**4. Discussion and conclusion**

#### **4.1. Rainbow Lake, Michigan**

**Classification Soil Area (km2**

276 Land Use - Assessing the Past, Envisioning the Future

Woodland 29.48 1.00 0.12

Grassland 8.52 1.00 0.03

Urban savanna 4 1.00 0.02

Sand (W8) 11.20 0.38 0.046 Loam (W7) 18.28 0.62 0.074 Clay (W6) 0.00 0.00 0.000

**Figure 6.** A map of the soil types in the study area (copyright 2017 Zhen Wu, all rights reserved, used by Permission).

Sand (P8) 1.11 0.13 0.004 Loam (P7) 7.50 0.88 0.026 Clay (P6) 0.00 0.00 0.000

Sand (U8) 1.64 0.41 0.008 Loam (U7) 2.36 0.59 0.012 Clay (U6) 0 0.00 0.000

**) Percentage in each land use Percentage in total research area**

"The student who conducted the study of Rainbow Lake was surprised how available information was to make the prediction and conduct the modeling," stated Dr. Burley. "He stated that such information is not as freely available in other parts of the world," commented Dr. Burley. "It is true that information can equate to power. But in the United States and Canada, such information is supported by the public and the public has the right to access such information. Farmers, citizens, and researchers are free to access the information to make calculations to refute or support the findings of others. It is expected if not demanded," said Dr. Burley. "In many respects it is comforting that there are checks and balances in the use and application of information. If there are disputes, they can be openly addressed in public forums," mentioned Dr. Burley. "Especially at the township, county and state level, public employees responsible for natural resource management work together with citizens and comparatively, there is a fair amount of respect and trust amongst everyone.," reports Dr. Burley.

"The largest disputes that I have witnessed have been amongst hydrological experts who may debate methods of sampling or the accuracy of equations to predict hydrological variables. These academics often have varying opinions. But any equation is simply an approximation and estimation of physical phenomena. In the engineering field, if the approximation generally works, then it is accepted with no theoretical explanation or search for a better equation. This was true of the Manning formula of confined water flow in swales and pipes. This equation is over 140 years old and is unquestioned by many, but it is simply a mathematical approximation of water flow," observes Dr. Burley. "I am sure that today investigators could develop improved equations and even supply a set of theories to explain the improved equation. For example, the equation assumes laminar flow, however, it has been observed the flow may be at times helical/ spiral with undercurrents. Nevertheless, researchers are often not interested in discovering a new finding to something that by society's measure is considered 'not broken,'" adds Dr. Burley.

developed for housing, reducing the ability of the land to hold water and avoid flooding conditions. Initial open-space land-use plans were revised to convert green space to development. Eventually the green space disappeared. However, it was recognized that such conversion could not always continue. In Guangzhou, the P.R. of China, wetland parks were created to store water and improve water quality (**Figures 7**–**9**). During low water periods the green space can be used as a stroll park. The park is part of a connected system to accommodate high water, being linked to Shiliugang He (Pomegranate Hillock River) and Da Wei Yong (Big Surrounded Water-surge), Da Tang Yong (Big Pond Water-surge), Shang Chong Yong (Out to Rush Water-surge), Yang Wan Yong (Poplar Cove Water-surge), and Xi Lu Yong (West Busy Water-surge). The water in the lake can also supply fresh-water requirements for the city. The Haizhu (sea bead) district contains an exterior ring drainage system and an embankment system circling an internal lake for water storage that is controlled by flood gates. There is an island in the center of the lake, designated as a bird habitat. By the lake, a structure with a night-light beam (like a lighthouse) provides identity and gives meaning to the term "Haizhu." Such symbolism and affiliated meaning can be important in Chinese culture. Numerous floating-leaved aquatic plants and emergent plants are employed in the

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The design is very park like There are many trails, bridges, leisure boating, buildings, open spaces for group gatherings, cultural exhibits, and concessions. The number of people who can visit the park is limited each day to 3000 people. There are parking facilities, police, and

**Figure 7.** An image of a wetland park in the Haizhu District of Guangzhou. The lake is 53 hectares in size and the embankment land in the wetland is 41.8 hectares, with additional 55 parkland hectares. Notice the large towers in the distance and the proximity of urban development to the park. (copyright 2015 Jon Bryan Burley, all rights reserved, used

design to aid in improving water quality.

by Permission).

