**2. Material and methods**

by different initiatives and programmes national and international. In fact, the variety of map-

Precisely, the land use coverage maps are data extremely useful, as evidenced by its widespread use and interdisciplinarity that they provide. These maps enable us to obtain information on the occupation of the land—biophysics coverage on the surface of the Earth [3]. For this reason, their use is essential for the study and modelling of territorial dynamics [4].

Among the available products Global Land Cover (GLC2000) should be highlighted; it had a global coverage by the year 2000 [5]. Europe stresses on Pan-European Land Use and Land Cover Monitoring (PELCOM), created from images of the year 1996, with a resolution of 1 km [4]. However, in Europe, at national and regional levels, it has included Coordination of

In this regard, in Europe, a special effort to monitor the change of land cover in a standardized manner has been carried out. The so-called inventory of CORINE Land Cover (CLC or 'Corine') has been created from satellite images. This common database used by a large number of organizations in Europe and co-funded by the European Commission and the member states has been processed by the European Environment Agency (EEA) considering the different land use covers—through the guidelines of the System of Environmental and Economic Accounts (SEEA) for 'land and ecosystem'. Thus, the database is now the core element for integration of the information system of the EEA [6]. In fact, the CORINE project containing the use coverage of European Union (EU) is seen as a relevant complement for the

Although traditionally the CLC has been generated from the photo interpretation of satellite images, nevertheless, in some countries, such as Germany, Austria, Finland, Ireland, Iceland, Norway, United Kingdom, Sweden and Switzerland (mainly since 2006), the map is obtained from generalization techniques of national maps with greater detail [8]. In other cases— Slovakia, Hungary and Poland—CLC is used to obtain further details, scale 1:50000 maps, with a minimum map unit (MMU) from 4 and a legend adapted to the specific geographic features of the territory [8]. The same techniques have been used to obtain land use data prior

Therefore, there are different ways of producing CLC. Still, countries like Germany or Ireland have changed its methodology in the production of CORINE land use maps—as for the photo interpretation for the general use. A similar scenario occurred in the Netherlands, once the

However, from CORINE, land use maps remain a tool of major relevance that enables one to analyse soil applications—regardless of the problems arising at the administrative and technical level. According to the directive INSPIRE 2007-2-EC [10], CLC is one of the most outstanding harmonized European data sets and CLC even has achieved a semantic and technical standardization, considering that the CLC is a set of reference data in common use for European scale assessments since it uses a generic land cover class definition throughout

ping standards reflects the wide scope of interests and programmes [2].

Information on the Environment (CORINE) maps [4].

132 Land Use - Assessing the Past, Envisioning the Future

knowledge regarding major changes in land cover [7].

government decided to produce the CLC independently [8, 9].

to 1990 CLC [7].

Europe [11, 12].

To carry out the study, firstly, data have been collected such as official information that is detailed with sufficient precision and accuracy to characterize each of the countries part of the EU, according to their land use in 2018. It was decided to analyse the EU for its economic relevance and also according to the significant expansion of territory on a global scale.

Regarding information sources, the EEA provides the CLC, through the Copernicus Global Land Service<sup>1</sup> . This inventory was initiated in 1985 although the first 'visible' results date from 1990, and updates have occurred in 2000, 2006 and 2012 (**Table 1**) [9]. Another two main goals, of the CLC programme, are: (a) providing quantitative coverage of the soil—consistent and comparable data across Europe for stakeholders in European environmental policy and (2) developing a digital land cover database covering the EU Member States and other European and North African sovereign states [1].

Additionally, it has a spatial resolution of 100 m to linear phenomena. Also, different land uses have been classified using three levels of details—from the first with a higher degree of aggregation, the third party with the greatest degree of detail and therefore more disaggregated. The third comprises a total of 44 classes allowing one to characterize the land uses

Assessing Land-Use Changes in European Territories: A Retrospective Study from 1990 to 2012

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135

Regarding the CLC spatial coverage, additionally to the 28 EU member states, it also covers Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Iceland, Kosovo, Liechtenstein, Macedonia, Monte Negro, Norway, Serbia, Switzerland and Turkey. Nevertheless, for this large set of countries, information only has been available in CLC 2000, 2006 and 2012 updates—and in the 1990 version

