**3. Esthetic and ecology aspects of man-made structures**

Many approaches have been applied to mitigate the ecological impacts of man-made structures on coastal wetlands as reported by Wiecek [24]. These mitigation efforts also need to incorporate a landscape approach to improve esthetic value [25]. Landscape esthetic preference stems from the evolutionary survival experience. In this way, landscape esthetic is aligned with ecological health. The application of landscape approaches to the development of man-made structures aims to benefit the landscape esthetic and thus ecological health coastal wetlands.

Coastal wetlands were fragmented by man-made structures. The modified coastal wetland and natural coastal wetland can be interconnected by ecological esthetic approaches. The concept of esthetic ecology introduces aspects to the man-made structures that simulate the natural landscape esthetic of coastal wetlands (**Figure 5**). If the boundary of a man-made structure does not coincide with the natural wetland boundary between both seawater and land, the landscape esthetic and ecological quality will be reduced. The concept of landscape esthetics to improve modified coastal wetland ecology involves linking the existing manmade structures and coastal wetland. The aim is to keep or restore the ecological baseline through landscape esthetics to benefit coastal wetland habitats and conservation.

Coastal man-made structures were constructed to reduce erosion and flood risk and to maintain human activities and safety. When ecological esthetics is considered, the prime objective of the man-made structure is still to protect humans and coastal stability and then fundamentally set to ensure landscape esthetics.

Landscape perception is individualistic and related to the spatial landscape composition. Esthetic appreciation indicated the perception response when people enter a landscape room. Naturalness and openness of the landscape room is highly favorable, while a unitary atmosphere also affects landscape esthetic preference. A distinctive landscape could stimulate interest and for this reason, preservation of esthetic scenery generally appreciated by many is highly important. People will stand at a spot to absorb a pleasing view; this spot is the viewing place, and the view is the target scenery. This interaction between human selection of a viewpoint and the landscape is similar to the preferable prospect-refuge character landscape setting according to habitat theory.

Man-made structures have often been constructed to truncate the landscape room. Since the visual field is bounded by the structure, the middle to background of the landscape is often subject to disappearance. The first step to improve the landscape esthetics in this scenario is to identify and preserve the optimal viewing place that provided a view of the target of scenery prior to the construction of the man-made structures. The alternative option is to preserve the target scenery and recreate new viewing places. The former ensures a unitary atmosphere and that the landscape room is not affected by the construction of man-made structures. The latter ensures that the accessibility to appreciate target scenery is not compromised by structures. The mitigated approaches of man-made structure for landscape aesthetics and ecologic health as shown as **Table 2**.

Wherever possible, minimized length of structures could moderate the impact on coastal wetland fragmentation, which is also beneficial to landscape beauty. The boundary between the sharp outline of man-made structures and the dyke foot needs to be blurred in order for the structure to integrate into the landforms of the coastal wetland. The dyke foot on the land side of the structure can be rebuilt using natural materials, such as boulders, stones, and fill soil, along with vegetation planting to make the simple boundary become various visual pictures. These settings may provide more environmental information to people than previously.

The shape of man-made structures is often straight and rigid. This is due to the stability needed for coastal defense, but the visual character is tall, wide, and long and is thus perceived as arid, too orderly, and ecologically unhealthy. The setting is unattractive, and therefore, the shape of the structure must be in accordance with the coastline characteristics. This may transform the straight and hard impression left by the structure, to a gentler, more interesting, and preferable landscape. If no structural alterations can be made to improve the structure beauty, vertical lines can be applied to the surface of the structure to potentially

**Table 2.** The concepts of landscape esthetics and ecologic health applied to man-made structures on coastal wetlands.

**Figure 5.** Framework of the integrated consideration of the esthetic and ecologic aspects of man-made structures.

Length Minimize, keep the landscape room is given in terms of human scale, reduce habitat

Shape Use the shape of the existing shoreline for guidance in order to promote naturalness across

