**2. Nutritional composition of banana fruit**

*Banana Nutrition - Function and Processing Kinetics*

fourth leading agricultural crop [3]. Banana is said to be among human foods which was introduced in the first century. The fruit is cultivated in more than 130 countries throughout tropical and subtropical regions with over a harvested area of approximately 10 million hectares [4]. Furthermore, countries in Latin America such as Ecuador and Columbia have been reported to be major producers of the fruit, while the United States and European Union import the highest amounts of

*The diversity of banana and plantains with various genome compositions [2].*

Plantains when compared with unripe dessert bananas differ in terms of plantains being larger in size, possessing more finger body mass and also having higher starch content [5]. Plantains are economically important and serve as a major staple food [6] in some countries such as India and other countries of Latin America and African origin [3]. Plantains are considered as a very important source of energy and starch [7] and are described as sweet acid starchy bananas majorly consumed upon frying or boiling [3]. Similarly, dessert banana serves as a source of energy for athletes due to its potential benefits for sports application [1]. Hence, in some countries, the fruit is used in the production of a variety of energy drinks as well as dried banana bars for athletes. In addition, the fruit also prevents athletes from muscular contractions as it contains significant amount of vitamins and minerals [8]. The works of Doymaz [9] and Pareek [10] showed that banana and plantain contains low amount of protein and substantial amounts of carbohydrates (hemicellulose, starch and pectin), vitamins A and C, potassium, calcium, sodium and magnesium. Dessert and cooking banana plant parts: roots, leaves, flowers, stem and pseudostems have long being used in traditional and indigenous medicine due to their therapeutic properties in various countries of the world such as Africa, America, Asia and Oceania [11]. These beneficial plant parts have been employed in the treatment of various ailments such as snakebite, inflammation, intestinal colitis, dysentery and diarrhoea [8]. Presently, several authors have investigated the potential of banana in mitigating type I and II diabetes mellitus [9, 12], its role in the inhibition of carbohydrate-digesting enzymes (α-glucosidase and α-amylase), glucose absorption [13] and its antioxidant activity [14]. Compared with plantain, most available reports are on changes in chemical composition of dessert banana cultivars during ripening [5, 15–17]. Plantains are rich in nutrients and their biochemical composition varies with growth stage and maturity [5]. Overall, pulp and peel of both cooking and dessert banana can serve as natural sources of amine

compounds, antioxidants, carotenoids and polyphenols [11].

Production of banana can be limited by biotic and abiotic stress factors. Thus, improving the nutritional quality, ability of the fruit to adapt to different geographical conditions and production of new disease resistant varieties using genetic engineering are very important [18]. The science behind genetic modification of bananas therefore aims at increasing productivity and nutritional value and this could be one of the sustainable strategies to address food insecurity in the near future [19].

**28**

banana [4].

**Figure 1.**

Banana and plantain consist of a high nutritional value (**Table 1**) which contributes to an improved absorption of numerous nutrients with minimal fat absorption [18]. Bananas are effective in maintaining plasma glucose and possibly improving endurance exercise performance [20]. Banana fruit is a rich source of phytochemicals, including unsaturated fatty acids and sterols. In the works of Wall [21], composition of 'Dwarf Brazil' banana was reported to be 12.7 mg/100 g vitamin C, 12.4 mg/100 g retinol activity equivalent (RAE) vitamin A, 17.9% total soluble solids (TSS) and a moisture content of 68.5%. Wall [21] further reported concentrations of 4.5 mg/100 g vitamin C, 8.2 mg RAE/100 g vitamin A, 20.5% TSS and moisture content of 73.8% for 'Williams' banana cultivar with the author also showing that cultivars of banana have different nutrient concentrations. An average-sized banana was found to contain 450–467 mg of potassium (K) [22]. Banana is rich in fibre with a medium-sized banana containing about 6 g of fibre. Dessert and cooking banana have been implicated to contain vitamin B, C, macro and micro essential minerals, α- and β-carotene as well as higher concentrations of lutein than provitamin A pigments [20] and all in varying concentrations. As stated in the works of Pareek [10], it was reported in Hawaii that 'Apple' bananas


#### **Table 1.**

*Musa cultivars by genomic classification.*

recorded a concentration of 12.7 mg/100 g FW for vitamin C that was almost threefold than 'Williams' (4.5 mg/100 g); a β-carotene concentration of 96.9 μg α-carotene/100 g and 104.9 μg α-carotene/100 g, while 'Williams' averaged 55.7 μg β-carotene/100 g and 84.0 μg α-carotene/100 g. 'Apple' bananas were also reported to have more phosphorus (P), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), manganese (Mn) and zinc (Zn) than 'Williams' [10]. Similar data for fully ripe banana fruit (**Table 2**) were reported by the United States Department of Agriculture [23]. Other nutrients implicated to be present in cultivars of *Musa* spp. includes biogenic amines and polyphenols.