Then, GIS tools (ArcGIS) along with management tools (Microsoft Access) have been used. Considering that CLC updates generate a map of land use changes, only changes larger than 5 hectares, the first map corresponds to the changes between 1990 and 2000. With the first map, and combining with other intersections features, it has been possible to generate two new maps: (a) reference data and (b) a review of the previous map. According to [33]: '*the study of the territorial changes should be studied from the change maps and not from the intersection of the CORINE maps for the years of reference, given that the cross-tabulation of various maps can produce* 

Regarding the methodological framework, the objective was to obtain the representative land use through polygons and their corresponding alphanumeric information for Europe in 1990,

The graphical information layer consists of polygonal graphics entities, each of 44 kinds of reported soil applications. Also, the alphanumeric information contains information fields associating an identifier - a code for the use of the soil for level 3 (**Table 2**); the area of the polygon is measured in hectares as well as the length of the surface of each of the polygons

Considering the aim of the study, it has been necessary to count the number of hectares of land use classified by CLC for each of the countries—aiming to achieve that this was also represented by polygonal entities of each of the EU countries and administrative boundaries. This layer of information has a scale of 1: 1,000,000 being the graphic equivalent to 200 m, and the coordinate reference system is European Terrestrial Reference System 1989 (ETRS89), the same used for CLC for flooring applications. The origin is the centre of the mass of the Earth, including oceans and atmosphere. In addition, the z-axis is parallel to the direction of the pole Conventional International Origin (CIO). The x-axis intersects the Greenwich Meridian

Using GIS tools, a file representing the administrative boundaries of each of the 28 EU Member

After, have been overlapping polygons previously obtained for CLC land uses representing all polygons with EU land uses. This new layer inherits the thematic attributes of the layer on

States has been generated throughout territorial polygons that have been processed.

*technical changes not real, arising from variations in production methodology'*.

origin, and the origin plane is perpendicular to the z-axis.

of each country (**Table 2**).

2000, 2006, and 2012.

is also calculated.

the CLC land uses.

countries not belonging to the EU was not included.


**Table 1.** Evolution of Land Cover CORINE [33].

<sup>1</sup> The CORINE programme was established in 1985 by the European Commission at: http://land.copernicus.eu/global.

Additionally, it has a spatial resolution of 100 m to linear phenomena. Also, different land uses have been classified using three levels of details—from the first with a higher degree of aggregation, the third party with the greatest degree of detail and therefore more disaggregated. The third comprises a total of 44 classes allowing one to characterize the land uses of each country (**Table 2**).

Regarding information sources, the EEA provides the CLC, through the Copernicus Global

1990, and updates have occurred in 2000, 2006 and 2012 (**Table 1**) [9]. Another two main goals, of the CLC programme, are: (a) providing quantitative coverage of the soil—consistent and comparable data across Europe for stakeholders in European environmental policy and (2) developing a digital land cover database covering the EU Member States and other European

Satellite data Landsat-5 MSS/TM Landsat-7 ETM SPOT-4/5 and IRS

Time consistency 1986–1998 2000 +/− 1 year 2006 +/− 1 year 2011–2012

Not implemented Boundary displacement

Production time 10 years 4 years 3 years 2 years

Documentation Incomplete metadata Standard metadata Standard

Unclear dissemination

policy

**Table 1.** Evolution of Land Cover CORINE [33].

(27 with late implementation) min. 100 m;

Change area for existing polygons ≥5 ha; for isolated changes ≥25 ha

— Not checked ≥ 85% ≥ 85%

Dissemination policy agreed from the start

26 30 38 39

The CORINE programme was established in 1985 by the European Commission at: http://land.copernicus.eu/global.