"The greatest difficulty by the student was actually determining the watershed boundary by topographical maps," noted Dr. Burley. "If one has had surveying in college or physical geography, reading topographical maps and determining ridge lines can be easily accomplished. I know I could do this by the time I was 12 or thirteen years of age and I am not necessarily the smartest person, even in a very small group," assessed Dr. Burley. "But I understand this is not always easy for some to accomplish and learning how to read topographic maps is an important skill in landscape planning and hydrological studies" added Dr. Burley. "The PhD student was very capable in creating map overlays with the appropriate data to estimate cover types on various soil types. This was very reassuring. I suspect that landscape students around the world could conduct such a study providing the information is available," confirmed Dr. Burley. "It took him about 2 months working full time (40 hours a week) to complete the study. There is much to read, intellectually digest, and apply," Dr. Burley reported.

"Rainbow Lake is near the upper boundary for being a eu-polytrophic lake," advises Dr. Burley. "That means additional inputs of phosphorus into the lake could temperately change the perceived water quality. During large rare storm events, of which I have only witnessed a couple in a 25 year period, massive amounts of suspended soil particles enter the lake. You can see the lake change to temporarily a polytrophic lake. A Secchi disk disappears immediately when placed in the water. The lake may even rise six of more feet above the normal lake level. Before I lived in Michigan, the dam was even 'washed-out' and had to be re-built. For many years the water quality in the lake is quite stable. But in these large storm events, enormous soil erosion takes place at key places along Pine Creek. After the storm, these key spots are radically altered with new gullies and small valleys where many cubic meters of soil had completely disappeared and been removed. Natural resource managers and soil erosion specialists are focusing upon preparing for these large rainfall events by working with land owners to create detention areas to control the outfall during these substantial but rare storms," adds Dr. Burley.

"In addition, over the last two decades, one has witnessed the development of rain gardens and more thoughtful management of shorelines," describes Dr. Burley. "Land owners actually think globally and act locally. There is great pride in many land owners for managing their land independently and thoughtfully, by eliminating the need for mowing their landscape to the water's edge, developing naturalized areas, being respectful for the needs of amphibians, turtles, shorebirds, and wildflowers. Rain gardens convey water through naturalized swales and ravines to the lake. There is a very different attitude by many towards the treatment of the landscape when compared to behavior 40 years ago," observed Dr. Burley.

#### **4.2. Guangzhou wetland parks**

In the P.R. of China, it is recognized that wetland open-space/greenway systems are essential to properly manage water. For a time, spaces to hold and retain water were occasionally developed for housing, reducing the ability of the land to hold water and avoid flooding conditions. Initial open-space land-use plans were revised to convert green space to development. Eventually the green space disappeared. However, it was recognized that such conversion could not always continue. In Guangzhou, the P.R. of China, wetland parks were created to store water and improve water quality (**Figures 7**–**9**). During low water periods the green space can be used as a stroll park. The park is part of a connected system to accommodate high water, being linked to Shiliugang He (Pomegranate Hillock River) and Da Wei Yong (Big Surrounded Water-surge), Da Tang Yong (Big Pond Water-surge), Shang Chong Yong (Out to Rush Water-surge), Yang Wan Yong (Poplar Cove Water-surge), and Xi Lu Yong (West Busy Water-surge). The water in the lake can also supply fresh-water requirements for the city. The Haizhu (sea bead) district contains an exterior ring drainage system and an embankment system circling an internal lake for water storage that is controlled by flood gates. There is an island in the center of the lake, designated as a bird habitat. By the lake, a structure with a night-light beam (like a lighthouse) provides identity and gives meaning to the term "Haizhu." Such symbolism and affiliated meaning can be important in Chinese culture. Numerous floating-leaved aquatic plants and emergent plants are employed in the design to aid in improving water quality.

