Abstract

Blowing snow processes commonly occur over the earth's ice sheets and snow covered regions when near surface wind speed exceeds a threshold value. These processes play a key role in the sublimation and redistribution of snow, thereby influencing the surface mass balance. Prior field studies and modeling results have shown the importance of blowing snow sublimation and transport on the surface mass budget and hydrological cycle of high latitude regions. Until recently, most of our knowledge of blowing snow was obtained from field measurements or modeling. Recent advances in satellite remote sensing have enabled a more complete understanding of the nature of blowing snow. Using 12 years of satellite lidar data, climatology of blowing snow frequency has been compiled, showing the spatial and temporal distribution of blowing snow frequency over Antarctica. Other characteristics of blowing snow such as backscatter structure and profiles of temperature, relative humidity, and winds through the layer are explored. A new technique that uses direct measurements of blowing snow backscatter combined with model meteorological reanalysis fields to compute the magnitude of blowing snow sublimation and transport is also discussed.

Keywords: blowing snow, climatology, sublimation, transport, thermodynamic structure, CALIPSO

### 1. Introduction

Antarctica is the coldest and windiest place on earth. The ice sheet reaches a height of 4 km near the center of East Antarctica and slopes toward the coasts. The sloping terrain together with radiative cooling of the surface and lower atmosphere produces drainage flows known as katabatic winds. In some places, wind speeds can attain hurricane force and blow for days on end. It is not surprising, then, that the snow present in Antarctica is almost always airborne. Snow lifted from the surface and carried aloft by wind is known as drifting and blowing snow. Drifting snow is generally defined as airborne snow confined to a maximum height of 2 m. Once snow particles attain a height greater than 2 m, it is considered blowing snow. Blowing snow is important for a number of reasons including ice sheet mass balance [1, 2], the water budget of high latitude regions [3], and the reconstruction of

paleoclimate records from the physical and chemical records obtained from ice cores [4]. Interaction with blowing snow is a major factor for changes in surface ice characteristics, such as rifts, crevasses, ridges, sastrugi, etc. and in deposition of snow on sea ice [5–7].

the large ground return signal and then interrogates the bins immediately above for elevated levels of backscatter. If the ground return is not found, then it is impossible to detect blowing snow from the backscatter profile. The lack of a ground return indicates that overlying cloud layers have attenuated the lidar beam and reduced the backscatter signal from the ground to near zero. This occurs when the overlying cloud layers have an optical depth of about 3 or greater. In general, over East Antarctica, this only happens near the coast. In the interior, cloudiness is normally

New Perspectives on Blowing Snow in Antarctica and Implications for Ice Sheet Mass Balance

When the ground return is found, the backscatter level of the lidar profile bin directly above the ground is compared to a threshold value (about 10 times the local value of the molecular backscatter). If it is greater than the threshold and the 10 m wind speed (which is on the CALIPSO data product and is obtained from the GEOS-

Blowing snow is a dynamic boundary layer phenomenon, which is only slowly revealing its many secrets. The satellite lidar measurements discussed in Section 2 have increased our knowledge significantly. Figure 1 shows examples of blowing snow as seen by CALIPSO. Each panel of Figure 1 is a separate CALIPSO track over East Antarctica. They show the 532-nm attenuated backscatter as measured by the Cloud-Aerosol Lidar with Orthogonal Polarization (CALIOP) lidar and represent typical wintertime blowing snow events in Antarctica. Generally, the average height of the layers is about 120 m, but they can range from just a few meters to over 400 m in depth. The lidar attenuated backscatter values range from about 1.0 <sup>10</sup><sup>5</sup> <sup>m</sup><sup>1</sup> sr<sup>1</sup> near the top of the layer to 5.0 <sup>10</sup><sup>4</sup> <sup>m</sup><sup>1</sup> sr<sup>1</sup> in the lower third of the layer. This is consistent with blowing snow models that indicate both the particle size and number density decrease with height. On average, the optical depth of blowing snow layers (not shown) is about 0.2, but can range from 0.05 to 1.0 [13]. A defining feature of blowing snow as visualized by lidar is the cellular-like structure of the backscatter. Close inspection of Figure 1 will reveal relatively small (2–3 km), regularly spaced cell-like structures. This is a very common feature of blowing snow layers and seems to suggest that convection is occurring within the