(35 with late implementation)

. This inventory was initiated in 1985 although the first 'visible' results date from

**CLC1990 CLC2000 CLC2006 CLC2012**

Single date Single date Dual date Dual date

≤ 50 m ≤ 25 m ≤ 25 m ≤ 25 m

25 ha/ 100 m 25 ha/100 m 25 ha/100 m 25 ha/100 m

100 m Better than 100 m Better than 100 m Better than 100 m

(Achieved) (Not checked)

≥ 85% ≥ 85% ≥ 85%

Boundary displacement min.100 m;

(Achieved)

metadata

users

Free access for all

All changes ≥5 ha are to be mapped

P6 LISS III

IRS P6 LISS III and rapid eye

Boundary displacement min.100 m;

All changes ≥5 ha are to be mapped

Standard metadata

Free access for all

users

Land Service<sup>1</sup>

Geometric accuracy, satellite data

Min. mapping unit/

Geometric accuracy,

Thematic accuracy,

Change mapping (CLCC)

Thematic accuracy,

Access to the data (CLC, CLCC)

Number of countries

involved

width

CLC

CLC

CLCC

1

and North African sovereign states [1].

134 Land Use - Assessing the Past, Envisioning the Future

≥ 85%

(Probably not achieved)

Regarding the CLC spatial coverage, additionally to the 28 EU member states, it also covers Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Iceland, Kosovo, Liechtenstein, Macedonia, Monte Negro, Norway, Serbia, Switzerland and Turkey. Nevertheless, for this large set of countries, information only has been available in CLC 2000, 2006 and 2012 updates—and in the 1990 version countries not belonging to the EU was not included.

Then, GIS tools (ArcGIS) along with management tools (Microsoft Access) have been used. Considering that CLC updates generate a map of land use changes, only changes larger than 5 hectares, the first map corresponds to the changes between 1990 and 2000. With the first map, and combining with other intersections features, it has been possible to generate two new maps: (a) reference data and (b) a review of the previous map. According to [33]: '*the study of the territorial changes should be studied from the change maps and not from the intersection of the CORINE maps for the years of reference, given that the cross-tabulation of various maps can produce technical changes not real, arising from variations in production methodology'*.

Regarding the methodological framework, the objective was to obtain the representative land use through polygons and their corresponding alphanumeric information for Europe in 1990, 2000, 2006, and 2012.

The graphical information layer consists of polygonal graphics entities, each of 44 kinds of reported soil applications. Also, the alphanumeric information contains information fields associating an identifier - a code for the use of the soil for level 3 (**Table 2**); the area of the polygon is measured in hectares as well as the length of the surface of each of the polygons is also calculated.

Considering the aim of the study, it has been necessary to count the number of hectares of land use classified by CLC for each of the countries—aiming to achieve that this was also represented by polygonal entities of each of the EU countries and administrative boundaries. This layer of information has a scale of 1: 1,000,000 being the graphic equivalent to 200 m, and the coordinate reference system is European Terrestrial Reference System 1989 (ETRS89), the same used for CLC for flooring applications. The origin is the centre of the mass of the Earth, including oceans and atmosphere. In addition, the z-axis is parallel to the direction of the pole Conventional International Origin (CIO). The x-axis intersects the Greenwich Meridian origin, and the origin plane is perpendicular to the z-axis.

Using GIS tools, a file representing the administrative boundaries of each of the 28 EU Member States has been generated throughout territorial polygons that have been processed.

After, have been overlapping polygons previously obtained for CLC land uses representing all polygons with EU land uses. This new layer inherits the thematic attributes of the layer on the CLC land uses.


**LEVEL 1 Nomenclature definition**

2 Agricultural areas

**LEVEL 2 Nomenclature definition**

24 Heterogeneous

agricultural areas

**LEVEL 3 Nomenclature definition**

irrigated land.

groves.

areas.

213 Rice fields: land developed for rice

222 Fruit trees and berry plantations: parcels planted with fruit trees or shrubs: single or mixed fruit species, fruit trees associated with permanently grassed surfaces. Includes chestnut and walnut

223 Olive groves: areas planted with olive

graminoid grass cover, of floral composition, not under a rotation system. Mainly used for grazing, but the fodder may be harvested mechanically. Includes

areas with hedges (bocage).

crops on the same parcel. 242 Complex cultivation: juxtaposition of

244 Agro-forestry areas: annual crops or

forestry species.

241 Annual crops associated with permanent

legumes, fodder crops, root crops and fallow land. Includes flower and tree (nurseries) cultivation and vegetables, whether open field, under plastic or glass (includes market gardening). Includes aromatic, medicinal and culinary plants.