Height Raise the viewing point and merge the structure into the existing landform. Moderating the impact from obstructed views will help renovate the landscape room. Slope Gentler slopes broken up with vegetation and natural materials could make the man-made

Material Use of natural material could help blend the man-made structure with existing landforms

Type Minimize size and combine the man-made structure with vegetation to create visual variety

Location Immerse the structure into water or move away from the ecotone. The former preserves

structure more visually pleasing. If the change of slope is in accordance with existing

landscape room perfection, whereas the latter could reduce visual impact, as it is important

landforms of coastal wetlands, it is good for environmental compatibility.

fragmentation.

the visual landscape and landform.

and the overall coastal wetland landscape.

and improved accessibility.

to maintain the ecotone.

**Artificial structure mitigation for landscape esthetics and ecologic health**

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mitigate the initial perception of a solid image.

**Characteristics of manmade structures**

ecological health. The application of landscape approaches to the development of man-made structures aims to benefit the landscape esthetic and thus ecological health coastal wetlands. Coastal wetlands were fragmented by man-made structures. The modified coastal wetland and natural coastal wetland can be interconnected by ecological esthetic approaches. The concept of esthetic ecology introduces aspects to the man-made structures that simulate the natural landscape esthetic of coastal wetlands (**Figure 5**). If the boundary of a man-made structure does not coincide with the natural wetland boundary between both seawater and land, the landscape esthetic and ecological quality will be reduced. The concept of landscape esthetics to improve modified coastal wetland ecology involves linking the existing manmade structures and coastal wetland. The aim is to keep or restore the ecological baseline

through landscape esthetics to benefit coastal wetland habitats and conservation.

tally set to ensure landscape esthetics.

142 Wetlands Management - Assessing Risk and Sustainable Solutions

setting according to habitat theory.

Coastal man-made structures were constructed to reduce erosion and flood risk and to maintain human activities and safety. When ecological esthetics is considered, the prime objective of the man-made structure is still to protect humans and coastal stability and then fundamen-

Landscape perception is individualistic and related to the spatial landscape composition. Esthetic appreciation indicated the perception response when people enter a landscape room. Naturalness and openness of the landscape room is highly favorable, while a unitary atmosphere also affects landscape esthetic preference. A distinctive landscape could stimulate interest and for this reason, preservation of esthetic scenery generally appreciated by many is highly important. People will stand at a spot to absorb a pleasing view; this spot is the viewing place, and the view is the target scenery. This interaction between human selection of a viewpoint and the landscape is similar to the preferable prospect-refuge character landscape

Man-made structures have often been constructed to truncate the landscape room. Since the visual field is bounded by the structure, the middle to background of the landscape is often subject to disappearance. The first step to improve the landscape esthetics in this scenario is to identify and preserve the optimal viewing place that provided a view of the target of scenery prior to the construction of the man-made structures. The alternative option is to preserve the target scenery and recreate new viewing places. The former ensures a unitary atmosphere and that the landscape room is not affected by the construction of man-made structures. The latter ensures that the accessibility to appreciate target scenery is not compromised by structures. The mitigated approaches

of man-made structure for landscape aesthetics and ecologic health as shown as **Table 2**.

Wherever possible, minimized length of structures could moderate the impact on coastal wetland fragmentation, which is also beneficial to landscape beauty. The boundary between the sharp outline of man-made structures and the dyke foot needs to be blurred in order for the structure to integrate into the landforms of the coastal wetland. The dyke foot on the land side of the structure can be rebuilt using natural materials, such as boulders, stones, and fill soil, along with vegetation planting to make the simple boundary become various visual pictures. These settings may provide more environmental information to people than previously.