equations and even supply a set of theories to explain the improved equation. For example, the equation assumes laminar flow, however, it has been observed the flow may be at times helical/ spiral with undercurrents. Nevertheless, researchers are often not interested in discovering a new finding to something that by society's measure is considered 'not broken,'" adds Dr. Burley. "The greatest difficulty by the student was actually determining the watershed boundary by topographical maps," noted Dr. Burley. "If one has had surveying in college or physical geography, reading topographical maps and determining ridge lines can be easily accomplished. I know I could do this by the time I was 12 or thirteen years of age and I am not necessarily the smartest person, even in a very small group," assessed Dr. Burley. "But I understand this is not always easy for some to accomplish and learning how to read topographic maps is an important skill in landscape planning and hydrological studies" added Dr. Burley. "The PhD student was very capable in creating map overlays with the appropriate data to estimate cover types on various soil types. This was very reassuring. I suspect that landscape students around the world could conduct such a study providing the information is available," confirmed Dr. Burley. "It took him about 2 months working full time (40 hours a week) to complete the study. There is much to read, intellectually digest, and apply," Dr. Burley reported. "Rainbow Lake is near the upper boundary for being a eu-polytrophic lake," advises Dr. Burley. "That means additional inputs of phosphorus into the lake could temperately change the perceived water quality. During large rare storm events, of which I have only witnessed a couple in a 25 year period, massive amounts of suspended soil particles enter the lake. You can see the lake change to temporarily a polytrophic lake. A Secchi disk disappears immediately when placed in the water. The lake may even rise six of more feet above the normal lake level. Before I lived in Michigan, the dam was even 'washed-out' and had to be re-built. For many years the water quality in the lake is quite stable. But in these large storm events, enormous soil erosion takes place at key places along Pine Creek. After the storm, these key spots are radically altered with new gullies and small valleys where many cubic meters of soil had completely disappeared and been removed. Natural resource managers and soil erosion specialists are focusing upon preparing for these large rainfall events by working with land owners to create detention areas to control the outfall during these substantial but rare

"In addition, over the last two decades, one has witnessed the development of rain gardens and more thoughtful management of shorelines," describes Dr. Burley. "Land owners actually think globally and act locally. There is great pride in many land owners for managing their land independently and thoughtfully, by eliminating the need for mowing their landscape to the water's edge, developing naturalized areas, being respectful for the needs of amphibians, turtles, shorebirds, and wildflowers. Rain gardens convey water through naturalized swales and ravines to the lake. There is a very different attitude by many towards the treatment of the

In the P.R. of China, it is recognized that wetland open-space/greenway systems are essential to properly manage water. For a time, spaces to hold and retain water were occasionally

landscape when compared to behavior 40 years ago," observed Dr. Burley.

storms," adds Dr. Burley.

278 Land Use - Assessing the Past, Envisioning the Future

**4.2. Guangzhou wetland parks**

The design is very park like There are many trails, bridges, leisure boating, buildings, open spaces for group gatherings, cultural exhibits, and concessions. The number of people who can visit the park is limited each day to 3000 people. There are parking facilities, police, and

**Figure 7.** An image of a wetland park in the Haizhu District of Guangzhou. The lake is 53 hectares in size and the embankment land in the wetland is 41.8 hectares, with additional 55 parkland hectares. Notice the large towers in the distance and the proximity of urban development to the park. (copyright 2015 Jon Bryan Burley, all rights reserved, used by Permission).

medical assistance. The main entrance is connected to the city highway system. Portions of the

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"An interesting feature of these parks is how much intervention (paths, ornamental plantings, seating, and small structures) occur in the parks," observed Dr. Burley. "The Chinese enjoy water-side stroll parks [3]. Guangzhou has a population greater than the entirety of the state of Michigan. So it is not surprising that these parks would be more developed than many Michigan naturalized settings," commented Dr. Burley. "In Michigan it would be considered a waste of money to expend funds for walkways and ornamental plantings in areas such as the Maple River Game Management area which is adjacent to Rainbow Lake in Michigan. But in China with such a large population, it makes good sense to allow the public access to enjoy these wetland areas," advised Dr. Burley. "I greatly appreciate the approaches of both cultures in the management of use of their wetlands. In Michigan, the goal is to management hydrological resources, provide recreation, facilitate wildlife, and provide green space. In China the role is also to manage hydrological resources, provide stroll gardens, and educate people about the importance of wetlands. I could imagine in just one wetland park, the expenditures for planting is greater than the yearly budget for the state of Michigan in planting

While environments such as Michigan may have a remaining substantial space to accommodate hydrological functions, large urban expanses such as in the P.R. of China may not have the luxury of designating the required amount of space to accommodate hydrological needs. The Chinese have embarked on the "sponge city" concept, where hydrological water storage and water cleansing are accomplished as much as possible at the site level before ever getting