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irrigated permanently and periodically, using a permanent infrastructure (irrigation channels, drainage network). Most of these crops could not be cultivated without an artificial water supply. Does not include sporadically

cultivation. Flat surfaces with irrigation channels. Surfaces regularly flooded.

trees, including mixed occurrence of olive trees and vines on the same parcel.

crops: non-permanent crops (arable lands or pasture) associated with permanent

small parcels of diverse annual crops, pasture and/or permanent crops. 243 Land principally occupied by agriculture:

> areas principally occupied by agriculture, interspersed with significant natural

grazing land under the wooded cover of

Excludes permanent pastures. 212 Permanently irrigated land: crops

21 Arable land 211 Non-irrigated arable land: cereals,

Assessing Land-Use Changes in European Territories: A Retrospective Study from 1990 to 2012

22 Permanent crops 221 Vineyards: areas planted with vines.

23 Pastures 231 Pastures: dense, predominantly

**LEVEL 1 Nomenclature definition**

136 Land Use - Assessing the Past, Envisioning the Future

1 Artificial surfaces

**LEVEL 2 Nomenclature definition**

12 Industrial,

13 Mine, dump and

14 Artificial, nonagricultural vegetated areas

construction sites

commercial and transport units

**LEVEL 3 Nomenclature definition**

land is covered by buildings, roads and artificially surfaced area cover almost all the ground. Non-linear areas of vegetation and bare soil are exceptional.

land is covered by structures, buildings, roads and artificially surfaced areas associated with vegetated areas and bare soil, which occupy discontinuous but

112 Discontinuous urban fabric: most of the

121 Industrial or commercial units: artificially surfaced areas (with concrete, asphalt, tarmacadam, or stabilized, e.g. beaten

> vegetation, occupy most of the area in question, which also contains buildings

land: motorways, railways, including associated installations (stations, platforms, embankments). Minimum

including quays, dockyards and marinas.

runways, buildings and associated land.

open-pit extraction of industrial minerals (sandpits, quarries) or other minerals (opencast mines). Includes flooded gravel pits, except for river-bed extraction. 132 Dump sites: landfill or mine dump sites, industrial or public. 133 Construction sites: spaces under

> construction development, soil or bedrock excavations, earthworks.

grounds, sports grounds, leisure parks, golf courses, racecourses, etc. Includes formal parks not surrounded by urban

141 Green urban areas: areas with vegetation within urban fabric. Includes parks and

cemeteries with vegetation. 142 Spot and leisure facilities: camping

zones.

significant surfaces

earth) devoid of

width

to include: 1 m.

123 Port areas: infrastructure of port areas,

124 Airports: airport installations like

131 Mineral extraction sites: areas with

and/or vegetated areas. 122 Road and rail networks associated

11 Urban fabric 111 Continuous urban fabric: most of the



To avoid the appearance of *slivers*, in the layers overlapping, that is, a country's boundary, CLC flooring applications, a margin of tolerance (distance) between two lines was set in order that two similar lines are considered as a single. In the present chapter, more graphic toler-

Once geo-database was obtained for EU territories, and considering the CLC land uses for the years 1990, 2000, 2006, and 2012, the overlay process was performed four times for each of the

ances correspond to 200 meters of the layer corresponding to countries' boundaries.

**LEVEL 1 Nomenclature definition**

**Table 2.** CLC nomenclature [33].

**LEVEL 2 Nomenclature definition**

4 Wetlands 41 Inland wetlands 411 Inland marshes: low-lying land usually

5 Water bodies 51 Inland waters 511 Water courses: natural or artificial

**LEVEL 3 Nomenclature definition**

42 Maritime wetlands 421 Salt marshes: vegetated low-lying areas,

Assessing Land-Use Changes in European Territories: A Retrospective Study from 1990 to 2012

52 Marine waters 521 Coastal lagoons: unvegetated stretches of

year only.

flooded in winter, and more or less saturated by water all year round. 412 Peat bogs: peatland consisting mainly of

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139

May or may not be exploited.

embankment systems. 423 Intertidal flats: generally unvegetated expanses of mud, sand or rock lying between high and low water-marks. On

contour on maps.

width to include: 100 m. 512 Water bodies: natural or artificial stretches of water.

