**3. GIScience**

*Geographic Information Systems and Science*

multidisciplinarity.

**2. Is GIS a science?**

research GIS itself.

moral concerns.

passed, it is curious to note that:

Although this definition is consistent with the broad definition of geography, the term should not only be circumscribed to the current school of Geography, but also involving areas such as meteorology, geology, environment, epidemiology, geomarketing, and many others that study the phenomenon's geographical dimensions. In fact, today, GIS brings together several areas of knowledge. These areas of science influence each other, creating conceptual and technical interfaces such as

Michael Goodchild first coined the designation "Geographic Information Science" in 1992, defining it as the persistent research, consistent with methodical values, of the type and characteristics of the data [5]. This science operates through the techniques, methods, and approaches associated with GIS and seeks to redefine the geographic concepts and their use in the context of GIS. Thus, it becomes clear that the term Geographic Information Science (GIS) is also multidisciplinary.

Is GIS a science? In 1992, Goodchild [5] was asked to write a paper defining what could be Geographic Information Science. At that time, GIS became more generalized in enterprises and in research, becoming also popular in training programs, so GIS community began to view it as more than just a tool or system as they started to

Goodchild paper gave a major contribution in coining the term GIscience or GISc; however, the author did not propose a definition for this science. Instead, he addressed the uniqueness of geographical data in terms of its properties and the need of particular methodologies to deal with it [5], and he presented eight major contents that this new science should address, namely: information gathering and quantification; data acquisition; geo(spatial) statistics and other location analysis tools; spatiotemporal modeling and spatial concepts; spatial data infrastructures, algorithms and procedures; visualization; and decision-making, administrative and

Almost 30 years passed since Goodchild wrote this paper entitled Geographic Information Science and discussing the science in GIS. Even though 30 years have

1) The contents are up-to-date. For instance, in data collection and measurement, we still discuss challenges regarding generalization and abstraction; data capture also possess challenges now much more related to the massive production of data partly due to the web and Internet of Things (IoT) developments, and the quality of that data in a time where almost everyone can produce geographic data. In addition, in display domain, we passed from problems related to 2.5 and 3D to 4D, 5D, virtual reality, and immersion. On the other hand, in relation to institutional, managerial, and ethical issues, the new improvements in the web raised more challenges related to free data software and interoperability, and to volunteer geographic information (VGI) and the production and use of data, or to geographic

2) Whether GI is a science or it is there to support other sciences continues to be a long-standing debate. Why is it so? Because it lacks its own law, it applies (adapt) other science algorithms and theories, so it cannot exist independently from the other sciences, and it is extremely dynamic with new branches being added frequently and with it added are fuzzy boundaries with other sciences [6, 7].

What makes GI a science? Reitsma [6] presented an interesting argument on this issue. He supports that GI is a science because it has a distinctive object of study and the (geographic) representation of the world, as Goodchild, in 1992, once referred

information (GI) access disparities and data privacy problems.

**4**

Geographic Information Science (GIS) operates through the techniques, methods, and approaches associated with GIS and seeks to redefine the geographic concepts and their use in the context of GIS. Thus, it becomes clear that the term GISc is also multidisciplinary.

Here, we begin to propose some concepts more comprehensive about geography, which treats "Geo" not only as a discipline, but also as a means to an end. For this, first, we first go to the conceptualization of science as a body of systematized knowledge acquired through observation, identification, research, and explanation of certain categories of phenomena and facts and formulated methodically and rationally.

Going a little further, we came to this definition of Geographic Information Science, by Mike Goodchild, a researcher at the University of Santa Barbara who advised former President of the United States of America, Al Gore, on the movie "Inconvenient Truth." "Information Science can be defined as the systematic study, according to scientific principles, of the nature and properties of information. Geographic Information Science is the subset of information science that is about geographic information" [5].

That is, does it make sense to talk about Geographic Information Science? Or is it ok using a shorter term Geoscience? Indeed, the concept of Digital Earth was introduced by former United States of America vice president Al Gore in 1998 [10]. Gore compared it to a digital world that mirrors the reality [11]. This concept becomes a reality thanks in large part to virtual globes (like Google Earth) that ease the massification of both the search and the sharing of information [12].

It is projected that Digital Earth should be a space for sharing of global information for development between regions and generations [13], and it is considered that the integration of this parallel world in the daily life of humanity will already be put in place in 2020 [12]. This context is perceived as an added value for geography. In addition to reinforcing its importance as a science of innovation, it still benefits from a new dimension of space, which leads to virtual geography, supporting the development of a geography with new contours, supported by the proliferation of new digital technologies [14]. The contents that are part of the GISc are:


GISc must focus in the essential concerns that come from GI. Further expressions have more or less a similar connotation, e.g., spatial information science, geomatics, geoinformatics, and geocomputation. They all will advocate a scientific attitude regarding the core subjects upstretched by GIS applications and associated technologies. They all also have diverse backgrounds and highlight unalike means of facing geographic problems.

