuringiensis in the environment: Ecology and risk assessment. In: *Bacillus thuringiensis*,

An Environmental Biopesticide: Theory and Practice. John Wiley and Sons; 1993. pp. 193-220

[27] Usta C. Microorganisms in biological pest control—A review (bacterial toxin application and effect of environmental factors). In: Current Progress in Biological Research. Rijeka: Intech; 2013

[28] Harwood CR, Wipat A. Sequencing and functional analysis of the genome of *Bacillus subtilis* strain 168. FEBS Letters. 1996;**389**(1):84-87

[29] Georgis R, Koppenhöfer AM, Lacey LA, Bélair G, Duncan LW, Grewal PS, et al. Successes and failures in the use of parasitic nematodes for pest control. Biological Control. 2006;**38**(1):103-123

[30] Purohit SS, Vyas SP. Medicinal Plant Cultivation: A Scientific Approach: Including Processing and Financial Guidelines. India: Agrobios; 2004

Section 2

Pest Management in Cereals

35

[31] Weinzierl RA. Botanical insecticides, soaps, and oils. In: Biological and Biotechnological Control insect pests. Boca Raton, Florida: Lewis Publishers; 2000. pp. 101-121

[32] Regnier FE, Law JH. Insect pheromones. The Journal of Lipid Research. 1968;**9**(5):541-551

[33] Sarkar NC. Role of biopesticides in organic farming. International Journal of Agriculture Environment & Biotechnology. 2009;**2**(1):102-104

[34] Agriinfo. http.pdf [Internet]. Available from: http://agriinfo.in/ default.aspx?page=topic&superid=6&t opicid=751

[35] Damalas CA. Current Status and Recent Developments in Biopesticide Use. Agriculture [Internet]. 2018. **8**(1):13. Available from: http://www. mdpi.com/2077-0472/8/1/13

Section 2