#### **2.1 Carbohydrates**

Banana and plantain are known to contain sugars, starch, fibre and cellulose compounds especially in its pulp. The peel portion of banana and plantain are rich in fibre. In banana fruit, inherent starch accumulates during development, with minimal changes in the principal carbohydrate metabolites observed during the preclimacteric phase [24]. Subsequently, the fruit starch is converted to sucrose, glucose and fructose as senescence sets in and progresses. Ripening in banana generally involves a decrease in starch concentration from 15 to 25% to less than 5% in the ripened pulp, together with an additional increase in sugar content [25, 26]. At the onset of senescence, sucrose is the predominant sugar, with glucose and fructose predominating as ageing sets in [27]. The concentration of sugars in banana and plantain is associated with respiratory climacteric stage [1]. Starch conversion to sucrose is catalysed by activity of sucrose phosphate synthase, while acid hydrolysis causes starch conversion to non-reducing sugars from sucrose. It was observed that harvest maturity largely affects the conversion of starch to sugar. Changes like these have been reported in both diploid (*Musa* AA) [28] and triploid (*Musa* AAA) banana fruits [29]. Similarly, during the ripening stage of dessert banana, starch is completely broken down, unlike for plantains where starch is not totally broken down [30]. Due to the presence of pectin in banana, it was reported that consumption of the fruit can mitigate intestinal diseases [1]. Furthermore, green banana produces antidiarrheal activity in children which will help to fight against the incidence of diarrhoea, one of the main causes of high mortality and morbidity in children of third world countries. Research further revealed that low fasting blood glucose and glycogenesis in the liver can be increased due to presence of fibres in banana fruit [1]. Dessert and cooking banana in their ripe state are reported to be rich in resistant starch (RS), while at their unripe state, the fruit contains mostly digestible starch [31].

#### **2.2 Protein and Amino Acids**

In the works of John and Marchal [32], whole nitrogen in 'Cavendish' pulp has been reported to be 210 mg/100 g (FW) and 750 mg/100 g (DW). The protein signified a total nitrogen content of about 60–65%. This is in agreement with what was reported by the USDA [23], wherein the protein content for *M. acuminata* was 1.09 g/100 g (FW). John and Marchal [32] found an increased protein value of 4–7 g/100 g (DW) and 1.3–1.8 g/100 g (FW) upon development of 'Cavendish' banana, and also for 'Dwarf Cavendish' from 4 to 8 g/100 g (FW), with the concentration increasing as ripening progresses. Unripe bananas are rich in proteins, with chitinase enzymes being the most abundant protein [32]. During ripening of bananas, starch phosphorylase, malate dehydrogenase and pectate lyase are accumulated. Dopamine, a water-soluble antioxidant reported in both pulp and peel of 'Cavendish' banana is one of the catecholamines that suppress the oxygen

**31**

*Source: [23].*

**Table 2.**

cardiovascular disease risk.

*Banana Bioactives: Absorption, Utilisation and Health Benefits*

**Nutrient/content Amount/value** Water (g) 74.91 Energy (kcal) 89.00 Protein (g) 1.09 Total lipid (fat) (g) 0.33 Carbohydrate, by difference (g) 22.84 Total dietary fibre (g) 2.60 Total sugars (g) 12.23 Calcium (mg) 5.00 Iron (mg) 0.26 Magnesium (mg) 27.00 Phosphorus (mg) 22.00 Potassium (mg) 358 Sodium (mg) 1.00 Zinc (mg) 0.15 Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid (mg) 8.70 Thiamine (mg) 0.031 Riboflavin (mg) 0.07 Niacin (mg) 0.67 Vitamin B-6 (mg) 0.37 Folate, DFE (μg) 20.00 Vitamin B-12 (μg) 0.00 Vitamin A, RAE (μg) 3.00 Vitamin A (IU) 64.00 Vitamin E (α-tocopherol) (mg) 0.10 Vitamin D (D2 + D3) (μg) 0.00 Vitamin D (IU) 0.00 Vitamin K (phylloquinone) (μg) 0.50 Fatty acids, total saturated (g) 0.11 Fatty acids, total monounsaturated (g) 0.03 Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated (g) 0.07

uptake of linoleic acid [33]. Similarly, various bioactive amines including putrescine, spermidine and serotonin are reported to be present in high concentrations in banana. In addition, bananas have been found to contain physiologically relevant amounts of biogenic amines, nitrogenous compounds that include serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine that vary relative to the ripening cycle, as well as the cultivar-dependent phytosterols cycloeucalenone, cycloeucalenone, cycloeucalenol, cycloartenol, stigmasterol, campesterol and β-sitosterol [33]. Bananas have some potential health benefits for cancer, cholesterol metabolism and related markers of