Finally, we arrive at the pyramid (**Figure 1**) that clearly shows the three dimensions of Geographic Information Science [16], each one of equal importance. One should note that of its three vertices, only one is related to technology, which is the dimension related to computing (although originally it was written computer, we can substitute here for any device with capacity to collect, store, analyze, and share geographic information). The other two pillars of the GISc relate to people and society in general. These are the vertices of a triangle, and GISc places itself in the

**7**

*Introductory Chapter: Geographic Information Systems and Science*

center. The several expressions used to refer to GISc may serve to fill this triangle: That is, terms like geotechnology, geomatics, and geoprocessing are valid for some

The field of GISc has only been recently evidenced as a scientific domain with autonomy, and not simply as an instrument or just an occasional merge of knowledge from other areas. In its fundamental component, it includes matters of cartography, positioning, information systems, computer graphics, and more. The exploitation of information can also make use of knowledge in the field of statistics, operational research, expert systems, and decision theory. The incorporation of concepts and the specific problems of the numerous fields of application brought together all these general problems of geographic modeling, adding to them theories and techniques in fields as diverse as physics, geography, planning, health,

One of the major challenges of GISc is the development of techniques and abstractions that are capable of adequately representing dynamic phenomena. Indeed, the GISc corresponds to a set of scientific knowledge and methods fundamental to the development and validation of spatial theories, but they do not advocate GIS as an isolated entity, i.e., a science per se (**Figure 2**). This approach agrees with the definition of GIS as a tool but considers it reductive, since it excludes concepts; fundamentals; methodologies; rules; and methods of analysis,

Thus, there are significant issues where GISc is all about using a GIS environment to remake, restructure, and solve preexisting research problems, many of them much older than GIS itself. Indeed, it is much easier to label GISc than to define it [17]. Therefore, scientists usually adopt a defensive position when it comes

Nevertheless, they all agree that basic and applied science should have its reflection in society [19]. Hence, one may determine that GISc is extremely pertinent to society. This is more difficult to demonstrate them compared to the broader term of Geographic Information Technologies (GIT), which many times is shown to be

At present, we are facing a paradoxical situation. On one hand, there is the emergence of neogeography and the proliferation of user-generated geographic content

measurement, evaluation, and decision support of spatial models.

to positioning GISc in relation to other sciences [6, 18].

capable of influencing the society and vice-versa [20, 21].

**4. Geography and GIScience**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86121*

approaches, but GISc is much more than that.

**Figure 2.**

*From geography to GIS.*

demography, and among many others.

**Figure 1.** *Dimensions of geographic information science [16].*

*Introductory Chapter: Geographic Information Systems and Science DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86121*

**Figure 2.** *From geography to GIS.*

*Geographic Information Systems and Science*

glasses, 3D printers, etc.

geography [15]).

facing geographic problems.

used.

• Data modeling, algorithms, and processes—the different data formats—vector, raster, point clouds, tables, and so on—how are they modeled, converted, and

• Data visualization—a few decades ago printed maps were the visualization standard but the emergence of computation led cartography to the screens. Today the geographic information is in the palm of our hand (e.g., smartphones), but also in new platforms such as virtual and augmented reality

• Data analytics tools—not long ago, the power of layering or mapping the best route between multiple points was restricted to "semigods who inhabited the geoisland," but today anyone has the power of GIS in two clicks away (neo-

• Institutional aspects—this is the item that makes it clear that GISc is much more than geotechnology because institutional issues involve politics, conflict of interests, cultural differences, disputes over ownership of data, and many others.

• Data sharing—finally, the ways of sharing information have changed a lot and will advance even more rapidly in the near future. Nowadays, novelties cross the world in a few seconds through social networks. This leads us towards a set of paradigm shifts about who owns the data, what is the reach of the information, what will be the impact of it, and about who will be the end users.

GISc must focus in the essential concerns that come from GI. Further expressions have more or less a similar connotation, e.g., spatial information science, geomatics, geoinformatics, and geocomputation. They all will advocate a scientific attitude regarding the core subjects upstretched by GIS applications and associated technologies. They all also have diverse backgrounds and highlight unalike means of

Finally, we arrive at the pyramid (**Figure 1**) that clearly shows the three dimensions of Geographic Information Science [16], each one of equal importance. One should note that of its three vertices, only one is related to technology, which is the dimension related to computing (although originally it was written computer, we can substitute here for any device with capacity to collect, store, analyze, and share geographic information). The other two pillars of the GISc relate to people and society in general. These are the vertices of a triangle, and GISc places itself in the

**6**

**Figure 1.**

*Dimensions of geographic information science [16].*

center. The several expressions used to refer to GISc may serve to fill this triangle: That is, terms like geotechnology, geomatics, and geoprocessing are valid for some approaches, but GISc is much more than that.

The field of GISc has only been recently evidenced as a scientific domain with autonomy, and not simply as an instrument or just an occasional merge of knowledge from other areas. In its fundamental component, it includes matters of cartography, positioning, information systems, computer graphics, and more. The exploitation of information can also make use of knowledge in the field of statistics, operational research, expert systems, and decision theory. The incorporation of concepts and the specific problems of the numerous fields of application brought together all these general problems of geographic modeling, adding to them theories and techniques in fields as diverse as physics, geography, planning, health, demography, and among many others.

One of the major challenges of GISc is the development of techniques and abstractions that are capable of adequately representing dynamic phenomena. Indeed, the GISc corresponds to a set of scientific knowledge and methods fundamental to the development and validation of spatial theories, but they do not advocate GIS as an isolated entity, i.e., a science per se (**Figure 2**). This approach agrees with the definition of GIS as a tool but considers it reductive, since it excludes concepts; fundamentals; methodologies; rules; and methods of analysis, measurement, evaluation, and decision support of spatial models.

Thus, there are significant issues where GISc is all about using a GIS environment to remake, restructure, and solve preexisting research problems, many of them much older than GIS itself. Indeed, it is much easier to label GISc than to define it [17]. Therefore, scientists usually adopt a defensive position when it comes to positioning GISc in relation to other sciences [6, 18].

Nevertheless, they all agree that basic and applied science should have its reflection in society [19]. Hence, one may determine that GISc is extremely pertinent to society. This is more difficult to demonstrate them compared to the broader term of Geographic Information Technologies (GIT), which many times is shown to be capable of influencing the society and vice-versa [20, 21].
