6.3.2 User cost in the maintenance stage

As mentioned in the analysis of LCCA, user cost can be divided into three parts: vehicle operation cost, delay cost, and safety cost [2]. Vehicle operation cost refers to the cost of vehicle operation near the maintenance operation area, and its value is affected by vehicle type, vehicle age, condition of maintenance operation area, and other factors. The calculation formula of vehicle delay cost in the maintenance area is as Eq. (12), where the vehicle operation cost (/km�vehicle) is a value that changes with areas and time:

$$\text{Vehicle delay cost} = \text{Length of operation area} \times \text{AADT} \times \text{Duration of operation}$$

� Vehicle operation cost

(12)

Vehicle mileage ¼ Number of daily trips � Days � Mileage (17)

(20)

Number of accidents ¼ Number of accidents per km � Vehicle mileage (18)

Safety cost ¼ Number of accidents caused by operation area � unit accident cost

When discussing the costs generated in the future, the expected costs and benefits in the future need to be converted into present value, which is called net present value (NPV). Due to the uncertainty in the future, the conversion of future benefits and costs into present value will show the trend of depreciation, and the

represented by the discount rate. Since the life cycle cost analysis of the road only considers the cost expenditure, the calculation formula of its NPV is as follows

> N k¼1

So as to use the results of the inventory analysis for decision-making, the results of the inventory analysis must be collated and compared to illustrate the equivalent value and importance of each specific environmental impact category. This evaluation process can be divided into four steps: classification, distribution, characteri-

Classification is to put the result of the inventory analysis into different environmental impact categories. This phase requires the selection of appropriate classification methods and models to distinguish different impact categories. The current classification is to divide environmental impact into three categories: resource consumption, natural environment, and human health, with subgroups of abiotic resource use, acidification, climate change, eco-toxicity, eutrophication, human toxicity, land use, particulate matter formation, photochemical ozone for-

The assignment assigns the results of the inventory analysis to each category to determine the impact category for each of the output substances. Many pollutants can be classified into the same category. For example, nitrogen oxides (NOx) and sulfur oxides (SOx) can be classified into acidification, and carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) can be classified as climate change, as shown in Figure 5.

mation, stratospheric ozone depletion, water use, etc. [50].

ð Þ <sup>1</sup> <sup>þ</sup> Discount Rate years expected " # (21)

k th Future expected cost

degree of depreciation depends on the economic and social environment,

1

NPV cost ¼ Initial construction cost ∑

Number of accidents caused by operation area ¼ Number of accidents �Percentage difference of accident rate in operation area (19)

Integrated Life Cycle Economic and Environmental Impact Assessment for Transportation…

6.3.3 Economic cost discount rate

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86854

6.4 Impact assessment

zation, and quantification.

6.4.1 Classification

6.4.2 Assignment

105

[2, 3]:

Delay cost refers to the time delay cost caused by the maintenance operation area; it is not only affected by the construction operation area but also closely related to the time cost of people. The calculation of delay cost is shown from Eqs. (13) to (16). The time value is determined by the average income level and working hours:

Deceleration delay time ¼ ð Þ Length of operation area=Speed of operation area

� ð Þ Length of operation area=Upstream driving speed

(13)

Queue time ¼ Queue length=Queue speed (14)

Total delay time ¼ Deceleration delay time þ Queuing time (15)

Delay cost ¼ Total delay time � AADT � Working time � Time value (16)

Safety cost refers to the cost caused by additional accidents due to the existence of maintenance operation area. The specific calculation method is shown in Eqs. (17) to (20). The parameters refer to the values in Table 2:


Table 2. The value of safety cost parameter. Integrated Life Cycle Economic and Environmental Impact Assessment for Transportation… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86854

Vehicle mileage ¼ Number of daily trips � Days � Mileage (17) Number of accidents ¼ Number of accidents per km � Vehicle mileage (18) Number of accidents caused by operation area ¼ Number of accidents �Percentage difference of accident rate in operation area (19)

Safety cost ¼ Number of accidents caused by operation area � unit accident cost (20)

#### 6.3.3 Economic cost discount rate

indirect fee is inevitable. The economic costs of these inputs are relatively easy to calculate, but their environmental costs are difficult to measure directly, so they are calculated as independent economic costs, regardless of their synchronous environmental costs. In the actual calculation, these costs will be directly incorporated into

As mentioned in the analysis of LCCA, user cost can be divided into three parts: vehicle operation cost, delay cost, and safety cost [2]. Vehicle operation cost refers to the cost of vehicle operation near the maintenance operation area, and its value is affected by vehicle type, vehicle age, condition of maintenance operation area, and other factors. The calculation formula of vehicle delay cost in the maintenance area is as Eq. (12), where the vehicle operation cost (/km�vehicle) is a value that changes

Vehicle delay cost ¼ Length of operation area � AADT � Duration of operation

Delay cost refers to the time delay cost caused by the maintenance operation area; it is not only affected by the construction operation area but also closely related to the time cost of people. The calculation of delay cost is shown from Eqs. (13) to (16). The time value is determined by the average income level and

Deceleration delay time ¼ ð Þ Length of operation area=Speed of operation area

� ð Þ Length of operation area=Upstream driving speed

Queue time ¼ Queue length=Queue speed (14)

Total delay time ¼ Deceleration delay time þ Queuing time (15)

Delay cost ¼ Total delay time � AADT � Working time � Time value (16)

of maintenance operation area. The specific calculation method is shown in

Eqs. (17) to (20). The parameters refer to the values in Table 2:

Safety cost refers to the cost caused by additional accidents due to the existence

(12)

(13)

� Vehicle operation cost

the total economic costs of the corresponding stage.