*Nutritional and biochemical composition of Musa acuminata Colla per 100 g.*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83369*


Calcium (mg) 5.00 Iron (mg) 0.26 Magnesium (mg) 27.00 Phosphorus (mg) 22.00 Potassium (mg) 358 Sodium (mg) 1.00 Zinc (mg) 0.15 Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid (mg) 8.70 Thiamine (mg) 0.031 Riboflavin (mg) 0.07 Niacin (mg) 0.67 Vitamin B-6 (mg) 0.37 Folate, DFE (μg) 20.00 Vitamin B-12 (μg) 0.00 Vitamin A, RAE (μg) 3.00 Vitamin A (IU) 64.00 Vitamin E (α-tocopherol) (mg) 0.10 Vitamin D (D2 + D3) (μg) 0.00 Vitamin D (IU) 0.00 Vitamin K (phylloquinone) (μg) 0.50 Fatty acids, total saturated (g) 0.11 Fatty acids, total monounsaturated (g) 0.03 Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated (g) 0.07

*Banana Nutrition - Function and Processing Kinetics*

polyphenols.

**2.1 Carbohydrates**

digestible starch [31].

**2.2 Protein and Amino Acids**

recorded a concentration of 12.7 mg/100 g FW for vitamin C that was almost threefold than 'Williams' (4.5 mg/100 g); a β-carotene concentration of 96.9 μg α-carotene/100 g and 104.9 μg α-carotene/100 g, while 'Williams' averaged 55.7 μg β-carotene/100 g and 84.0 μg α-carotene/100 g. 'Apple' bananas were also reported to have more phosphorus (P), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), manganese (Mn) and zinc (Zn) than 'Williams' [10]. Similar data for fully ripe banana fruit (**Table 2**) were reported by the United States Department of Agriculture [23]. Other nutrients implicated to be present in cultivars of *Musa* spp. includes biogenic amines and

Banana and plantain are known to contain sugars, starch, fibre and cellulose compounds especially in its pulp. The peel portion of banana and plantain are rich in fibre. In banana fruit, inherent starch accumulates during development, with minimal changes in the principal carbohydrate metabolites observed during the preclimacteric phase [24]. Subsequently, the fruit starch is converted to sucrose, glucose and fructose as senescence sets in and progresses. Ripening in banana generally involves a decrease in starch concentration from 15 to 25% to less than 5% in the ripened pulp, together with an additional increase in sugar content [25, 26]. At the onset of senescence, sucrose is the predominant sugar, with glucose and fructose predominating as ageing sets in [27]. The concentration of sugars in banana and plantain is associated with respiratory climacteric stage [1]. Starch conversion to sucrose is catalysed by activity of sucrose phosphate synthase, while acid hydrolysis causes starch conversion to non-reducing sugars from sucrose. It was observed that harvest maturity largely affects the conversion of starch to sugar. Changes like these have been reported in both diploid (*Musa* AA) [28] and triploid (*Musa* AAA) banana fruits [29]. Similarly, during the ripening stage of dessert banana, starch is completely broken down, unlike for plantains where starch is not totally broken down [30]. Due to the presence of pectin in banana, it was reported that consumption of the fruit can mitigate intestinal diseases [1]. Furthermore, green banana produces antidiarrheal activity in children which will help to fight against the incidence of diarrhoea, one of the main causes of high mortality and morbidity in children of third world countries. Research further revealed that low fasting blood glucose and glycogenesis in the liver can be increased due to presence of fibres in banana fruit [1]. Dessert and cooking banana in their ripe state are reported to be rich in resistant starch (RS), while at their unripe state, the fruit contains mostly