A recent discovery aided by active (lidar) and passive satellite measurements is

the size of blowing snow storms in East Antarctica. Evidence shows that these storms can cover an enormous area and last for a number of days [13]. An example of such a storm is shown in Figure 2, which is a MODerate resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) false color (RGB = 2.1, 2.1, 0.85 μm) image of a large

detected. The search then continues upward for the location of the top of the scattering layer. This is defined as the bin immediately below two consecutive bins that have signal levels less than a value of about twice the local value of molecular backscatter. A few tests are made on the scattering layer in an effort to remove diamond dust from the detections. Diamond dust is fairly common in Antarctica, especially over the high Antarctic Plateau in winter and can be many km in thickness and extend to the ground. To reduce misclassification of diamond dust as blowing snow, the top of the layer cannot exceed 500 m in height (above the ground) and the backscatter level within the layer must decrease with height. If these tests are passed, then the layer is assumed to be blowing snow. Finally, the optical depth of the blowing snow layer is estimated using an extinction to backscatter a value (lidar ratio) of 25 sr that is the typical value of ice crystals found in

, then a scattering layer has been

quite low, and what clouds are present are usually optically thin.

5 global analysis product) is greater than 4 m s<sup>1</sup>

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81319

cirrus clouds [17].

layer.

43

3. Characteristics of blowing snow

Most of our understanding of blowing snow comes from field measurements at the surface or from numerical modeling. Numerous observations conducted in Antarctica have measured the properties of blowing snow such as particle size, number density, mass flux, and atmospheric conditions associated with blowing snow episodes [8–10]. Most such studies are made in drifting or blowing snow conditions where the snow particles are confined to shallow layers. Particle size ranges from 50 to 450 m with the largest particles occurring near the surface. These studies also provided data on the wind speed required to initiate blowing snow. This wind speed, known as the threshold velocity, depends on the properties of the snow on the surface such as age, temperature, density, sphericity, and cohesiveness [1]. Generally, the threshold velocity ranges from about 5 to 8 m s<sup>1</sup> . All field measurements of blowing snow in the literature are made below a height of 10 m. However, blowing snow can frequently reach heights of 100 m or more and little or nothing is known about the properties of these deep blowing snow layers [11, 12]. This is mainly because when they occur, the conditions are too harsh to make measurements in the field.

Because of the lack of observations over Antarctica, the temporal and spatial frequency of blowing snow was not known until recently. With the advent of active satellite remote sensing (lidar), it was shown that blowing snow occurs more frequently than 70% of the time over large regions of Antarctica and can reach heights of 500 m [13].

### 2. Blowing snow detection from satellite lidar

Because of the scarcity of manned weather observation stations in Antarctica, the only practical way of obtaining information on blowing snow over the entire continent is from satellite remote sensing. While there have been passive sensors in polar orbit since the 1960s, it is very difficult to detect blowing snow from passive visible or infrared (IR) channels. In the visible, the blowing snow is indistinguishable from the underlying snow surface, and in the IR, there is generally not enough temperature contrast between the surface and blowing snow to make the latter visible. In 2003, ICESat carried the Geoscience Laser Altimeter System (GLAS) into polar orbit [14]. GLAS had both altimetry and atmospheric channels and was the first satellite lidar to study the earth's surface and atmosphere. Atmospheric data from GLAS were used to develop a technique to detect blowing snow layers from satellite lidar data. In 2006, the Cloud-Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observation (CALIPSO) satellite was launched into polar orbit [15]. CALIPSO was specifically designed to study the earth's atmosphere using a multi-wavelength lidar. The data from CALIPSO have been used to study the climatology of blowing snow over Antarctica for the period 2006–2017 [16].