**Figure 5.** Framework of the integrated consideration of the esthetic and ecologic aspects of man-made structures.


**Table 2.** The concepts of landscape esthetics and ecologic health applied to man-made structures on coastal wetlands.

The shape of man-made structures is often straight and rigid. This is due to the stability needed for coastal defense, but the visual character is tall, wide, and long and is thus perceived as arid, too orderly, and ecologically unhealthy. The setting is unattractive, and therefore, the shape of the structure must be in accordance with the coastline characteristics. This may transform the straight and hard impression left by the structure, to a gentler, more interesting, and preferable landscape. If no structural alterations can be made to improve the structure beauty, vertical lines can be applied to the surface of the structure to potentially mitigate the initial perception of a solid image.

When a structure is higher than the line of sight, the view and access to the sea is blocked. This violently decreases the landscape room and has significant impacts on landscape esthetic preference. The height of a man-made structure is the one of the most important landscape esthetic issues facing coastal wetlands, as the height with material influences visual penetration, water accessibility, sea and land ecology, and ecotones [26]. In the optimal approach, the height of a man-made structure is determined by whether people view and access the coastline from land. Moderate raises in land elevation could improve visual accessibility and decrease the influence of the man-made structure on the landscape. Other mitigation efforts, such as filling in soil on dyke foot and planting vegetation, may smooth the visual constraint imposed by the height of the structures.

to improve visuals could also lead to the creation of ecological corridors. Furthermore, the vegetation structure and floristics could be aligned with the adjacent habitat, possibly facili-

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Different types of man-made structures have different impacts on coastal wetland landscapes. No matter which types of structure to create visual variety could enhance the spatial landscape attractive is primary. The surface of man-made structure is commonly flat and monotonous. If the surfaces were divided into small parts, and finished by composite materials; which landscaping approaches could create more interesting setting. Step-type dike is a good option. Planting short vegetation is an excellent way to recreate habitats at low steps, especially using native vegetation. Meanwhile, taller vegetation, such as trees, and the interaction with sunlight provide shade at the up-steps area, providing a more color-rich and interesting setting. Vegetation also varies surface structure, while clusters of trees create various heterogeneity of

The relationship between coastal wetland and man-made structures can also divide into two types. The first type is when a structure is parallel with the coastline, such as seawall or an offshore breakwater. These structures separate seawater and land, therefore destroying the ecotone and causing coastal wetland destruction. Approaches to improve the landscape esthetic and ecological quality in such cases are similar to those previously discussed. The second type is perpendicular to the coastline, such as jetty, and breakwater. These structures fragment coastal wetlands. Reducing the height of a structure can mitigate this impact and

It is well known that coastal ecotones are among the most productive ecological habitats and provide many functions which benefit humans and the environment. For this reason, man-made structures immersed in seawater are preferable as impacts on the coastal wetland landscape esthetics are minimized. An alternative option is moving the structures away from the intertidal zone to land, increasing the capacity for coastal wetland environments. This also supports the notion that increased spatial scale improves landscape room and thus preferable for landscape esthetics. However, in this case, the man-made structures may cause loss of littoral forest, and smaller patches may lead to decreased habitat diversity and the number of species. The naturalness of the landscape could become spoiled, thus impacting perception of the landscape. Coastal wetlands are important landscapes and recreational areas for local people. If man-made structures are built adjacent to communities or crowded areas, easy access to coastal wetlands must be maintained using the previously mentioned strategies to improve landscape esthetics.

Vegetation planting is the most common option to mitigate the visual impacts of man-made structures, which approaches could make structures merge into the coastal wetlands landscape. Compared with the mismanagement of modified setting, trees could be used to spatially vary the visual perception of the landscape as a greater diversity in landscape preferred by people. Structure edge can also be mitigated by adding edge vegetation of high diversity both vertically and horizontally to soften the edge and enrich landscape diversity [29]. The

desirable mitigation approach encourages the diversity of habitats concurrently.

tating species movement and recolonization.

spatial landscape which is attractive.

help maintain landscape room integrity.

When a structure is steep, the view field is narrowed and the middle to background environmental information is no longer visible. This setting is not favorable. To mitigate, decreasing the slope gradient is an option; however, this may enlarge surface area. Thus, the surface area can be divided to make the slope appear more interesting, or vegetation along with natural material can be applied to create features consistent with the adjacent landform to help visual integration with the coastal wetland. These approaches could create new target scenery, improve diversity of visual landscape, and enhance visual and water accessibility.