In the works of John and Marchal [32], whole nitrogen in 'Cavendish' pulp has been reported to be 210 mg/100 g (FW) and 750 mg/100 g (DW). The protein signified a total nitrogen content of about 60–65%. This is in agreement with what was reported by the USDA [23], wherein the protein content for *M. acuminata* was 1.09 g/100 g (FW). John and Marchal [32] found an increased protein value of 4–7 g/100 g (DW) and 1.3–1.8 g/100 g (FW) upon development of 'Cavendish' banana, and also for 'Dwarf Cavendish' from 4 to 8 g/100 g (FW), with the concentration increasing as ripening progresses. Unripe bananas are rich in proteins, with chitinase enzymes being the most abundant protein [32]. During ripening of bananas, starch phosphorylase, malate dehydrogenase and pectate lyase are accumulated. Dopamine, a water-soluble antioxidant reported in both pulp and peel of 'Cavendish' banana is one of the catecholamines that suppress the oxygen

**30**

## **Table 2.**

*Source: [23].*

*Nutritional and biochemical composition of Musa acuminata Colla per 100 g.*

uptake of linoleic acid [33]. Similarly, various bioactive amines including putrescine, spermidine and serotonin are reported to be present in high concentrations in banana. In addition, bananas have been found to contain physiologically relevant amounts of biogenic amines, nitrogenous compounds that include serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine that vary relative to the ripening cycle, as well as the cultivar-dependent phytosterols cycloeucalenone, cycloeucalenone, cycloeucalenol, cycloartenol, stigmasterol, campesterol and β-sitosterol [33]. Bananas have some potential health benefits for cancer, cholesterol metabolism and related markers of cardiovascular disease risk.

#### **2.3 Vitamins**

Dessert and cooking banana contain different forms of vitamins in varying concentrations among the known cultivars worldwide. According to the reports of USDA [23] and Wills et al. [34], the vitamin C levels for 'Cavendish' banana estimated using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), ranged from 2.1 to 18.7 mg/100 g (DW/FW), which however, varies considerably among different cultivars. The average vitamin C (**Table 2**) content for 'Dwarf Brazilian' (*Musa* AAB 'Santa Catarina Prata') was found to be 12.7 mg/100 g and 4.5 mg/100 g for 'Williams' [13]. These results agree with the report of Wenkam [35], who reported vitamin C values of 5.1 mg/100 g (DW/FW?) for 'Williams' and 14.6 mg/100 g (DW/FW?) for 'Dwarf Brazilian' banana cultivar.

Dessert banana contains substantial levels of provitamin A carotenoids (PVAC), but few cultivars with orange- or yellow-coloured pulp are known to have higher concentration of carotenoids [15]. Vitamin A deficiency has been reported to be a public health concern identified in almost 118 countries in the world, with highest prevalence in Asia and Africa, as their diets are mainly cereals and tubers [1]. Researchers from Australia (Queensland University of Technology) have concocted Cavendish banana with high amounts of β-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A. The carotenoids mostly found in fully developed bananas are lutein, α- and β-carotene. The fruit pulp is also rich in carotenoids, while the peel contains low amounts [36]. It is reported that during ripening the amount of carotenoids increase [20, 34]. Similar observation was reported by Kanazawa and Sakakibara [37], which contradicts the report of Gross and Flugel [38] who found carotenoid content decreasing during initial stage of ripening. As can thus be seen, different cultivars of *Musa* spp. contain different amounts of carotenoids. Banana and plantain fruits with orange flesh are rich in VAC [38, 39]. One variety of banana, 'Karat' of Micronesia, was reported to accumulate β-carotene of about 2230 mg/100 g [39].

### **2.4 Minerals**

Banana and plantain are very rich in K, an essential element for maintaining human blood pressure and for proper functioning of the heart [40]. The fruit is also rich in Mg, Fe, Cu and Mn [20]. In the works of Pareek [10], the average K content for Hawaii's bananas ('Dwarf Brazilian' and 'Williams') were reported to be 330.6 mg/100 g (FW). Similarly, it was reported that fruits cultivated in Tenerife, were observed to contain a K content of 5.09 mg/g (FW), P content of 0.59 mg/g (FW), Ca content of 0.38 mg/g (FW) and Mg content of 0.38 mg/g (FW) [10, 41], though it was reported by the authors that the area of origin had a major effect on the occurrence of the minerals. Varietal differences had no effect on concentration of minerals present except for Fe. In the works of Forster et al. [42], differences were observed in the mineral content of bananas grown in both Ecuador and Tenerife. High Na, K, Mg and Fe contents were found for bananas grown in Tenerife, while high Ca, Cu, Zn and Mn contents were reported for bananas grown in Ecuador. This difference was attributed to agricultural practices, geographical location and soil composition [42]. Mineral composition of banana samples according to degree of ripeness was reported for the fruits obtained from Nigeria: 73.47% ash, 0.68% Zn, 0.146% Mn for unripe samples; 77.19% ash, 0.80% Zn, 0.271% Mn for ripe samples and 79.22% ash, 0.78% Zn for overripe samples [43]. Similarly, the peel of banana cultivars obtained from Cameroon contained relatively high minerals: K (50.0 mg/g DW), P (22.2 mg/g DW), Mg (11 mg/g DW) and Ca (18 mg/g DW) [44]. Generally, bananas contain low amounts of Ca, however, Micronesian cv. 'Krat' is relatively high in Ca [39].

