**2. Production of banana pseudo-stem fiber**

The pseudo-stem fiber of banana plant is like the pineapple leaf, sisal, and other hard fibers, though the pseudo-steam fiber is a little more elastic. The major uses of banana pseudo-stem fiber are in making specialized and high-quality sanitary products such as baby pampers, textiles, and papers such as banknotes. The banana pseudo-stem fiber can also be used for ropes such as marine rope since this fiber has good resistance to sea water and has buoyancy properties. Other uses of this fiber are for making coffee and tea bags, filter cloths, as reinforcement fibers for plaster, disposable fabrics, and light-density woven fabrics. According to the literature, the production of Abaca (*Musa textiles*) fiber in the world has reached around 100,000 ton/year. The production in the year 1960 was also near this amount (i.e., 97,000 ton/year), whereas in the year 2002, the production of Abaca was about 99,320 ton/ year. **Figure 2** shows the data percentage of banana production across the world in 2010.

#### **2.1 Plantation and harvesting**

*Banana Nutrition - Function and Processing Kinetics*

organic fertilizers [4]. The banana leaf is frequently used in food processing (in some countries, e.g., Indonesia), food esthetic, food packaging, etc. The banana fruit itself is one of the most popular fruits and important diet due to its high nutritional content [5], thus it becomes a valuable commodity all around the world. The banana pseudo-stem has also been considered for use as pulp and paper raw material, fiber for textiles, and filler or structural reinforcement in composites materials [6–10]. Additionally, all parts of the banana plant have some medical added values, such as the flower can be cooked and consumed by diabetics, bronchitis, dysentery, and ulcer patients. The banana pseudo-stem sap can be orally taken or externally applied for stings and bites. The young leaf can be used for skin irritations (as a poultice). The roots, ashes of leaves, peels, and seeds also can be used for medicinal purposes in some countries [11]. In recent years, banana fruits have been the fourth most important fruit crop produced in the world. Approximately, 72.5 million tons of banana fruit are produced yearly in the world [2]. The fruit can be consumed directly (after ripe) or processed into other products, for example, dried fruit, smoothie, flour, ice-cream bread, etc. [5]. The flower bud can also be processed into

The most widely known banana plant species for its fiber is Abaca (*Musa textiles*). Its fiber is highly important among the leaf fiber group, whereas the most common banana that is consumed by humans is a member of *Musa acuminata* species [12]. Figure 1 shows the photograph of banana tree and its several parts. The pseudo-stem of banana plant is the stem of banana plant that provides and transports nutrients from the soil to the fruits. This pseudo-stem will be cut and become waste biomass after the banana fruit is ripe and harvested, because the banana plant is unusable for the next harvest [1, 12, 13]. For every ton of banana fruit harvested, about 100 kg of the fruit is rejected (i.e., rotten fruit) and approximately 4 tons of biomass wastes (e.g., leaf, pseudo-stem, rotten fruit, peel, fruit-bunch-stem, rhizome, etc.) are produced. This means, for every cycle of banana fruit production, four times of biomass wastes are also produced [13]. Based on another literature, it can be estimated that one hectare of banana farm could produce approximately 220 tons of biomass wastes [12] (**Figure 1**). These wastes are usually disposed of by the farmer into lakes and rivers or simply burned. The banana tree wastes if not properly managed can cause problem to the environment, because if they are dumped in wet conditions or burned can produce greenhouse gas, which can cause a problem to the environment [12]. It is believed that this crop waste can be used in a more rational way, namely, as a source of cellulose fiber for further applications [9].

**48**

**Figure 1.**

a dish.

*Several parts of banana tree (photos were taken on August 17, 2018).*

The banana plant has a shallow rooting system in which the pseudo-stems sprout vertically. As it develops, a single plant may produce about 25 of these pseudostems, which mature at different times. When the plants are 18–24 months old, the outer pseudo-stems are already mature and ready to be harvested. Then, about three or four pseudo-stems are stripped at a period of 6–12 months based on the rate of growth of the pseudo-stem. When the flower is out, the pseudo-stems are completely ready for harvesting. Furthermore, the shaft is cut off below the inflorescence with a knife or sickle attached to a long pole and then the pseudo-stems are cut at their base. Based on the extraction methods, the pseudo-stems can be either

**Figure 2.** *Percentage data of banana production across the world in 2010 [15].*

#### **Figure 3.**

*(a) Banana pseudo-stem trunk cross section and its parts: (b) outer parts; (c) middle parts; (d) inner parts; and (e) core parts [16].*

stripped/extracted of their fibers in situ or by using a decorticating machine [14]. The leaves are variable in length, the outer side leaves are shorter than the inner side. **Figure 3** shows the cross section of banana pseudo-stem and its parts.