Recently the Chinese held a competition to explore ideas to accomplish the sponge-city concept. A team at the Michigan State University entered the competition (**Figures 10**–**12**). In many respects the design incorporates and blends water storage and water-cleansing functions with the aesthetic functions of a soft-scape pocket garden. The figures illustrate the process the team employed to create the design. "What I like about the documentation of this project, is that it demonstrates how a design evolves and is created," notes Dr. Burley. "Experienced professionals understand this process, but novices sometimes believe that a design is just drawn, rendered, and finished. The figures show how hand drawing is often important in initiating a design and as the design emerges, computing technology may be employed to envision the project. The project is drawn, redrawn, and redrawn. During each

"When I teach design to beginning students, it is difficult to get them to evolve the design," describes Dr. Burley. "For the beginning student, being able to create just one version of a design is a milestone. But in truth, this is just the beginning of the process," suggests Dr. Burley. "It takes time for students to be objective about their design and be open to improvements and refinements. In design, there is not 'the answer' there are only 'answers.' Design is not a math problem with a discrete answer. And even in mathematics there are systems and examples where a discrete answer is not possible to discern, such as with irrational numbers

version, the design is critiqued and assessed," observes Dr. Burley.

facility educate visitors about recycling water and reuse.

vegetation," compared Dr. Burley.

**4.3. Sponge city concept**

to a greenway or water basin.

**Figure 8.** A view of the same park in Guangzhou from one of the large towers. Guangzhou experiences torrential rains and typhoons. The proportion of land dedicated with hydrological management network, while substantial, may still be minimal for catastrophic storms. Other parks and improvements are planned and may be implemented (copyright 2015 Jon Bryan Burley, all rights reserved, used by Permission).

**Figure 9.** A view of the large gate in a Guangzhou Haizhu wetland park. "Other than the many lighthouses in numerous Michigan state parks, I am not familiar with any such substantial features in Michigan natural areas. Nevertheless, the Chinese gates provide a strong sense of entry and identity." stated Dr. Burley. People learn about the value of wetlands, exercise in the park, and socialize (copyright 2015 Jon Bryan Burley, all rights reserved, used by Permission).

medical assistance. The main entrance is connected to the city highway system. Portions of the facility educate visitors about recycling water and reuse.

"An interesting feature of these parks is how much intervention (paths, ornamental plantings, seating, and small structures) occur in the parks," observed Dr. Burley. "The Chinese enjoy water-side stroll parks [3]. Guangzhou has a population greater than the entirety of the state of Michigan. So it is not surprising that these parks would be more developed than many Michigan naturalized settings," commented Dr. Burley. "In Michigan it would be considered a waste of money to expend funds for walkways and ornamental plantings in areas such as the Maple River Game Management area which is adjacent to Rainbow Lake in Michigan. But in China with such a large population, it makes good sense to allow the public access to enjoy these wetland areas," advised Dr. Burley. "I greatly appreciate the approaches of both cultures in the management of use of their wetlands. In Michigan, the goal is to management hydrological resources, provide recreation, facilitate wildlife, and provide green space. In China the role is also to manage hydrological resources, provide stroll gardens, and educate people about the importance of wetlands. I could imagine in just one wetland park, the expenditures for planting is greater than the yearly budget for the state of Michigan in planting vegetation," compared Dr. Burley.

#### **4.3. Sponge city concept**

**Figure 8.** A view of the same park in Guangzhou from one of the large towers. Guangzhou experiences torrential rains and typhoons. The proportion of land dedicated with hydrological management network, while substantial, may still be minimal for catastrophic storms. Other parks and improvements are planned and may be implemented (copyright 2015

**Figure 9.** A view of the large gate in a Guangzhou Haizhu wetland park. "Other than the many lighthouses in numerous Michigan state parks, I am not familiar with any such substantial features in Michigan natural areas. Nevertheless, the Chinese gates provide a strong sense of entry and identity." stated Dr. Burley. People learn about the value of wetlands,

exercise in the park, and socialize (copyright 2015 Jon Bryan Burley, all rights reserved, used by Permission).

Jon Bryan Burley, all rights reserved, used by Permission).

280 Land Use - Assessing the Past, Envisioning the Future

While environments such as Michigan may have a remaining substantial space to accommodate hydrological functions, large urban expanses such as in the P.R. of China may not have the luxury of designating the required amount of space to accommodate hydrological needs. The Chinese have embarked on the "sponge city" concept, where hydrological water storage and water cleansing are accomplished as much as possible at the site level before ever getting to a greenway or water basin.