6.3.2 User cost in the maintenance stage

Transportation Systems Analysis and Assessment

with areas and time:

working hours:

Table 2.

104

The value of safety cost parameter.

When discussing the costs generated in the future, the expected costs and benefits in the future need to be converted into present value, which is called net present value (NPV). Due to the uncertainty in the future, the conversion of future benefits and costs into present value will show the trend of depreciation, and the degree of depreciation depends on the economic and social environment, represented by the discount rate. Since the life cycle cost analysis of the road only considers the cost expenditure, the calculation formula of its NPV is as follows [2, 3]:

$$\text{NPV cost} = \text{Initial construction cost} \sum\_{k=1}^{N} \mathbf{k} \text{th Future expected cost} \tag{21}$$

$$\left[ \frac{\mathbf{1}}{(\mathbf{1} + \text{Discount Rate})^{\text{years expected}}} \right]$$

#### 6.4 Impact assessment

So as to use the results of the inventory analysis for decision-making, the results of the inventory analysis must be collated and compared to illustrate the equivalent value and importance of each specific environmental impact category. This evaluation process can be divided into four steps: classification, distribution, characterization, and quantification.

#### 6.4.1 Classification

Classification is to put the result of the inventory analysis into different environmental impact categories. This phase requires the selection of appropriate classification methods and models to distinguish different impact categories. The current classification is to divide environmental impact into three categories: resource consumption, natural environment, and human health, with subgroups of abiotic resource use, acidification, climate change, eco-toxicity, eutrophication, human toxicity, land use, particulate matter formation, photochemical ozone formation, stratospheric ozone depletion, water use, etc. [50].

#### 6.4.2 Assignment

The assignment assigns the results of the inventory analysis to each category to determine the impact category for each of the output substances. Many pollutants can be classified into the same category. For example, nitrogen oxides (NOx) and sulfur oxides (SOx) can be classified into acidification, and carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) can be classified as climate change, as shown in Figure 5.

and improves the expressiveness of the evaluation results. The difference between the two is that normalization will classify the evaluation results into the interval [0, 1] and the standardized results are related to the overall distribution of the data. This stage is an optional stage in the impact assessment, and the results of the evaluation vary depending on the evaluator and the evaluation method.

Integrated Life Cycle Economic and Environmental Impact Assessment for Transportation…

When various uncontrollable external factors change, the evaluation plan and conclusion may be affected; this evaluation method is called uncertainty analysis, which is a commonly used method in decision analysis. Through this analysis, the impact of uncertainty factors on the evaluation results can be clarified and minimized, and the resistance of the evaluation conclusions to certain unforeseen risks can be predicted, thereby verifying the reliability and stability of the scheme.

Knowledge, experience, information, and judgment of future decision-making are required in uncertainty analysis. The commonly used methods are: (1) The profit and loss value of the scheme, that is, to calculate the different benefits caused by various factors, and the scheme with the largest return is the optimal scheme. (2) The regret value of the calculation scheme. Calculate the difference between the return value and the maximum return value of the scheme adopted due to the misjudgment of uncertain factors, and the scheme with the smallest regret value is the best scheme. (3) The expected value. By using probability to calculate the standard value of the scheme comparison, the scheme with the best expected value is the best scheme. (4) Consider the criteria of decision-making without deviating from the rules [52]. To sum it up, uncertainty analysis can be divided into breakeven analysis, sensitivity analysis, probability analysis, and criteria analysis.

This chapter proposes a comprehensive evaluation idea of pavement life cycle economic cost and environmental impact based on the life cycle assessment framework, which is essentially equivalent to the environmental impact assessment method considering economic cost. The advantage of this method is that it considers both the economic cost and the environmental impact of the road and puts them in a unified framework for discussion and comparison. The results of comparison can be given more quickly and clearly in multiple schemes than in the

Although LCCA and LCA have a large number of overlapped parts, some parts are independent of each other. For example, for the labor input of a certain project, economic inputs such as compensation and insurance must be considered, and it is difficult to quantify the environmental impact of labor input. It would therefore be inappropriate to consider only its economic costs and ignore its environmental impact. Therefore, it is suggested that a more comprehensive LCA system should

• Environmental aspects: factors such as global warming, human toxicity,

• Social aspects: factors such as worker income, accident rate, worker social

selection, which is helpful for decision-makers to make choices.

resource depletion, ozone depletion, and eco-toxicity

welfare, and social disparity (industry, income, etc.)

• Economic aspects: factors such as owner costs and user costs

6.5 Result interpretation

7. Conclusions

include and is not limited to:

107

6.5.1 Data uncertainty analysis

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86854

#### Figure 5.

Classification, assignment, and characterization.