A variable of landscape esthetic experience is the viewing distance, as it is concerned with both long- and short-range views [27]. People view an overall landscape using a long-range view, of which landscape room is an important consideration. The short-range view is more concerned with the amount of detail which can be seen. Therefore, the scale of the relationship between observer and landscape is important.

Landscapes in the short-range view require finer consideration of constructional details, such as material and the texture of surface finish design [18, 28]. An inviting foreground setting, which is part of the short-range landscape, is critical for attracting viewers and provides the starting point for the sequential visual experience of the landscape. This could entice people to explore the coastal wetland landscape further and then would relate to the long-range landscape.

Natural materials were blended with the man-made structures, which contribute to the continuance and unification of the landscape and ecology. Natural materials can be used to reconstruct local characteristics to recover the relationship between humans and the environment; visual preference could achieve by through the use of "vernacular cues to care" [15]. Soft, curvilinear boundaries constructed from natural materials at dyke foot on the land side of a structure could create micro-patches capable of providing a number of ecological benefits. This also promotes a more interesting spatial landscape providing support for more environmental information than previously available in the short-range view.

The large and fair surface of existing man-made structures make the landscape setting highly homogeneous and monotonous, thus decreasing landscape esthetic and as a result is not a visually favorable landscape. Natural materials can be associated with man-made structures to improve visuals could also lead to the creation of ecological corridors. Furthermore, the vegetation structure and floristics could be aligned with the adjacent habitat, possibly facilitating species movement and recolonization.

When a structure is higher than the line of sight, the view and access to the sea is blocked. This violently decreases the landscape room and has significant impacts on landscape esthetic preference. The height of a man-made structure is the one of the most important landscape esthetic issues facing coastal wetlands, as the height with material influences visual penetration, water accessibility, sea and land ecology, and ecotones [26]. In the optimal approach, the height of a man-made structure is determined by whether people view and access the coastline from land. Moderate raises in land elevation could improve visual accessibility and decrease the influence of the man-made structure on the landscape. Other mitigation efforts, such as filling in soil on dyke foot and planting vegetation, may smooth the visual constraint

When a structure is steep, the view field is narrowed and the middle to background environmental information is no longer visible. This setting is not favorable. To mitigate, decreasing the slope gradient is an option; however, this may enlarge surface area. Thus, the surface area can be divided to make the slope appear more interesting, or vegetation along with natural material can be applied to create features consistent with the adjacent landform to help visual integration with the coastal wetland. These approaches could create new target scenery, improve diversity of visual landscape, and enhance visual and

A variable of landscape esthetic experience is the viewing distance, as it is concerned with both long- and short-range views [27]. People view an overall landscape using a long-range view, of which landscape room is an important consideration. The short-range view is more concerned with the amount of detail which can be seen. Therefore, the scale of the relation-

Landscapes in the short-range view require finer consideration of constructional details, such as material and the texture of surface finish design [18, 28]. An inviting foreground setting, which is part of the short-range landscape, is critical for attracting viewers and provides the starting point for the sequential visual experience of the landscape. This could entice people to explore the coastal wetland landscape further and then would relate to the long-range

Natural materials were blended with the man-made structures, which contribute to the continuance and unification of the landscape and ecology. Natural materials can be used to reconstruct local characteristics to recover the relationship between humans and the environment; visual preference could achieve by through the use of "vernacular cues to care" [15]. Soft, curvilinear boundaries constructed from natural materials at dyke foot on the land side of a structure could create micro-patches capable of providing a number of ecological benefits. This also promotes a more interesting spatial landscape providing support for more

The large and fair surface of existing man-made structures make the landscape setting highly homogeneous and monotonous, thus decreasing landscape esthetic and as a result is not a visually favorable landscape. Natural materials can be associated with man-made structures

environmental information than previously available in the short-range view.

imposed by the height of the structures.