Recently the Chinese held a competition to explore ideas to accomplish the sponge-city concept. A team at the Michigan State University entered the competition (**Figures 10**–**12**). In many respects the design incorporates and blends water storage and water-cleansing functions with the aesthetic functions of a soft-scape pocket garden. The figures illustrate the process the team employed to create the design. "What I like about the documentation of this project, is that it demonstrates how a design evolves and is created," notes Dr. Burley. "Experienced professionals understand this process, but novices sometimes believe that a design is just drawn, rendered, and finished. The figures show how hand drawing is often important in initiating a design and as the design emerges, computing technology may be employed to envision the project. The project is drawn, redrawn, and redrawn. During each version, the design is critiqued and assessed," observes Dr. Burley.

"When I teach design to beginning students, it is difficult to get them to evolve the design," describes Dr. Burley. "For the beginning student, being able to create just one version of a design is a milestone. But in truth, this is just the beginning of the process," suggests Dr. Burley. "It takes time for students to be objective about their design and be open to improvements and refinements. In design, there is not 'the answer' there are only 'answers.' Design is not a math problem with a discrete answer. And even in mathematics there are systems and examples where a discrete answer is not possible to discern, such as with irrational numbers

**Figure 10.** A series of drawings exploring ground plane patterns for the sponge city design. (copyright 2016 Na Li and Yiwen Xu).

"The sponge city competition illustrates what is occurring and evolving in the use and application of hydrological issues in the management and development of the environment. Needs change, opportunities emerge, and ideas evolve," states Dr. Burley. For example, members of this same sponge city team, name, and date conducted and reported a case study in Grand Rapids, Michigan, where equations and methods were employed to measure and predict water use by vegetation for a developed site [24]. "This is new and evolving knowledge with

**Figure 12.** Two perspectives of the sponge city design under different climatological events (copyright 2016 Na Li and

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"It has been that way for a long time. I remember as a young professor in the 1980s studying shoreline treatments for landscape stabilization for a small lake in eastern North Dakota or developing shoreline treatments along the shores of Lake Superior, or designing for wildlife habitat in reclaimed surface mine lakes near St. Paul, Minnesota or the gallery forest Red River of the North, and advising citizens how to design with plants along the riverine landscape [25–29]. Most projects involve water in some form or manner. There is still much to be

Knowledge about water, its management, and use continues to grow and evolve. An analytical approach developed and employed in one part of the world may eventually become important in other parts of the world. This has been the case in the development of non-toxic water-quality estimation methods developed in the USA and being considered elsewhere. In addition, the special needs of selected societies and cultures may necessitate the evolution of new functions and design standards in planning and design. Applications of these standards will continue to evolve and be applied in different manners across the world. In future, some of these relatively newer equations and applications may be included in textbooks and stud-

direct applications to landscape planning and design," concludes Dr. Burley.

learned and discovered," concluded Dr. Burley.

ied by most landscape and civil engineering students.

**5. Conclusion**

Yiwen Xu).

**Figure 11.** A series of 3-D models exploring the three dimensional properties and possibilities in the sponge city design (copyright 2016 Na Li and Yiwen Xu).

or mathematical universes that fade in, fade out, and change in volume across time," advises Dr. Burley. "Creating the design can be a process whereby the dots to be connected may not be apparent and the sequence to connect the dots is not apparent either. Some people are not comfortable with such puzzles and others enjoy the challenge," states Dr. Burley. "The sponge city competition typifies such a challenge. It is creating a new set of relationships and standards previously unexplored and untested," reveals Dr. Burley.

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**Figure 12.** Two perspectives of the sponge city design under different climatological events (copyright 2016 Na Li and Yiwen Xu).

"The sponge city competition illustrates what is occurring and evolving in the use and application of hydrological issues in the management and development of the environment. Needs change, opportunities emerge, and ideas evolve," states Dr. Burley. For example, members of this same sponge city team, name, and date conducted and reported a case study in Grand Rapids, Michigan, where equations and methods were employed to measure and predict water use by vegetation for a developed site [24]. "This is new and evolving knowledge with direct applications to landscape planning and design," concludes Dr. Burley.

"It has been that way for a long time. I remember as a young professor in the 1980s studying shoreline treatments for landscape stabilization for a small lake in eastern North Dakota or developing shoreline treatments along the shores of Lake Superior, or designing for wildlife habitat in reclaimed surface mine lakes near St. Paul, Minnesota or the gallery forest Red River of the North, and advising citizens how to design with plants along the riverine landscape [25–29]. Most projects involve water in some form or manner. There is still much to be learned and discovered," concluded Dr. Burley.
