**Acknowledgements**

*Geographic Information Systems and Science*

*mangroves trees forming a naturally generated forest.*

**loss (ha)**

*CO2 emission resulted from mangroves loss between years 1990 and 2017.*

**Region Mangrove** 

*Positive accretion of mangroves at estuaries. The new formations at the river mouths were colonized by* 

**Carbon loss (Mg C)**

Sabah 7435 1,345,672 4,938,617 182,912 Sarawak 8046 1,456,288 5,344,578 197,947 Total 21,417 3,876,409 14,226,422 526,905

Mg C. Subsequently, this has led to the CO2 emission at about 14.2 million Mg CO2, with an average of about 0.5 million Mg CO2 emission per year, along the monitoring period. **Table 4** summarizes the impact of mangroves loss in terms of CO2 emission. Although the figures are generally crude, the study provided some ideas for further

This study has successfully assessed the current state of mangroves and determined the rate of mangroves loss in Malaysia since the last decade. Total mangroves in Malaysia has decreased from 650,311 ha in 1990 to 629,038 ha in 2017. Total deforestation was accounted at 21,274 ha or 3.3% with the annual rate of deforestation of

changes and estimated CO2 emission due to the loss of mangroves in Malaysia. Total emission caused by the mangroves deforestation was accounted at about 14 million Mg

The study found that the Landsat-based mapping and monitoring of mangroves was very practical. It provides a reliable information on mangroves distribution, both qualitatively and quantitatively. Landsat missions provide a very useful RS tool for monitoring changes of mangroves over time. The study suggests that appropriate actions should be taken by the Government of Malaysia to protect the mangroves and keep their ecosystem intact forever. The most effective way to conserve the mangroves is to gazette the remaining stateland forest as Permanent Reserved Forests (PRFs). These PRFs should then be maintained as amenity for current and future generations, while contributing to the mitigation of climate change impacts at the local level. Any

Overall, there is great potential in the application of Landsat-based data with appropriate GIS technique for mapping and monitoring of mangroves in Malaysia.

, between 1990 and 2017. The study also quantified the C stock

**CO2 emission (Mg CO2)**

5793 1,048,567 3,848,242 142,527

**Rate of CO2 emission (Mg CO2 yr<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>**

**)**

.

studies, especially which related to carbon cycles and climate change.

CO2 with annual emission rate of around 0.5 million Mg CO2 yr<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

development in PRFs should be prohibited or implemented with caution.

**Figure 14.**

Peninsular Malaysia

**Table 4.**

**4. Conclusion**

788 ha yr<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

or 0.13% yr<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

**112**

This work has been carried out under the Research and Development Committee on Mangroves (JTRD) led by FRIM. Special thanks for the Forestry Department Peninsular Malaysia (JPSM), Sabah Forestry Department (SFD), and Forest Department Sarawak (FDS) for the supports on the ground data collection activities.