#### **2.2 Extraction of fiber**

Fibers from the banana pseudo-stem leaves can be extracted by a decorticator machine. It is a machine used to strip bark, skin, wood, stalk, and grain. The extraction process is conducted as soon as the pseudo-stem's leaves are cut. The common method in practice is a combination of water retting and scraping. The first step, called tuxing, is separating the fiber bundles from the remaining parts. Tuxing can be done either manually or mechanically using machine [17]. The leaves are stripped from the cut pseudo-stems. Afterward, a knife is put at the butt end between the outer and middle layers of the leaf shaft, and then the outer part is held firmly and pulled out. The width of fiber bundles that resulted from this tuxing process is approximately 5–8 cm and is the same as the length of the leaf. The second step is to remove the gum or non-fibrous and any residual components contained in the fibers after the tuxing process [14]. Furthermore, the fibers are then thoroughly washed and dried. These processes demand considerable skill and patience. In general, only 11 exterior leaf sheaths in the banana pseudo-stem that can be extracted for its fibers. The fibers inside the interior sheaths have poor strength, and peeling of these fibers is found to be difficult due to their brittleness and poor strength [18].

One of the authors (A. Subagyo) has developed a decorticator machine, which could be used effectively by an average village artisan or an agriculturist for the extraction of fiber from banana pseudo-stem. The schematic diagram of the decorticator machine developed by Subagyo is shown in **Figure 4**. The decorticator machine consists of a rotating drum mounted on a shaft. On the circumference of the drum are mounted several blades which create a beating action as the drum is rotated by an electrical drive. As the drum rotates, the pseudo-stem is fed between the drum and backing plate or feeding roller. Owing to the crushing, beating, and pulling action, the pulpy material is removed when it is half way through. The pseudo-stems are slowly pushed from the drum and fall out to the conveyer belt, and eventually, the fibers are collected on the bucket. The next step is the degumming process of the fibers to remove foreign matter that are then washed and dried at room temperature of approximately 27–32°C. This machine can handle approximately two tons of dry fiber/day.

**51**

*Banana Pseudo-Stem Fiber: Preparation, Characteristics, and Applications*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82204*

**2.3 Retting of banana pseudo-stem fiber**

*Pseudo-stem fiber extraction machine.*

**2.4 Degumming of banana pseudo-stem fiber**

bacteria, respectively.

**Figure 4.**

Retting of banana fiber is defined as the separation of the fiber bundles from the cortex or wood, which effects on partial digestion of the cementing material (such as lignin and hemicellulose) between the fibers in the bundles. This loosening of the fiber bundles is also due to the removal of various cementing tissue components. The retting of banana fiber is analogous to the general retting process, where two stages occur. The first stage is the physical stage in which the water is absorbed; then swelling happens, and some of the soluble substances are extracted. The second stage is the microbial stage, either aerobic or anaerobic by the action of fungi or

Since retting process is basically a microorganism process, several factors such as: microbiological agents (bacteria or fungi), nature of retting water, aeration, and macro-nutrients. Microbial growth on plant fibers usually results in tenacity loss, odor release, and various types of strains on the fiber substrates. Sometimes, a specific microorganism can grow on a living plant stem and produce brownish stains on the fiber, which are usually known as rust. According to Subagyo [19], the factors like temperature, length of retting time, type of chemical additives (e.g., magnesium oxide), and pure culture of microorganisms such as pectin-decomposing bacteria in the retting liquor can reduce the retting time by approximately 78%. The pseudo-stem retting time of 28 h was found to be quite sufficient, and the process was effective at a controlled pH between 6.8 and 7.4 with sodium carbonate, and at room temperature. Retting is carried out to increase the mechanical properties of natural fiber, such as banana pseudo-stem fiber [20]. Fiber tenacity tests indicated that the extractive removal of pectin from pseudo-stem fiber through retting did not cause any significant change in the tenacity of the fiber except when over-retting had begun. Furthermore, analysis of decorticated and retted pseudo-steam fibers indicated that retting can significantly reduce hemicellulose and lignin that are present in the pseudo-stem fiber. It has been reported that the pulping process of retted natural fibers gave pulps with better strength and chemical properties compared to those of the unretted fibers [21].

Banana pseudo-stem fiber produced by decorticator machine contains a quite large percentage of gum and non-fibrous cell or parenchyma (approx. 30–35%).

*Banana Pseudo-Stem Fiber: Preparation, Characteristics, and Applications DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82204*

**Figure 4.** *Pseudo-stem fiber extraction machine.*

*Banana Nutrition - Function and Processing Kinetics*

**2.2 Extraction of fiber**

**Figure 3.**

*and (e) core parts [16].*

stripped/extracted of their fibers in situ or by using a decorticating machine [14]. The leaves are variable in length, the outer side leaves are shorter than the inner side. **Figure 3** shows the cross section of banana pseudo-stem and its parts.

