**2. Is GIS a science?**

Is GIS a science? In 1992, Goodchild [5] was asked to write a paper defining what could be Geographic Information Science. At that time, GIS became more generalized in enterprises and in research, becoming also popular in training programs, so GIS community began to view it as more than just a tool or system as they started to research GIS itself.

Goodchild paper gave a major contribution in coining the term GIscience or GISc; however, the author did not propose a definition for this science. Instead, he addressed the uniqueness of geographical data in terms of its properties and the need of particular methodologies to deal with it [5], and he presented eight major contents that this new science should address, namely: information gathering and quantification; data acquisition; geo(spatial) statistics and other location analysis tools; spatiotemporal modeling and spatial concepts; spatial data infrastructures, algorithms and procedures; visualization; and decision-making, administrative and moral concerns.

Almost 30 years passed since Goodchild wrote this paper entitled Geographic Information Science and discussing the science in GIS. Even though 30 years have passed, it is curious to note that:

1) The contents are up-to-date. For instance, in data collection and measurement, we still discuss challenges regarding generalization and abstraction; data capture also possess challenges now much more related to the massive production of data partly due to the web and Internet of Things (IoT) developments, and the quality of that data in a time where almost everyone can produce geographic data. In addition, in display domain, we passed from problems related to 2.5 and 3D to 4D, 5D, virtual reality, and immersion. On the other hand, in relation to institutional, managerial, and ethical issues, the new improvements in the web raised more challenges related to free data software and interoperability, and to volunteer geographic information (VGI) and the production and use of data, or to geographic information (GI) access disparities and data privacy problems.

2) Whether GI is a science or it is there to support other sciences continues to be a long-standing debate. Why is it so? Because it lacks its own law, it applies (adapt) other science algorithms and theories, so it cannot exist independently from the other sciences, and it is extremely dynamic with new branches being added frequently and with it added are fuzzy boundaries with other sciences [6, 7].

What makes GI a science? Reitsma [6] presented an interesting argument on this issue. He supports that GI is a science because it has a distinctive object of study and the (geographic) representation of the world, as Goodchild, in 1992, once referred

**5**

*Introductory Chapter: Geographic Information Systems and Science*

to when he argued about the uniqueness of spatial (geographic) data. Therefore, how to transform spatial data into geographic thinking or knowledge is the major

Is there a definition for GISc? All said, we might well think that there is no definition for GISc. In fact, defining GISc is not consensual, just as GIS for long time. Nevertheless, there are some attempts. Rapper's definition is perhaps the most well known as he defines GISc as "a perfect multidiscipline with a core of theory, data, and software engineering work and a periphery of engagement with related disciplines"[8]. While Reitsma [6] suggests that it is the study of how geographic information is formed, collected, managed, analyzed, and visualized to represent the world. Others added that GISc is also responsible to analyze the impacts of GIS in society and vice versa [8, 9].

Geographic Information Science (GIS) operates through the techniques, methods, and approaches associated with GIS and seeks to redefine the geographic concepts and their use in the context of GIS. Thus, it becomes clear that the term

Here, we begin to propose some concepts more comprehensive about geography, which treats "Geo" not only as a discipline, but also as a means to an end. For this, first, we first go to the conceptualization of science as a body of systematized knowledge acquired through observation, identification, research, and explanation of certain categories of phenomena and facts and formulated methodically and rationally. Going a little further, we came to this definition of Geographic Information Science, by Mike Goodchild, a researcher at the University of Santa Barbara who advised former President of the United States of America, Al Gore, on the movie "Inconvenient Truth." "Information Science can be defined as the systematic study, according to scientific principles, of the nature and properties of information. Geographic Information Science is the subset of information science that is about

That is, does it make sense to talk about Geographic Information Science? Or is it ok using a shorter term Geoscience? Indeed, the concept of Digital Earth was introduced by former United States of America vice president Al Gore in 1998 [10]. Gore compared it to a digital world that mirrors the reality [11]. This concept becomes a reality thanks in large part to virtual globes (like Google Earth) that ease

It is projected that Digital Earth should be a space for sharing of global information for development between regions and generations [13], and it is considered that the integration of this parallel world in the daily life of humanity will already be put in place in 2020 [12]. This context is perceived as an added value for geography. In addition to reinforcing its importance as a science of innovation, it still benefits from a new dimension of space, which leads to virtual geography, supporting the development of a geography with new contours, supported by the proliferation of new digital technologies [14]. The contents that are part of the GISc are:

• Data collection—all forms, from total stations, Global Navigation Satellite

• Storage platforms and data management—here, we talk about anything that can store some kind of data or information, which can be in local servers, in the

to the users themselves, who are also "walking sensors."

cloud, or in any other place.

System (GNSS) receivers, satellites and drones, smartphones, devices of IoT and

the massification of both the search and the sharing of information [12].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86121*

core of this science [5].

**3. GIScience**

GISc is also multidisciplinary.

geographic information" [5].

*Introductory Chapter: Geographic Information Systems and Science DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86121*

to when he argued about the uniqueness of spatial (geographic) data. Therefore, how to transform spatial data into geographic thinking or knowledge is the major core of this science [5].

Is there a definition for GISc? All said, we might well think that there is no definition for GISc. In fact, defining GISc is not consensual, just as GIS for long time. Nevertheless, there are some attempts. Rapper's definition is perhaps the most well known as he defines GISc as "a perfect multidiscipline with a core of theory, data, and software engineering work and a periphery of engagement with related disciplines"[8]. While Reitsma [6] suggests that it is the study of how geographic information is formed, collected, managed, analyzed, and visualized to represent the world. Others added that GISc is also responsible to analyze the impacts of GIS in society and vice versa [8, 9].