144 Wetlands Management - Assessing Risk and Sustainable Solutions

ship between observer and landscape is important.

water accessibility.

landscape.

Different types of man-made structures have different impacts on coastal wetland landscapes. No matter which types of structure to create visual variety could enhance the spatial landscape attractive is primary. The surface of man-made structure is commonly flat and monotonous. If the surfaces were divided into small parts, and finished by composite materials; which landscaping approaches could create more interesting setting. Step-type dike is a good option. Planting short vegetation is an excellent way to recreate habitats at low steps, especially using native vegetation. Meanwhile, taller vegetation, such as trees, and the interaction with sunlight provide shade at the up-steps area, providing a more color-rich and interesting setting. Vegetation also varies surface structure, while clusters of trees create various heterogeneity of spatial landscape which is attractive.

The relationship between coastal wetland and man-made structures can also divide into two types. The first type is when a structure is parallel with the coastline, such as seawall or an offshore breakwater. These structures separate seawater and land, therefore destroying the ecotone and causing coastal wetland destruction. Approaches to improve the landscape esthetic and ecological quality in such cases are similar to those previously discussed. The second type is perpendicular to the coastline, such as jetty, and breakwater. These structures fragment coastal wetlands. Reducing the height of a structure can mitigate this impact and help maintain landscape room integrity.

It is well known that coastal ecotones are among the most productive ecological habitats and provide many functions which benefit humans and the environment. For this reason, man-made structures immersed in seawater are preferable as impacts on the coastal wetland landscape esthetics are minimized. An alternative option is moving the structures away from the intertidal zone to land, increasing the capacity for coastal wetland environments. This also supports the notion that increased spatial scale improves landscape room and thus preferable for landscape esthetics. However, in this case, the man-made structures may cause loss of littoral forest, and smaller patches may lead to decreased habitat diversity and the number of species. The naturalness of the landscape could become spoiled, thus impacting perception of the landscape. Coastal wetlands are important landscapes and recreational areas for local people. If man-made structures are built adjacent to communities or crowded areas, easy access to coastal wetlands must be maintained using the previously mentioned strategies to improve landscape esthetics.

Vegetation planting is the most common option to mitigate the visual impacts of man-made structures, which approaches could make structures merge into the coastal wetlands landscape. Compared with the mismanagement of modified setting, trees could be used to spatially vary the visual perception of the landscape as a greater diversity in landscape preferred by people. Structure edge can also be mitigated by adding edge vegetation of high diversity both vertically and horizontally to soften the edge and enrich landscape diversity [29]. The desirable mitigation approach encourages the diversity of habitats concurrently.

Furthermore, the sequences of landscapes are important [30]. The coherence of environmental information in the foreground and the setting is legibility that will make people feel secure. Following the complexity and mystery landscape at middle-ground to background encourages viewers to look further into the next setting to gain more environmental information. That landscape is favored by people. Furthermore, image congruity between the residential environment and the coastal wetland, promotes a sense of place attachment and landscape esthetic preference, potentially promoting conservation actions. As a result, the landscape arrangement of man-made structures accords with the local fabric, especially in coastal communities and fishing villages.

Climate change and sea level rise pose increasing coastal erosion and seawater instability risks. If wetlands are flooded, vegetation cannot grow and the edges of coastal wetlands are degraded. This makes maintaining healthy coastal wetlands even more challenging. Manmade structures are required to protect coastal wetlands; stability and safety of the coastline are the primary objective. Thus, consideration of landscape esthetics, which promotes healthy ecologic functioning, needs to be put into practice to optimize coastal wetland structures for

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enhanced conservation of these sensitive environments.

Address all correspondence to: lslee@thu.edu.tw

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NY, US: CUP Archive; 1989. 340p

Department of Landscape Architecture, Tunghai University, Taichung, Taiwan

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**Author details**

Lee-Hsueh Lee

**References**

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