*(a) Banana pseudo-stem trunk cross section and its parts: (b) outer parts; (c) middle parts; (d) inner parts;* 

Fibers from the banana pseudo-stem leaves can be extracted by a decorticator machine. It is a machine used to strip bark, skin, wood, stalk, and grain. The extraction process is conducted as soon as the pseudo-stem's leaves are cut. The common method in practice is a combination of water retting and scraping. The first step, called tuxing, is separating the fiber bundles from the remaining parts. Tuxing can be done either manually or mechanically using machine [17]. The leaves are stripped from the cut pseudo-stems. Afterward, a knife is put at the butt end between the outer and middle layers of the leaf shaft, and then the outer part is held firmly and pulled out. The width of fiber bundles that resulted from this tuxing process is approximately 5–8 cm and is the same as the length of the leaf. The second step is to remove the gum or non-fibrous and any residual components contained in the fibers after the tuxing process [14]. Furthermore, the fibers are then thoroughly washed and dried. These processes demand considerable skill and patience. In general, only 11 exterior leaf sheaths in the banana pseudo-stem that can be extracted for its fibers. The fibers inside the interior sheaths have poor strength, and peeling of these

fibers is found to be difficult due to their brittleness and poor strength [18].

One of the authors (A. Subagyo) has developed a decorticator machine, which could be used effectively by an average village artisan or an agriculturist for the extraction of fiber from banana pseudo-stem. The schematic diagram of the decorticator machine developed by Subagyo is shown in **Figure 4**. The decorticator machine consists of a rotating drum mounted on a shaft. On the circumference of the drum are mounted several blades which create a beating action as the drum is rotated by an electrical drive. As the drum rotates, the pseudo-stem is fed between the drum and backing plate or feeding roller. Owing to the crushing, beating, and pulling action, the pulpy material is removed when it is half way through. The pseudo-stems are slowly pushed from the drum and fall out to the conveyer belt, and eventually, the fibers are collected on the bucket. The next step is the degumming process of the fibers to remove foreign matter that are then washed and dried at room temperature of approximately 27–32°C. This machine can handle approxi-

**50**

mately two tons of dry fiber/day.

#### **2.3 Retting of banana pseudo-stem fiber**

Retting of banana fiber is defined as the separation of the fiber bundles from the cortex or wood, which effects on partial digestion of the cementing material (such as lignin and hemicellulose) between the fibers in the bundles. This loosening of the fiber bundles is also due to the removal of various cementing tissue components. The retting of banana fiber is analogous to the general retting process, where two stages occur. The first stage is the physical stage in which the water is absorbed; then swelling happens, and some of the soluble substances are extracted. The second stage is the microbial stage, either aerobic or anaerobic by the action of fungi or bacteria, respectively.

Since retting process is basically a microorganism process, several factors such as: microbiological agents (bacteria or fungi), nature of retting water, aeration, and macro-nutrients. Microbial growth on plant fibers usually results in tenacity loss, odor release, and various types of strains on the fiber substrates. Sometimes, a specific microorganism can grow on a living plant stem and produce brownish stains on the fiber, which are usually known as rust. According to Subagyo [19], the factors like temperature, length of retting time, type of chemical additives (e.g., magnesium oxide), and pure culture of microorganisms such as pectin-decomposing bacteria in the retting liquor can reduce the retting time by approximately 78%. The pseudo-stem retting time of 28 h was found to be quite sufficient, and the process was effective at a controlled pH between 6.8 and 7.4 with sodium carbonate, and at room temperature.

Retting is carried out to increase the mechanical properties of natural fiber, such as banana pseudo-stem fiber [20]. Fiber tenacity tests indicated that the extractive removal of pectin from pseudo-stem fiber through retting did not cause any significant change in the tenacity of the fiber except when over-retting had begun. Furthermore, analysis of decorticated and retted pseudo-steam fibers indicated that retting can significantly reduce hemicellulose and lignin that are present in the pseudo-stem fiber. It has been reported that the pulping process of retted natural fibers gave pulps with better strength and chemical properties compared to those of the unretted fibers [21].

#### **2.4 Degumming of banana pseudo-stem fiber**

Banana pseudo-stem fiber produced by decorticator machine contains a quite large percentage of gum and non-fibrous cell or parenchyma (approx. 30–35%).

These gums and cells are mostly not soluble in water and must be extracted before the fiber is mechanically spun into fine yarn count. It is a numerical expression which indicates whether the yarn is fine or coarse, and thick or thin. The unit of count is mass per unit length or length per unit mass of the yarn. These gums basically consist of arabans and xylans, which are soluble in the alkaline solutions. The basic degumming process steps are as follows: boiling the fibers couple of times in aqueous alkaline solution with/without agitation and pressure, and with/without reducing agents; second, washing the fibers with water for neutralizing; third, fiber bleaching with dilute hydrogen peroxide or hypochlorite; and fourth, fiber washing with water for neutralizing and oiling with a sulfonated hydrocarbon. Most of the processes involve caustic soda to treat the residual pectin, lignin, and gum. Although pseudo-stem fibers are commonly degummed by chemicals, there are also promising alternatives in retting (microbial degumming). Additionally, several literature studies have reported that the use of ultrasonic vibrations could speed up the degumming process [22].