A lidar instrument transmits short pulses of (usually) visible or near IR laser light into the atmosphere, and a very small portion of the light is scattered directly backward from molecules, aerosols, and clouds. A telescope and associated detector electronics record the backscattered light into time-resolved "bins" usually 30–75 m in length. For satellite lidars like CALIPSO, the resulting backscatter profile extends from about 40 km in altitude to a kilometer or two below the ground. For blowing snow detection, only the backscatter data in the lowest 500 m above the surface are of interest. Since blowing snow is rooted at the ground, the algorithm first detects

#### New Perspectives on Blowing Snow in Antarctica and Implications for Ice Sheet Mass Balance DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81319

the large ground return signal and then interrogates the bins immediately above for elevated levels of backscatter. If the ground return is not found, then it is impossible to detect blowing snow from the backscatter profile. The lack of a ground return indicates that overlying cloud layers have attenuated the lidar beam and reduced the backscatter signal from the ground to near zero. This occurs when the overlying cloud layers have an optical depth of about 3 or greater. In general, over East Antarctica, this only happens near the coast. In the interior, cloudiness is normally quite low, and what clouds are present are usually optically thin.

When the ground return is found, the backscatter level of the lidar profile bin directly above the ground is compared to a threshold value (about 10 times the local value of the molecular backscatter). If it is greater than the threshold and the 10 m wind speed (which is on the CALIPSO data product and is obtained from the GEOS-5 global analysis product) is greater than 4 m s<sup>1</sup> , then a scattering layer has been detected. The search then continues upward for the location of the top of the scattering layer. This is defined as the bin immediately below two consecutive bins that have signal levels less than a value of about twice the local value of molecular backscatter. A few tests are made on the scattering layer in an effort to remove diamond dust from the detections. Diamond dust is fairly common in Antarctica, especially over the high Antarctic Plateau in winter and can be many km in thickness and extend to the ground. To reduce misclassification of diamond dust as blowing snow, the top of the layer cannot exceed 500 m in height (above the ground) and the backscatter level within the layer must decrease with height. If these tests are passed, then the layer is assumed to be blowing snow. Finally, the optical depth of the blowing snow layer is estimated using an extinction to backscatter a value (lidar ratio) of 25 sr that is the typical value of ice crystals found in cirrus clouds [17].

## 3. Characteristics of blowing snow

Blowing snow is a dynamic boundary layer phenomenon, which is only slowly revealing its many secrets. The satellite lidar measurements discussed in Section 2 have increased our knowledge significantly. Figure 1 shows examples of blowing snow as seen by CALIPSO. Each panel of Figure 1 is a separate CALIPSO track over East Antarctica. They show the 532-nm attenuated backscatter as measured by the Cloud-Aerosol Lidar with Orthogonal Polarization (CALIOP) lidar and represent typical wintertime blowing snow events in Antarctica. Generally, the average height of the layers is about 120 m, but they can range from just a few meters to over 400 m in depth. The lidar attenuated backscatter values range from about 1.0 <sup>10</sup><sup>5</sup> <sup>m</sup><sup>1</sup> sr<sup>1</sup> near the top of the layer to 5.0 <sup>10</sup><sup>4</sup> <sup>m</sup><sup>1</sup> sr<sup>1</sup> in the lower third of the layer. This is consistent with blowing snow models that indicate both the particle size and number density decrease with height. On average, the optical depth of blowing snow layers (not shown) is about 0.2, but can range from 0.05 to 1.0 [13]. A defining feature of blowing snow as visualized by lidar is the cellular-like structure of the backscatter. Close inspection of Figure 1 will reveal relatively small (2–3 km), regularly spaced cell-like structures. This is a very common feature of blowing snow layers and seems to suggest that convection is occurring within the layer.