**33**

*Banana Bioactives: Absorption, Utilisation and Health Benefits*

ability to damage macromolecules and nucleic chains.

Phenolic compounds have been implicated to be present in banana fruits. Although, banana peels contain more tannin compared with its pulp, tannins in the fruit confer an unpleasant astringent taste on the fruit. The astringency in ripe fruit is reduced, which is associated with a change in the structure of the tannins, rather than a reduction in their levels, as they form polymers [28]. When banana fruit is cut, oxidative browning occurs due to the presence of polyphenols. Report of different studies has shown that banana peels of different cultivars contain varying concentrations of total phenolic compounds (TPC). In the works of Nguyen et al. [54], it was reported that total phenolics, flavonoids and antioxidant activity of banana pulp and peel flours, Cv. 'Kulai Hom Thong' was shown to contain 3.0 mg of gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/gFW, while 'Kulai Khai' was reported to contain 0.9 mg of (GAE)/ gFW. Similarly, banana cv. 'Pisangmas' from Malaysia was reported to contain TPC ranging from 0.24 to 0.72 mg GAE/g FW, depending on the extraction method [32]. Sulaiman et al. [52], also reported significant differences in the antioxidant activity, total phenolic and mineral contents of eight Malaysian banana cultivars. Flavonoids epicatechin and myricetin 3-O-rhamnosyl-glucoside were identified in flour of organic acid pretreated "Mabonde", "Luvhele" and "M-red" cultivars at different concentrations [55]. Authors Bennett et al. [56] and Borges et al. [57] also reported the presence of catechin and gallic acid in pulp and peel of ripe and unripe banana cultivars. Similarly, plantain a banana cultivar belonging to the AAB, ABB or BBB group [58] have also been reported to contain high concentration of hydroxycinnamic acids (ferulic acid–hexoside with 4.4–85.1 μg/g DW) in its pulp [32]. Plantain peels are rich in flavonol glycosides and rutin ranging from 242.2 to 618.7 μg/g DW.

Phytochemicals have been reported to be an immense source of anticancer medications and chemopreventive agents [45]. These plant chemicals exert some of their actions through interactions with essential enzymes that regulate the activities in genes. Banana contains various bioactive compounds such as phenolics, carotenoids, alkaloids, glycosides, phlobatannins, tannins, terpenoids, saponins, steroids, biogenic amines and phytosterols, which are highly desirable in diet as they exert health beneficial effects [11, 32, 46]. These composites are helpful in protecting the body against oxidative stress due to their antioxidative activities [47], controlling gene expression in cell proliferation and apoptosis and important in controlling blood pressure [48]. The incorporation of banana pulp and peel in various food products could add value since they have health benefits [47]. Thus, banana pulp and peel can be used as natural sources of antioxidants and provitamin A. Banana peel is reported to have higher antioxidant capacity than banana pulp [49–53]. Furthermore, phenolic content of banana peel was higher compared to other fruits such as avocado, pineapple, papaya, passion fruit, water melon and melon [50]. However, it is recommended that to effectively recover and utilise phenolic compounds from banana peels, it is important to evaluate its chemical profile, factors affecting the levels of phenolic compounds in the peels such as antinutrients, and potential use of these compounds as food ingredients or nutraceuticals. It is important to understand how these bioactive compounds found in fruits and vegetables limit or prevent oxidative stresses as a free-radical scavengers or metalchelating agents. In the report of Liu [53], it was emphasised that there has to be a balance between oxidants and antioxidants for normal functioning of the body cell and/or sustaining optimal physical condition in the human body. Too much oxidants in the human body result in damage to the biomolecules such as proteins, lipids carbohydrates and DNA. Hence, to understand the mechanism of action of antioxidant, it is imperative to understand the formation of free radicals and their

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83369*

**3. Banana phytochemicals and bioactives**