522 Estuaries: the mouth of a river within which the tide ebbs and flows. 523 Sea and ocean: zone seaward of the lowest tide limit.

decomposed moss and vegetable matter.

above the high-tide line, susceptible to flooding by sea water. Often in the process of filling in, gradually being colonized by halophilic plants. 422 Salines: salt-pans, active or in process of. Sections of salt marsh exploited for the production of salt by evaporation. They are clearly distinguishable from the rest of the marsh by their segmentation and

> water-courses serving as water drainage channels. Includes canals. Minimum

salt or brackish waters separated from the sea by a tongue of land or other similar topography. These water bodies can be connected with the sea at limited points, either permanently or for parts of the


**Table 2.** CLC nomenclature [33].

**LEVEL 1 Nomenclature definition**

138 Land Use - Assessing the Past, Envisioning the Future

3 Forest and seminatural areas

**LEVEL 2 Nomenclature definition**

32 Scrub and/

or herbaceous vegetation associations

33 Open spaces with

little or no vegetation

**LEVEL 3 Nomenclature definition**

co-dominate.

heathland.

etc.).

trees.

colonization.

outcrops.

321 Natural grassland: low productivity

322 Moors and heathland: vegetation with low and closed cover, dominated by bushes, shrubs and herbaceous plants (heath, briars, broom, gorse, laburnum,

323 *Sclerophyllous* vegetation: bushy

composed principally of trees, including shrub and bush understories, where broadleaved species predominate. 312 Coniferous forest: vegetation formation

composed principally of trees, including shrub and bush understories, where coniferous species predominate. 313 Mixed forest: vegetation formation

> composed principally of trees, including shrub and bush understories, where broadleaved and coniferous species

grassland. Often situated in areas of rough uneven ground. Frequently includes rocky areas, briars, and

sclerophyllous vegetation. Includes maquis and garrigue. Maquis: a dense vegetation association composed of numerous shrubs associated with siliceous soils in the Mediterranean environment. Garrigue: discontinuous bushy associations of Mediterranean calcareous plateaus. Generally composed of kermes oak, arbutus, lavender, thyme, cistus, etc. May include a few isolated

324 Transitional woodland-shrub: bushy or herbaceous vegetation with scattered trees. Can represent either woodland degradation or forest regeneration/

331 Beaches, dunes, and sand plains: beaches,

332 Bare rock: scree, cliffs, rocks and

333 Sparsely vegetated areas: includes

high-attitude vegetation. 334 Burnt areas: areas affected by recent fires,

still mainly black. 335 Glaciers and perpetual snow: land covered by glaciers or permanent

snowfields.

dunes and expanses of sand or pebbles in coastal or continental, including beds of stream channels with torrential regime.

steppes, tundra and badlands. Scattered

31 Forests 311 Broad-leaved forest: vegetation formation

To avoid the appearance of *slivers*, in the layers overlapping, that is, a country's boundary, CLC flooring applications, a margin of tolerance (distance) between two lines was set in order that two similar lines are considered as a single. In the present chapter, more graphic tolerances correspond to 200 meters of the layer corresponding to countries' boundaries.

Once geo-database was obtained for EU territories, and considering the CLC land uses for the years 1990, 2000, 2006, and 2012, the overlay process was performed four times for each of the countries. Taking into account that four countries in the EU 28 Members had no registered CLC land uses for the year 1990, 432 geodatabases were obtained in total.

Subsequently, all these geo-database alphanumeric information were analysed by country and by year basis, using the Microsoft Access database. For each of these geo-databases there was a table of alphanumeric information, applying a query that is based on the Standard Query Language (SQL). In this regard, the surface of EU Member States has been summarized through CLC land use (**Table 2**). Relating the number of hectares of each country allocated to particular land use (**Table 2**), it was possible to characterize the EU countries according to land uses and determine what changed according to hectares' numbers dedicated to different land uses in the years 1990, 2000, 2006 and 2012. Also, this synthetic methodology has been based on actual and open-access EU data—possible to replicate in future years/periods.