A recent discovery aided by active (lidar) and passive satellite measurements is the size of blowing snow storms in East Antarctica. Evidence shows that these storms can cover an enormous area and last for a number of days [13]. An example of such a storm is shown in Figure 2, which is a MODerate resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) false color (RGB = 2.1, 2.1, 0.85 μm) image of a large

paleoclimate records from the physical and chemical records obtained from ice cores [4]. Interaction with blowing snow is a major factor for changes in surface ice characteristics, such as rifts, crevasses, ridges, sastrugi, etc. and in deposition of

Generally, the threshold velocity ranges from about 5 to 8 m s<sup>1</sup>

2. Blowing snow detection from satellite lidar

snow over Antarctica for the period 2006–2017 [16].

Most of our understanding of blowing snow comes from field measurements at the surface or from numerical modeling. Numerous observations conducted in Antarctica have measured the properties of blowing snow such as particle size, number density, mass flux, and atmospheric conditions associated with blowing snow episodes [8–10]. Most such studies are made in drifting or blowing snow conditions where the snow particles are confined to shallow layers. Particle size ranges from 50 to 450 m with the largest particles occurring near the surface. These studies also provided data on the wind speed required to initiate blowing snow. This wind speed, known as the threshold velocity, depends on the properties of the snow on the surface such as age, temperature, density, sphericity, and cohesiveness [1].

ments of blowing snow in the literature are made below a height of 10 m. However, blowing snow can frequently reach heights of 100 m or more and little or nothing is known about the properties of these deep blowing snow layers [11, 12]. This is mainly because when they occur, the conditions are too harsh to make measure-

Because of the lack of observations over Antarctica, the temporal and spatial frequency of blowing snow was not known until recently. With the advent of active satellite remote sensing (lidar), it was shown that blowing snow occurs more frequently than 70% of the time over large regions of Antarctica and can reach heights

Because of the scarcity of manned weather observation stations in Antarctica, the only practical way of obtaining information on blowing snow over the entire continent is from satellite remote sensing. While there have been passive sensors in polar orbit since the 1960s, it is very difficult to detect blowing snow from passive visible or infrared (IR) channels. In the visible, the blowing snow is indistinguishable from the underlying snow surface, and in the IR, there is generally not enough temperature contrast between the surface and blowing snow to make the latter visible. In 2003, ICESat carried the Geoscience Laser Altimeter System (GLAS) into polar orbit [14]. GLAS had both altimetry and atmospheric channels and was the first satellite lidar to study the earth's surface and atmosphere. Atmospheric data from GLAS were used to develop a technique to detect blowing snow layers from satellite lidar data. In 2006, the Cloud-Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observation (CALIPSO) satellite was launched into polar orbit [15]. CALIPSO was specifically designed to study the earth's atmosphere using a multi-wavelength lidar. The data from CALIPSO have been used to study the climatology of blowing

A lidar instrument transmits short pulses of (usually) visible or near IR laser light into the atmosphere, and a very small portion of the light is scattered directly backward from molecules, aerosols, and clouds. A telescope and associated detector electronics record the backscattered light into time-resolved "bins" usually 30–75 m in length. For satellite lidars like CALIPSO, the resulting backscatter profile extends from about 40 km in altitude to a kilometer or two below the ground. For blowing snow detection, only the backscatter data in the lowest 500 m above the surface are of interest. Since blowing snow is rooted at the ground, the algorithm first detects

. All field measure-

snow on sea ice [5–7].

Antarctica - A Key to Global Change

ments in the field.

of 500 m [13].

42

area of blowing snow covering an area about the size of Texas (695,622 km<sup>2</sup> ) in East Antarctica on October 14, 2009. This false color technique is the best way to visualize blowing snow from passive sensors. The one drawback is that sunlight is

required. In Figure 2, blowing snow is a dirty gray-white, the ice/snow surface (in clear areas) is blue, and clouds are generally a brighter white. Also shown in Figure 2 are two CALIPSO tracks (yellow lines) and their associated retrieved blowing snow backscatter (upper and lower images of CALIOP backscatter). Note that the yellow track lines are drawn only where blowing snow was detected by CALIOP, and that not all the CALIOP blowing snow detections for that day are shown. The green dots denote the coastline. Plainly seen along the coast near longitude 145–150 E is blowing snow being carried off the continent. This is an important but poorly understood component of the ice sheet mass balance equation

New Perspectives on Blowing Snow in Antarctica and Implications for Ice Sheet Mass Balance

The temperature and moisture structure of blowing snow layers are very important to the calculation of the sublimation rate of blowing snow particles (sublimation is discussed further in Section 5). This information is typically acquired by radiosondes, but during intense blowing snow episodes, they cannot be launched due to high winds. Thus, the temperature and moisture structure of these layers remain somewhat unknown. Surface measurements during blowing snow have shown that sublimation of the snow particles will cool and moisten the air. Eventually, the air becomes saturated and sublimation ends. However, this has been shown to be true only near the surface. Measurements higher up in the blowing snow layer have not been made. Likewise, models of blowing snow also indicate that the blowing snow layer quickly saturates and sublimation reduces to near zero in a matter of hours after initiation [3, 18]. However, the models may be missing phys-

Recent work has utilized dropsonde measurements to better understand the thermodynamic structure of blowing snow layers [19]. The Concordiasi Project, which occurred in the austral fall of 2010 (September 28–December 8), utilized multiple high altitude, long duration balloons to launch 648 dropsondes over Antarctica and surrounding sea ice [20–22]. The dropsondes measured temperature, moisture, and wind from the lower stratosphere to the surface. Some of the sondes fell through blowing snow layers as measured by CALIPSO and MODIS. One example is shown in Figure 3, which shows the CALIOP measured 532-nm attenuated backscatter in the color image with the dropsonde measured temperature (red profile) and moisture (white profile) drawn on the image. The distance between the dropsonde and the CALIPSO track was less than 5 km, but the dropsonde data were acquired about 7 hours after the CALIPSO data. However, blowing snow was very

CALIPSO calibrated attenuated backscatter at 05:52:50–05:54:40 UTC on October 12, 2010 showing the blowing snow layer, the approximate position of the dropsonde (vertical dashed white line), temperature (red line, scale at top), and relative humidity with respect to ice (white line, scale at bottom) as measured by the dropsonde. Note, height scale is in m above the mean sea level (MSL), and the surface is at 2200 m MSL.

and will be discussed further in Section 5.

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81319

Figure 3.

45

ical processes that keep the layer from reaching saturation.

#### Figure 1.

CALIOP 532-nm attenuated backscatter of typical wintertime blowing snow layers over East Antarctica for (a) September 18, 2007, 09:10 UTC, (b) September 7, 2010, 14:14 UTC, and (c) October 10, 2010, 12:34 UTC.

#### Figure 2.

A large blowing snow storm over Antarctica with blowing snow transport from continent to ocean on October 14, 2009. (a) CALIOP 532-nm attenuated backscatter along the yellow (south to north) line indicated by the green arrow as shown in (b) at 06:11–06:15 UTC. (b) MODIS false color image at 06:06:14–06:17:31 UTC showing blowing snow as dirty white areas. The coastline is indicated by the green dots, and two CALIPSO tracks, where blowing snow was detected, are indicated by the yellow lines. (c) CALIOP 532 nm attenuated backscatter along the yellow (north to south) line, 14:18–14:25 UTC.

#### New Perspectives on Blowing Snow in Antarctica and Implications for Ice Sheet Mass Balance DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81319

required. In Figure 2, blowing snow is a dirty gray-white, the ice/snow surface (in clear areas) is blue, and clouds are generally a brighter white. Also shown in Figure 2 are two CALIPSO tracks (yellow lines) and their associated retrieved blowing snow backscatter (upper and lower images of CALIOP backscatter). Note that the yellow track lines are drawn only where blowing snow was detected by CALIOP, and that not all the CALIOP blowing snow detections for that day are shown. The green dots denote the coastline. Plainly seen along the coast near longitude 145–150 E is blowing snow being carried off the continent. This is an important but poorly understood component of the ice sheet mass balance equation and will be discussed further in Section 5.

The temperature and moisture structure of blowing snow layers are very important to the calculation of the sublimation rate of blowing snow particles (sublimation is discussed further in Section 5). This information is typically acquired by radiosondes, but during intense blowing snow episodes, they cannot be launched due to high winds. Thus, the temperature and moisture structure of these layers remain somewhat unknown. Surface measurements during blowing snow have shown that sublimation of the snow particles will cool and moisten the air. Eventually, the air becomes saturated and sublimation ends. However, this has been shown to be true only near the surface. Measurements higher up in the blowing snow layer have not been made. Likewise, models of blowing snow also indicate that the blowing snow layer quickly saturates and sublimation reduces to near zero in a matter of hours after initiation [3, 18]. However, the models may be missing physical processes that keep the layer from reaching saturation.

Recent work has utilized dropsonde measurements to better understand the thermodynamic structure of blowing snow layers [19]. The Concordiasi Project, which occurred in the austral fall of 2010 (September 28–December 8), utilized multiple high altitude, long duration balloons to launch 648 dropsondes over Antarctica and surrounding sea ice [20–22]. The dropsondes measured temperature, moisture, and wind from the lower stratosphere to the surface. Some of the sondes fell through blowing snow layers as measured by CALIPSO and MODIS. One example is shown in Figure 3, which shows the CALIOP measured 532-nm attenuated backscatter in the color image with the dropsonde measured temperature (red profile) and moisture (white profile) drawn on the image. The distance between the dropsonde and the CALIPSO track was less than 5 km, but the dropsonde data were acquired about 7 hours after the CALIPSO data. However, blowing snow was very

#### Figure 3.

area of blowing snow covering an area about the size of Texas (695,622 km<sup>2</sup>

Antarctica - A Key to Global Change

Antarctica on October 14, 2009. This false color technique is the best way to visualize blowing snow from passive sensors. The one drawback is that sunlight is

CALIOP 532-nm attenuated backscatter of typical wintertime blowing snow layers over East Antarctica for (a) September 18, 2007, 09:10 UTC, (b) September 7, 2010, 14:14 UTC, and (c) October 10, 2010, 12:34

A large blowing snow storm over Antarctica with blowing snow transport from continent to ocean on October 14, 2009. (a) CALIOP 532-nm attenuated backscatter along the yellow (south to north) line indicated by the green arrow as shown in (b) at 06:11–06:15 UTC. (b) MODIS false color image at 06:06:14–06:17:31 UTC showing blowing snow as dirty white areas. The coastline is indicated by the green dots, and two CALIPSO tracks, where blowing snow was detected, are indicated by the yellow lines. (c) CALIOP 532 nm attenuated

backscatter along the yellow (north to south) line, 14:18–14:25 UTC.

Figure 1.

Figure 2.

44

UTC.

) in East

CALIPSO calibrated attenuated backscatter at 05:52:50–05:54:40 UTC on October 12, 2010 showing the blowing snow layer, the approximate position of the dropsonde (vertical dashed white line), temperature (red line, scale at top), and relative humidity with respect to ice (white line, scale at bottom) as measured by the dropsonde. Note, height scale is in m above the mean sea level (MSL), and the surface is at 2200 m MSL.

likely still occurring at the time of the dropsonde (12 UTC) since CALIOP and MODIS data showed blowing snow still occurring in the area 2 hours after the dropsonde. The temperature profile in Figures 3 and 4a shows the normal low-level inversion beginning at about 350 m above the surface or 2550 m above mean sea level (MSL). However, it does not continue to the surface, but rather, at the height of the top of the blowing snow layer (140–150 m above the surface), the temperature profile increases slightly as it descends. The average lapse rate in the lowest 150 m is almost adiabatic (0.0088 versus 0.0098°C m<sup>1</sup> ), which is between moist and dry adiabatic. There are even regions of the temperature profile that have a lapse rate less than dry adiabatic (Figure 4a between 20 and 50 m above the surface).

4. Climatology of blowing snow

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81319

more frequent.

Figure 5.

47

2006–2017.

Understanding the spatial coverage and temporal changes of blowing snow is crucial if we are to fully understand how it impacts Antarctic climate, mass balance, and hydrology. Because of the harsh climate of Antarctica and the scarcity of observations, there are few direct observations of blowing snow that cover long time periods. Most observations are near the coasts and are limited in time, covering months or a few seasons [9, 10, 23]. The CALIPSO mission has enabled the construction of a 12-year climatology of blowing snow over Antarctica. This constitutes the basis of a longer term record that can be used to examine variability and trends. The algorithm described in Section 2 has been applied to the CALIOP backscatter data acquired between 2006 and 2017. The result, shown in Figure 5, is the average wintertime (April–October) blowing snow frequency for that period. Note that, CALIOP began operating in June of 2006, and thus April and May are missing from that year's average. Figure 5 indicates that large areas of Antarctica experience blowing snow more than 50% of the time. Notable patches of even higher blowing snow frequencies are found over the Megadune region east of the Transantarctic mountains, south of 75 S from 120 to 160 E, and near the Lambert Glacier along 60 to 80 E longitude. Note also that these frequency values do not contain shallow (<30 m) blowing snow layers or drifting snow, since that is the vertical resolution of the CALIOP data. In addition, blowing snow that occurs during synoptic storms is also not included as most of the time these storms contain clouds thick enough to obscure the ground (attenuate the lidar beam so that the ground cannot be detected). The latter point has a large effect only near the East Antarctic coasts and most of West Antarctica where precipitation events via synoptic storms are

New Perspectives on Blowing Snow in Antarctica and Implications for Ice Sheet Mass Balance

The average blowing snow frequency over Antarctica for the winter months (April–October), of each year

The relative humidity (with respect to ice) profile in Figures 3 and 4a shows an ample structure both above and within the blowing snow layer. Well above the blowing snow layer, the relative humidity averages about 75%. As the dropsonde descends into the blowing snow layer, and at almost the exact height of the inflection point of the temperature profile (150 m above the surface), the relative humidity begins to increase from a value of about 60% near the top of the layer to about 82% within roughly 10 to 20 m of the surface. From there, it decreases to a value of about 75% at the surface. Most importantly, note that the relative humidity is not saturated within the layer.

The wind speed (blue line in Figure 4b) reaches a maximum of almost 24 m s<sup>1</sup> (53 miles per hour) at an altitude of about 2350 m MSL, which is 150 m above the surface and very near the top of the blowing snow layer. From that altitude, the wind speed decreases linearly to roughly 15 m s<sup>1</sup> (33.5 miles per hour) close to the surface. The wind direction (red line in Figure 4b) varies from about 155° at 2400 m altitude to 184° at 50 m above the surface. The magnitude of the wind speed and directional shear in the lower 150 m (corresponding to the blowing snow layer) will undoubtedly produce turbulence in the layer and promote mixing. It is apparent that the mixing has destroyed the temperature inversion at the surface (assuming it existed prior to the onset of high wind speeds and blowing snow) by the process of entrainment of warmer air from above and/or adiabatic warming of the descending katabatic flow.

#### Figure 4.

(a) A magnified view of the dropsonde temperature (black solid line) and humidity (blue solid line) profiles on October 12, 2010 at 12:49 UTC and CALIPSO average backscatter (green dotted) profile at 05:50 UTC for just the lowest 200 m above the surface for the data in Figure 3. Also shown is the dry (black dashed line) and moist (dotted black line) adiabatic lapse rates. (b) Dropsonde wind speed (black) and direction (red) through the blowing snow layer shown in Figure 3. Location of dropsonde: 71.61 S, 143.44 E.

New Perspectives on Blowing Snow in Antarctica and Implications for Ice Sheet Mass Balance DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81319
